AIRMAN (AN)

Figure 1-1 — Eugene Ely in the first takeoff from a ship, 14 November 1910. 4. Rapid logistic support for ground forces. Logistic support aircraft sustain the mobility of the ground forces. Providing logistic support aircraft is another required function of naval aviation. 5. Search and rescue (SAR) operations. During sea missions, the possibility of a downed aircraft or man overboard always exists. Search and rescue helps reduce the number of lives lost. As you can see, naval aviation plays many critical roles in the support of the Navy's mission. The overall mission of the Navy depends on the use of highly complex aircraft. THE HISTORY OF NAVAL AVIATION The Navy's interest in airplanes as a naval weapon dates back to 1898. Several naval officers became members of an interservice board. Their job was to observe and investigate the military possibilities of the new flying machine. In 1908 and 1909, naval officer observers were present at the public demonstrations staged by the Wright brothers. The following paragraphs chart the history of naval aviation since that first flight. 1910 The first successful launch of an aircraft from a ship was made by Eugene Ely, who flew a Curtiss biplane from a specially built 83-foot wooden platform on the forecastle of the cruiser Birmingham. See Figure 1-1. 1-2

Figure 1-2 — Ely in Curtiss biplane comes aboard the USS Pennsylvania in the first shipboard landing on 18 January 1911. 1911 On 8 May 1911, the Navy purchased its first aircraft from Glenn Curtiss—the A-1 Triad. This date of purchase became the official birthday of naval aviation. The Wright brothers soon sold the Navy a second aircraft. Curtiss and the Wrights agreed to train a pilot and a mechanic. Eugene Ely landed on a 120-foot wooden platform built on the after turret of the Pennsylvania (Figure 1-2). Then, Ely launched from the wooden platform and flew back to shore. The day of the "aircraft carrier" had arrived. By the end of 1911, the U.S. Navy had three aircraft, four pilots, and one naval air station located at Greenbury Point, near Annapolis, Maryland. The station eventually moved to North Island, California. Later, the Naval Aeronautic Station, Pensacola, Florida, was established and became the primary training facility for all naval aviators and enlisted aircrew personnel. 1917 When the U.S. declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917, naval aviation had 48 officers and 239 enlisted men. There were 54 aircraft, 1 airship, 3 balloons, and 1 naval air station. By the end of WWI, naval aviation had 6,716 officers; 30,693 enlisted men; 252 land aircraft; and 1,865 flying boats and seaplanes. Naval aviation had grown enormously and was well on its way.

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Figure 1-3 — The first Naval aircraft carrier USS Langley (CV-1). 1922 The converted collier ship Jupiter (AC-3) was renamed USS Langley and commissioned. It became the first official aircraft carrier (CV-1) supporting fighter and torpedo bomber squadrons. See Figure 1- 3. 1940s Five more aircraft carriers joined the carrier task force before the outbreak of World War II. 1941 The U.S. Congress declared a state of war with Japan. During World War II, the F-6F Hellcat, F-4U Corsair, SB-2C Helldiver, and TBM Avenger were carrier-based. Patrol aircraft consisted of the PBY/PBM Mariner, PB-4Y, and PV Ventura aircraft. The R-4D Skytrain was used for transport and cargo. Naval aviation strength was 5,233 aircraft; 5,900 Navy and Marine Corps pilots; and 21,678 enlisted men. 1942 The Battle of Coral Sea caused the Japanese to abandon their attempt to land at Port Moresby. Carrier-based aircraft attacked the Japanese task force and their landing forces. This was the first major battle without opposing ships making contact. The Battle of Midway was the turning point of the war in the Pacific. Japan suffered heavy losses to their surface force, their aircraft, and experienced aircraft pilots. Five carriers took part in the Battle of Guadalcanal. Carrier-based aircraft flew interceptor patrols, offensive missions against shipping, and close air support for ground forces until the island was secured. 1943 The Navy entered the helicopter field of aviation by purchasing helicopters from the U.S. Army. Also, the Navy purchased a helicopter manufactured to Navy specifications from the Sikorsky Helicopter Company— the YR-4B. Westinghouse developed the first turbojet engine (19A) for the Navy. 1-4

1948 The Navy commissioned its first helicopter squadron—the HU-1, and the first carrier landing was made by a U.S. Navy jet (FJ-1 Fury lands aboard the USS Boxer). 1949 The first use of a pilot ejection seat for an emergency escape was made from an F2H-1 Banshee. Also, a new fighter aircraft was added to the Navy inventory (the F9F-2/5 Panther), and was manufactured by Grumman Aircraft Company. 1950s Carrier aircraft went into action in the Korean conflict, which ended 27 July 1953. 1953 Naval aircraft conducted initiation test operations aboard the Navy's first angled deck carrier, the USS Antietam. 1954 Guided, air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles were perfected and placed into operation. The Polaris, Sidewinder, Sparrow, and Petrel missiles became standard equipment. 1957 The first successful Automatic Landing System test was done on the USS Antietam. It was designed to bring planes aboard the ship in all weathers without help from the pilot. Also, the first F8U-1 Crusader was delivered to the fleet— the first operationally equipped jet plane in history to fly faster than 1,000 miles per hour (mph). 1959 Four naval aviators were selected as prospective astronauts under Project Mercury—a program of space exploration and manned orbital flight. The Sikorsky HSS-2 amphibious, all-weather, antisubmarine helicopter made its first flight. 1960s Naval aviation was approaching its golden anniversary, and support of the space program was made a priority as manned orbital flight became a reality. Also, recovering space vehicles became one of the Navy's responsibilities. A carrier recovery ship, carrier-based helicopters, and specially trained crews carried out this mission. 1961 The United States became officially involved in th e Vietnam conflict. Naval aviator Alan B. Shepard Jr. became the first American to go into space by completing a flight reaching 116 miles high and 302 miles downrange before recovery by a Navy HUS-1 helicopter and the USS Lake Champlain. Also, the world’s first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, the USS Enterprise (CVAN-65), was commissioned. 1-5

1962 The Naval Aviation Museum was established at the Naval Air Station, Pensacola, Florida, by the Secretary of the Navy. 1964 Vertical replenishment by helicopters and picking up stores and delivering them to other surface combat ships began with the commissioning of the combat stores ship USS Mars (AFS-1). 1965 The United States was fully involved in the Vietnam conflict. Seventh Fleet air units began Operation ROLLING THUNDER, a systematic bombing of military targets throughout North Vietnam waged by land- and sea-based A-4 Skyhawks, F-4 Fanthoms, A-6 Intruders, and A-7 Corsair aircraft. 1967 Fire broke out on the flight deck of the USS Forrestal (CV-59) and soon spread below decks, igniting bombs and ammunition. Heroic efforts brought the fire under control but damage to the ship and aircraft was severe. These were 132 dead, 62 injured, and two missing and presumed dead. Also, the Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department (AIMD) was established by the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) on all operating aircraft carriers except the one operating with the Naval Air Training Command. 1969 Apollo 11 landed on the moon with naval aviator Neil Armstrong; Edwin Aldrin, United States Air Force (USAF); and Michael Collins, USAF. Armstrong and Aldrin walked on the moon 20 and 21 July. 1970s Naval aviation beginning its seventh decade heavily embroiled with Vietnam and a growing crisis in the Middle East reemphasized the importance of the U.S. Navy to keeping the sea lanes open. This required the reliability of established and upgraded weapons systems and materials. 1971 The Navy took delivery of the AV-8 Harrier, a fixed wing, vertical takeoff and landing (V/STOL) jet aircraft used for combat, and the EA-6B Prowler, the newest carrier-based sophisticated electronic warfare aircraft. The Navy also received the new CH-53A Sea Stallion, a helicopter devoted exclusively to mine countermeasures. By towing specially designed magnetic and acoustical equipment, the CH-53 locates and activates enemy mines. 1972 The Navy received its first new fighter aircraft in 14 years, the F-14 Tomcat, which replaced the aging McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II . The war continued in Vietnam. Navy and Marine Corps pilots were being rescued, over land and at sea, by Search and Rescue (SAR) helicopter crews. 1973 The Vietnam cease-fire was announced, and U.S. forces started to withdraw. The Navy lost 529 fixed-wing aircraft and 13 helicopters, and the Marine Corps lost 193 fixed-wing aircraft and 270 helicopters in enemy actions. Operation Homecoming began, which provided for the repatriation of 1-6

prisoners of war (POWs). The Blue Angels became the Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron, located at Naval Air Station, Pensacola, Florida. 1974 The Navy received its new highly advanced, carrier-qualified, jet-powered, turbofan S-3 Viking antisubmarine warfare aircraft that works in tandem with the SH-3 Sea King and SH-2 Seasprite helicopters in locating and tracking submarines. 1976 The Navy's last operational HU-16 Albatross seaplane, S-2 Tracker antisubmarine warfare aircraft, and C-117 Douglas DC-3 transport aircraft were stricken from service. All arrived or departed Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida, and can be found at the Naval Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida, or Davis Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, the boneyard for obsolete military aircraft. 1979 Navy carrier forces and air wings responded to five crisis situations around the world: USS Constellation to a conflict between North and South Yemen; USS Saipan during the Nicaraguan turmoil; USS Nassau in response to Russian combat troops in Cuba; USS Kitty Hawk on alert in Korea; USS Kitty Hawk and USS Midway to contingence operations during the Iranian hostage crisis. 1980s As Naval aviation approached its "Diamond Anniversary" decade, war erupted between Iraq and Iran as U.S. carrier forces maintained their deployment cycles in support of the Iranian crisis in the Arabian Sea, and provided humanitarian support to Cuban refugees in the Caribbean and defense capabilities for the Panama Canal. An increase in new technology and research produced new versions of the F/A-18 Hornet, SH-60 Seahawk, OV-10 Bronco, MH-53 Sea Stallion, and the V-22 Osprey, a fixed-wing, tilt-rotor aircraft. 1981 The first flight of the Space Shuttle (Columbia), with an all-Navy crew, launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1983 Combat amphibious assault operations commenced on the island of Grenada. Navy and Marine Corps air support was provided by Carrier Airwing Six (CVW-6) aboard USS Independence. 1986 Naval aviation celebrated its 75th anniversary while U.S. carrier forces attacked Libyan targets with HARM, Harpoon, and Shrike missiles. The F-14 Tomcat, F-18 Hornet, and A-6 Intruder aircraft conducted low-level bombing and fighter support for the operation. 1988 Helicopter Squadron (HCS-5) was established. The first of its kind, it had a primary mission of combat search and rescue (strike rescue) and special warfare support. It operates the H-60 Seahawk. 1-7

1990s This decade began with a "new world" order. The collapse of the Soviet Union left the United States as the world's only superpower. In the Middle East, Iraq invaded Kuwait, and a massive armada of U.S. naval and allied forces converged on the region in support of Operations DESERT SHIELD and Desert Storm. 1991 The Navy launched massive aerial attacks with Tomahawk cruise missiles at predetermined targets in Iraq and Kuwait. U.S. naval, Marine Corps, Air Force, and allied aircraft of all types made a quick and decisive blow to the Iraqi ground and air forces, resulting in the liberation of Kuwait and the end of the Persian Gulf War. 1992 The USS Lexington, the Navy's unsinkable "Blue Ghost" of World War II, was decommissioned and turned into a memorial museum ship. The Navy takes delivery of its newest training aircraft, the T-45 Goshawk, which replaced the aging T-2 Buckeye and TA-4 Skyhawk. 1993 The Secretary of Defense lifted the ban on combat flights for women and allowed assignments on combat vessels. U.S. naval surface and air forces maintained a vigilant presence in the Persian Gulf in support of the United Nations Security Counsel’s "No-Fly" zone over Iraq. 1994 The first of many female naval aviators successfully passed fleet carrier qualifications in combat aircraft. The USS Eisenhower becomes the first combat ship to receive permanently assigned women. 1995 The first female naval aviator went into space, and the F-117A Stealth fighter/bomber became operational. The entire U.S. armed services had regionalized and downsized, and U.S. forces maintained support for operations in Bosnia and other areas of the world. New technology and the national interest will determine the future of the Navy, and naval aviation will always have a major role. 1996 McDonnell Douglas delivered the first of seven F/A-18 Super Hornets to Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division, Patuxent River, MD, to begin three-year flight test program to prepare the aircraft for duty abo ard fleet aircraft carriers. 7 June, VMU-1, the Marine Corps’ first Unmanned Air Vehicles and show (UAV) squadron, deploys to Bosnia-Herzegovina. 5 August, Admiral Jay L. Johnson a naval aviator who flew F-8 Crusaders during Vietnam and later the F-14 Tomcat, was sworn in by Secretary of the Navy John Dalton as the 26th CNO. 13 September, Commander Ruth Forrest became the Navy’s first woman Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department officer aboard an aircraft carrier when she joined the USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67). 1-8

1997 1 March, operational testing and evaluation of the Improved Fresnel Lens Optical Landing System (IFLOLS) began as an F/A-18 Hornet from Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division, Patuxent River, MD. 15 March, the first V-22 Osprey built to production standards was delivered to Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division, Patuxent River, MD, for testing and evaluation. 1998 Navy aircraft from USS Enterprise and USS Carl Vinson spearhead attacks on Iraq in Operation Desert Fox. The Navy released plans to select 12 Limited Duty Officers (LDO) and Chief Warrant Officers (CWO) as Naval Flight Officers (NFO). One new NFO was scheduled to be assigned to each patrol squadron, with periodic selection boards held to determine their replacements as needed. 1999 24 March, Navy and Marine Corps aircraft from the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) and USS Kearsarge (LHD-3) participated in Operation Allied Force, the three-month-long bombing campaign of Kosovo. 2000s 2000 In ongoing efforts to balance sea-shore rotation, the Secretary of the Navy approved the merger of the Aviation Storekeeper (AK) and Storekeeper (SK) ratings. The successful conclusion of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet operation evaluation announced, recommending its introduction into the fleet. 1 March, Secretary of Defense William S. Cohen approved the merger of the Aviation Structural Mechanic (Structures), AMS, and the Aviation Structural Mechanic (Hydraulics), AMH, ratings. 12 August, naval aviation assets were alerted to support Russian efforts to recover the Russian Oscar II class submarine Kursk (K-141), which sank in the Barents Sea due to an accidental explosion. 12 October, while refueling in Aden, Yemen, en route to a port visit in Bahrain during her deployment with the USS George Washington (CVN- 73) battle group, destroyer USS Cole (DDG 67) was damaged by a terrorist bomb carried on board an inflatable speed boat, killing 17 sailors and wounding 42. Cole suffered flooding in the engineering spaces, but heroic damage control efforts saved her. Naval aviation assets, including USS Tarawa (LHA 1), responded immediately, providing support throughout the crisis.

24 October, Test pilot Tom Morgenfeld flew the X-35A Joint Strike Fighter for its first flight at Lockheed Martin, Palmdale, CA. 2001 11 January, Navy changed the status of LCDR Michael Scott Speicher, VFA-81, from killed in action/body not recovered to missing in action. On 17 January 1991, Speicher was flying his F/A-18 Hornet from the USS Saratoga (CV 60) when he was shot down over Iraq. 1-9

28 January, Navy agreed to allow Sailors in the Aviation Machinist’s Mate and Aviation Structural Mechanic ratings to apply skills learned in “A” School toward an associate’s degree in aviation maintenance technology. 11 September, Hijackers flew two Boeing 767 airliners, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, into the twin World Trade Center towers in New York City, collapsing both and devastating nearby buildings. Two Boeing 757s were also hijacked: American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the Pentagon, and United Airlines Flight 93 was seized for a second attack against the Nation’s capital, and the plane crashed in southern Pennsylvania. The terrorist atrocities killed as many as 3,000 people from over 80 nations. 30 September, the first U.S. flag raised over the rubble of the World Trade Center in New York City was hoisted onboard USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71). Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) commences, Naval Aviation plays a major role since no land basing is available in early parts of the war. On 7October 2001 aircraft from the USS Enterprise launched the first strike of the war in retaliation of the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001. The longest amphibious aerial assaults in history on 25 November 2001, Marine ground units are airlifted from Arabian Sea to Kandahar Afghanistan, as the Taliban regime collapses. 2002 3 March, Operation Anaconda commences. USS John F. Kennedy (CV 67) battle group launched strikes in support of ground troops that led to some of the fiercest fight during OEF. 2003 1 January, the merger of the aviation storekeeper (AK) and storekeeper (SK) became effective for enlisted paygrades E1 to E6, with E7 and above eligible for the exams over succeeding months. Operation Iraqi Freedom commenced in March. Naval Aviation plays a major role. 1 April, Army PFC Jessica D. Lynch, 19, captured by the Iraqis when her convoy was ambushed on 23 March; was rescued from Saddam Hospital, An Nasiriyah. The daring operation by Task Force (TF) 20, including CH-46E Sea Knights from HMM-165 embarked onboard USS Boxer (LHD 4), CH- 53E Super Stallions and Navy SEALs, began at midnight and was supported by Marines from TF Charlie, who staged a diversionary attach to draw away the Iraqi irregulars. 1 May, President George W. Bush arrived onboard USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72) in an S-3B Viking, side number 700, BuNo 159387, piloted by VS-35 XO Commander John Lussier, to declare an end to major combat operations in Iraq. 2004 19 January, the Airframe and Powerplant Program was established at Center for Naval Aviation Technical Training (CNATT) Pensacola, FL, giving Navy aviation technicians the opportunity to earn the Federal Aviation Administration’s Airframe and Powerplant License, a civilian aviation standard cert ification. October, some naval aviation “A” schools students began moving from NAS Pensacola, FL, to NAS Oceana, VA, as part of STAR-21, designed to streamline training by having students attend schools in the same geographical areas as their permanent duty stations. 26 October, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia, triggering a massive tsunami across the Indian Ocean littoral. In places reaching 30 feet high in shallow waters and 6 miles wide, the tsunami killed more than 275,950 people. The USS Abraham 1-10

Lincoln (CVN 72) carrier strike group visiting Hong Kong when the disaster struck; the USS Bonhomme Richard (LHD- 6) expeditionary strike group, visiting Guam; as well as P-3C Orions from Patrol Squadrons 4 and 8 immediately responded. The new year began with these and other Naval Aviation assets at the forefront of the historic relief effort, which was designated Operation Unified Assistance. 2005 On 30 August 2005 numerous ships and aircraft assisted with disaster relief in wake of hurricane Katrina. 2006 25 January, the Navy announced that it sought applications from 30 E-5 to E-7s for a trial Flying Chief Warrant Officer Program for possible fleet-wide introduction. 8 March, the last two F-14Ds to fly combat missions, BuNo 161159 of VF-213, piloted by CAPT William G. Sizemore II; and a Tomcat from VF-31, piloted by Lt. Bill Frank; launched from USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71) to provide close air support to Marines and soldiers fighting terrorists in Iraq. Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. T. Michael Moseley announced the name of the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter as Lightning II during a ceremony at Lockheed Martin facilities in Fort Worth, Texas. The final aircraft carrier operational launch of the F-14 Tomcat occurred onboard USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71) when aircraft No. 112, BuNo 163147, of VF-31, piloted by Lt. Blake Coleman with Radar Intercept Officer (RIO) LCDR Dave Lauderbaugh launched. The EA-18G Growler made its maiden flight at Lambert International Airport in St. Louis, MO. 2007 The V-22 Osprey enters service. 2008 The Navy accepted the delivery of G4, the first EA-18G Growler maintenance trainer, BuNo 166858, at NAS Whidbey Island. The service intends to procure 88 operational Growlers to replace EA-6B Prowlers. 2009 The USS George HW Bush is commissioned, and the keel is laid for the next generation of carriers (Ford class). 25 February, BF-2, the second short takeoff/vertical landing F-35B Lightning II, made its first flight at Fort Worth, Texas. 10 March, following a review of additional information received since 1991, the Navy changed the status of Capt. Michael S. Speicher from “Missing/Captured” to “Missing-In-Action.” On 17 January 1991, Aircraft 403, BuNo 163484, an F/A-18C, piloted by Speicher from VFA-81, embarked aboard USS Saratoga (CV 60), had launched for a night strike over Iraq. An (apparent) Iraqi surface-to-air missile shot down 403, making Speicher the first U.S. casualty of Operation Desert Storm. September, MQ-8 Firescout UAV deploys for the first time aboard USS McInerney (FFG 8). 1-11

2010 Navy and Marine ships and aircraft brought humanitarian relief in response to a massive earthquake that kills more than 230,000. 18 December, the Electromagnetic Launch System launches aircraft for the first time at Lakehurst, NJ. 2011 Naval Aviation celebrates its centennial of 100 years of history. THE AIRMAN RATE During the early years of naval aviation, enlisted personnel came from similar surface ratings in the Navy. The first requirement was for aircraft mechanics. Personnel came from the Machinist's Mate rating and became Machinist's Mate (Aviation). Later, this rating became the Aviation Machinist's Mate (AMM) rating. Special training was necessary during World War II. These specialties became part of a basic rating. There were several specialties that became part of the AMM rating. In 1948, there was a major change in the aviation rating structure. The Airman rate came into being. The titles and/or initials of some aviation ratings changed. For example, the initials for the Aviation Machinist's Mate rating changed from AMM to AD. The letter D in the Aviation Machinist's Mate initials (AD) avoids confusion with the Aviation Structural Mechanic (AM). The specialties moved to the basic AD rating or other basic ratings. Personnel in the Aviation Machinist's Mate Carburetor Mechanic (AMMC), Aviation Machinist's Mate Flight Engineer (AMMF), Aviation Machinist's Mate Propeller Mechanic (AMMP), and Aviation Machinist's Mate Gas Turbine Mechanic (AMMT) specialties became ADs. The Aviation Machinist's Mate Hydraulic Mechanics (AMMH) became a part of the Aviation Structural Mechanic (AM) rating. The Aviation Machinist's Mate Instrument Mechanics (AMMI) became a part of the Aviation Electrician's Mate (AE) rating. Many other titles and changes to ratings occurred at that time. New ratings were established after 1948. They are the Aviation Maintenance Administrationman (AZ), Aviation Support Equipment Technician (AS), Aviation Antisubmarine Warfare Operator (AW), and Aviation Antisubmarine Warfare Technician (AX). In 1958, additional E-8 and E-9 paygrades (senior Chief and master chief) were established. During this period, the title of the Airman rate has not changed, even though the advancement of aviation has caused the requirements of the rate to change. The requirements will continue to change in the future. You can find the requirements for all ratings in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower and Personnel Classifications and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068.

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Figure 1-4 — Paths of advancement for enlisted personnel. AVIATION RATINGS A basic knowledge of the duties and skills of the Airman rate is necessary. You can obtain this knowledge either at a service school or by experience and self-study. The general aviation ratings identify personnel from paygrades E-4 through E-9. Exceptions do exist where a general rating begins and/or ends at other paygrades. The aviation service ratings, subdivisions of a general rating, require specialized training within that general rating. For example, the Aviation Boatswain's Mate (AB) rating has three service ratings (ABE) (ABF) and (ABH). These service ratings begin at paygrade E-4. An example of a general rating that does not have any service ratings is the Aviation Ordnanceman (AO) rating. The aviation ratings career progression paths are shown in Figure 1-4.

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DESCRIPTION OF AVIATION RATINGS The following paragraphs contain a description of each aviation rating. Aviation Boatswain's Mate (AB) The AB rating is made up of the three service ratings, E-4 through E-7 paygrades. These ratings are the ABE, ABF, and the ABH ratings. Aviation Boatswain's Mate, Launching And Recovery Equipment (ABE) A description of the ABE rating includes the following:  Operate, maintain, and perform organization maintenance on hydraulic and steam catapults, barricades, arresting gear, arresting gear engines, and associated equipment ashore and afloat.  Operate catapult launch and retract panels, consoles, firing panels, water brakes, chronographs, blast deflectors, and cooling panels.  Rig, inspect, proof-load cables and fittings, and pour wire rope sockets.  Perform aircraft-handling duties related to the operation of aircraft launching and recovery equipment. Aviation Boatswain's Mate, Fuels (ABF) A description of the ABF rating includes the following:  Operate, maintain, and perform organizational maintenance on aviation fueling and lubricating oil systems in CVs (aircraft carriers), LPHs (amphibious assault ships), and LPDs (amphibious transport docks), including aviation fuel and lubricating oil service stations and pump rooms, piping, valves, pumps, tanks, and portable equipment related to the fuel system.  Operate, maintain, and repair valves and piping of purging and protective systems within the air department spaces aboard ship.  Supervise the operation and servicing of fuel farms, and equipment associated with the fueling and defueling of aircraft ashore and afloat.  Operate and service motorized fueling equipment.  Maintain fuel quality surveillance and control in aviation fuel systems ashore and afloat.  Train, direct, and supervise firefighting crews, fire rescue teams, and damage control parties in assigned fuel and lubricating oil spaces.  Observe and enforce fuel-handling safety precautions. Aviation Boatswain's Mate, Aircraft Handling (ABH) A description of the ABH rating includes the following:  Direct the movement and spotting of aircraft ashore and float.  Operate, maintain, and perform organizational maintenance on ground-handling equipment used for moving and hoisting of aircraft ashore and afloat.  Supervise the securing of aircraft and equipment.  Perform crash rescue, firefighting, crash removal, and damage control duties.  Perform duties in connection with launching and recovery of aircraft.

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Air Traffic Controller (AC) A description of the AC rating includes the following:  Perform air traffic control duties in air control towers, radar air traffic control facilities, and air operations offices ashore and afloat.  Operate radiotelephones, light signals and systems, and direct aircraft under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) conditions.  Operate surveillance radar, precision radar, and identification equipment (IFF).  Operate ground- and carrier-controlled approach systems.  Assist pilots in the preparation and processing of flight plans and clearances.  Maintain current flight-planning information and reference materials. Aviation Machinist's Mate (AD) A description of the AD rating includes the following:  Maintain aircraft engines and their related systems, including induction, cooling, fuel, oil, compression, combustion, turbine, gas turbine compressor, exhaust, and propeller systems.  Preflight aircraft.  Conduct inspections on engine and engine related systems.  Field-test and adjust engine components, including fuel controls, pumps, valves, and regulators.  Remove, repair, and replace compressor and turbine blades and combustion chamber liners.  Preserve and depreserve engines, engine accessories, and components.  Supervise engine work centers. Aviation Electrician's Mate (AE) A description of the AE rating includes the following:  Maintain electrical and instrument systems, including power generation, conversion, and distribution systems, aircraft batteries, and interior and exterior lighting.  Maintain electrical control systems of aircraft, including hydraulic, landing gear, flight control, utility, power plant, and related systems.  Maintain instrument electrical systems, such as aircraft engine, flight, and noninstrument-type indicating and warning systems to include automatic flight control and stabilization systems, aircraft compass systems, attitude reference systems, and inertial navigation systems. Aerographer's Mate (AG) A description of the AG rating includes the following:  Observe, collect, record, and analyze meteorological and oceanographic data.  Make visual and instrumental observations of weather and sea conditions.  Operate meteorological satellite receivers and interpret and apply satellite data.  Interpret meteorological and oceanographic codes and enter data on appropriate charts.  Operate ancillary computer equipment for the processing, dissemination, and display of environmental data.  Perform preventive maintenance on meteorological and oceanographic equipment.  Prepare warnings of severe and hazardous weather and sea conditions.  Forecast meteorological and oceanographic conditions. 1-15

 Prepare and present briefings concerning current and predicted environmental conditions and their effect on operations. Aviation Structural Mechanic (AM) The AM rating consists of two service ratings, E-4 through E-7 paygrades. These ratings are the AME and AM ratings. Aviation Structural Mechanic, Safety Equipment (AME) A description of the AME rating includes the following:  Maintain safety belts, shoulder harnesses, and integrated flight harnesses in aircraft; inertia reels; seat and canopy ejection systems; gaseous and liquid oxygen systems; life raft ejection systems; fire-extinguishing systems, excluding fire detection systems; portable fire extinguishers; emergency egress systems; air-conditioning, heating, cabin and cockpit pressurization, ventilating, and anti-G systems; visual improvement systems; other utility systems; and associated lines, fittings, rigging, valves, and control mechanisms.  Replenish liquid and gaseous oxygen systems.  Remove and install oxygen system valves, gauges, converters, and regulators.  Inspect, remove, install, and rig ejection seats, shoulder harnesses, lap belts, and face-curtain mechanisms.  Inspect, remove, install, and adjust firing mechanisms and cartridges for ejection seats, lap belts, and canopies.  Operate and maintain liquid nitrogen and liquid and gaseous oxygen shop transfer and recharge equipment.  Perform preflight, postflight, and other periodic aircraft inspections. Aviation Structural Mechanic (AM) A description of the AM rating includes the following:  Maintain hydraulic systems, including main and auxiliary power systems and unit actuating subsystems; landing gear; brakes; and related pneumatic systems, including reservoir pressurization, emergency actuating systems, and associated pumps, valves, regulators, actuating cylinders, lines, and fittings.  Service pressure accumulators, emergency air bottles, oleo struts, reservoirs, and master brake cylinders.  Inspect, remove, and replace components of hydraulic systems.  Bleed hydraulic systems.  Adjust brakes, and replace linings and pucks.  Replace gaskets, packing, and wipers in hydraulic components.  Maintain aircraft fuselages, wings, fixed and movable surfaces, airfoils, empennages, seats (except ejection seats), wheels and tires and their components, controls, and mechanisms.  Remove, install, and rig flight control surfaces.  Fabricate and assemble metal parts, and make minor repairs to aircraft skin.  Install rivets and metal fasteners.  Build up wheels and tires.  Paint.  Perform dye penetrant inspections.  Perform daily, preflight, postflight, and other aircraft inspections. 1-16

Aviation Ordnanceman (AO) A description of the AO rating includes the following:  Inspect, maintain, and repair armament equipment, including aircraft guns, gun accessories, non-computing gun sights, aerialtowed target equipment, and handling equipment; and aviation ordnance equipment, including ammunition suspension, release, launching, and arming equipment.  Store, maintain, assemble, load, and fuse aviation ammunition.  Load nuclear weapons and aerial mines and torpedoes.  Load supplementary stores.  Assemble, test, load, and maintain air-launch guided missiles.  Operate small arms ranges.  Supervise the operation of armories, aviation ordnance shops, and aviation ammunition storage facilities. Aviation Support Equipment Technician (AS) A description of the AS rating includes the following:  Service, test, and perform organizational- and intermediate-level maintenance and repair of automotive electrical systems in mobile and self-propelled aviation support equipment and aviation armament-handling equipment. This includes generating, starting, lighting, and ignition systems; electrical components and wiring in auxiliary electrical power units used in servicing aircraft; electrical control systems in gas turbine compressor units and air-conditioning systems; and electrical and electronic circuits and components in general aircraft-servicing equipment.  Service and maintain storage batteries.  Perform maintenance inspections of aviation support equipment.  Service, test, maintain, and repair gasoline and diesel engines and associated automotive systems, hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems, and structural components in mobile and self-propelled aviation support equipment.  Maintain gas turbine compressor units and air-conditioning systems used in servicing aircraft.  Maintain and operate gas turbine compressor unit test stands.  Maintain hydraulic test and service equipment, air compressors, jacks, workstands, and associated equipment.  Perform body and fender metalwork and painting.  Weld, braze, solder, cut, shape, and patch metal.  Adjust and repair brake systems.  Inspect and replace tires and tubes.  Operate hydraulic test stands. Aviation Electronics Technician (AT[I] and AT[O]) Descriptions of both AT ratings include the following:  AT(I) performs intermediate-level preventive and corrective maintenance on aviation electronic components supported by conventional and automatic test equipment, including repair of weapons replaceable assemblies and shop replaceable assemblies. AT(I) also performs microminiature component repair and test equipment qualification and associated test bench preventive and corrective maintenance. 1-17

 AT(O) performs organizational-level preventive and corrective maintenance on aviation electronics systems to include communications, radar, navigation, antisubmarine warfare sensors, electronic warfare, data link, fire control, tactical displays, and associated equipment. Naval Aircrewman (AW) The AW rating is made up of the five service ratings. These ratings are the Aircrewman Mechanical (AWF), Aircrewman Operator (AWO), Aircrewman Tactical Helicopter (AWR), Aircrewman Helicopter (AWS), and Aircrewman Avionics (AWV).  AWF: Serves as flight engineer/crew chief/loadmaster onboard P-3C, EP-3, E-6B, C-2, C-12, and C-130 aircraft. Proficient with all in-flight aircraft emergency requirements and knowledgeable with all aircraft flight systems.  AWO: Operates tactical mission systems to detect, classify, track, and attack enemy submarines while onboard P-3C and P-8A aircraft. Operates tactical support center systems at shore installations and tactical mobile systems in expeditionary units. Also operates multiple types of UAV payload systems.  AWR: Operates tactical mission systems to detect, classify, and attack enemy submarines while onboard SH-60B and SH-60R aircraft. Also operates tactical support center systems at shore installations and tactical mobile systems in expeditionary units. Primary rescue swimmer during SAR missions.  AWS: Serves as the utility aircrewman onboard HH-60H, MH-60S, H-46, and MH-53 aircraft operating a wide range of equipment from mine hunting sensors to close in combat weapons systems. Primary rescue swimmer during SAR missions.  AWV: In-flight technician/troubleshooter onboard P-3C, EP-3, and E-6B aircraft. Maintains and troubleshoots all avionics equipment while in flight. Operates communication systems and electronic warfare equipment onboard E-6B and EP-3 aircraft. Operates and maintains tactical support center systems at shore installations and tactical mobile systems in expeditionary MTOC units. Aviation Maintenance Administrationman (AZ) A description of the AZ rating includes the following:  Perform administrative, managerial, and clerical duties required in implementing and supporting the Naval Aviation Maintenance Program (NAMP).  Plan, program, and coordinate scheduled and unscheduled maintenance tasks and the incorporation of changes and modifications to aircraft and equipment.  Set up and maintain status boards.  Collect, compile, analyze, and record data pertaining to the history, operation, maintenance, configuration, receipt, and transfer of naval aircraft and related aeronautical equipment.  Prepare reports and correspondence.  Determine requirements for the requisition, control, and issue of change kits.  Requisition departmental instructions, forms, and technical data.  Organize, maintain, and operate technical libraries.  Perform other duties as required when attached to organizational, intermediate, and depot maintenance activities or aviation staff commands.

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Aircrew Survival Equipmentman (PR) A description of the PR rating includes the following:  Inspect, maintain, and repair parachutes, survival equipment, and flight and protective clothing and equipment.  Pack and rig parachutes.  Pack and equip life rafts.  Repair and test oxygen regulators and liquid oxygen converters removed from aircraft.  Fit and maintain oxygen masks, flight clothing, anti-exposure suits, and anti-G suits.  Operate and maintain carbon dioxide transfer and recharge equipment.  Conduct inspections of survival equipment; supervise operation of parachute lofts and survival equipment work centers. AIRMAN DUTIES The five major duties you will perform as an Airman are as follows: 1. Maintain support equipment, compartments, and buildings. 2. Stand security watches. 3. Move aircraft. 4. Participate in working parties. 5. Perform routine duties involved in the operation of a naval aviation activity afloat or ashore. You will probably have to perform some duties that don't fall into any of the above categories. However, these five duties cover the majority of the tasks you will have to perform. It's only natural that your first duties will be relatively basic and routine. As you gain knowledge and skill, you will earn more complex responsibilities. You may become a member of the line maintenance crew. At first, you will probably chock the aircraft's wheels and tie the aircraft down at the end of the flying day. Later, you get more responsible jobs to handle on the line, such as giving taxi signals to pilots, refueling aircraft, and inspecting aircraft. Your job may be helping petty officers with certain phases of aircraft line maintenance. The way you perform your job will have a direct bearing on how soon you will receive more advanced assignments. Learn everything you can about each job. Ask questions and observe how qualified personnel accomplished things. Sometimes you may think there are no other job possibilities for the Airman except washing aircraft, standing watches, and cleaning spaces. This type of work is necessary, and all personnel do it at some time. Your own efforts will determine your readiness for other jobs. The Navy needs well- trained personnel, so work in an inspired manner regardless of your chosen rating. Likewise, when you get aboard ship, you will probably think that your job is only moving aircraft from one spot to another. As with your work ashore, you will have more responsible jobs as you learn your duties afloat. ASSIGNMENTS As an Airman Recruit, you will work in one of the more progressive areas of the naval service— naval aviation. As an Airman Apprentice or Airman, you can expect various assignments. Your job may be on an aircraft carrier as ship's company, where you will work in a variety of jobs. You may work in an operating carrier squadron. Carrier squadrons are shore-based, but when the air wing goes aboard a carrier, the squadron will accompany it. You may work in a patrol squadron. Patrol squadrons are on 1-19

naval air stations in the United States and deploy to overseas bases. You may also work in a training squadron. Your assignment could be with fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft. Shore assignments include naval air stations, naval air facilities, or aircraft intermediate maintenance departments. There are other billet possibilities for the Airman, but those are the major ones. The team assignment is not the important thing. The important thing is to become an integral part of the team. Always do your best to make your team the Navy's finest. LEADERSHIP In the Navy, leadership begins early. As an Airman Recruit or Airman Apprentice, you have a limited leadership role. However, you should begin to find out the principles of good leadership. For you to perform your responsibilities as a petty officer, you must display the qualities of good leadership. Why not learn as much as possible about leadership now? Leadership is learned. Those who have become Navy leaders have done so through the application of the principles of leadership from an early age. This training manual does not present an extended leadership course. However, you will find some of the general principles of leadership in the following paragraphs. If you wish to read more about this subject, refer to Basic Military Requirements, Naval Education and Training (NAVEDTRA) 14325, and Military Requirements for Petty Officer Third and Second Class, NAVEDTRA 14504. Both of these training manuals contain information about leadership. Military Requirements for Petty Officer Third and Second Class, NAVEDTRA 14504, is primarily for personnel who are preparing for petty officer third class. You may wish to study it to get a head start in leadership training. However, no single publication can give you all the information you need. Your divisional training petty officer or the Educational Services Office (ESO) will assist you in finding resources. A thorough knowledge of the work a person is doing is a decided advantage to the prospective leader. It is important that you learn everything you can about the rate requirements of an Airman. You may find yourself in a position where your shipmates come to you for assistance with a problem. When you are able to help with their problems (without embarrassing them), you are on your way to becoming a leader. You may even be able to do the right things automatically. In this case, it will be a relatively easy job for you to become the type of leader the Navy needs. However, as stated previously, leadership is learned. If you have to think about how you are conducting yourself when giving help, you are normal.

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End of Chapter 1 Mission and History of Naval Aviation Introduction Review Questions 1-1. Leadership and what other element are now a part of your everyday Navy life ?

A. Training B. Motivation C. Maintenance D. Organization

1-2. The Navy purchased its first aircraft on what date ?

A. 14 June 1910 B. 30 October 1911 C. 8 May 1911 D. 21 April 1898

1-3. What is the primary function of naval aviation?

A. Supply the fleet with aircraft for deployment on aircraft carriers B. Provide the fleet with aircraft pilots and aircrewman C. Coordinate with other naval forces in maintaining command of the seas D. Support amphibious landing operations

1-4. How many basic operations make up the primary function of naval aviation?

A. 5 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8

1-5. What s hip was called the Navy's unsinkable "Blue Ghost" of World War II?

A. USS Saratoga B. USS Enterprise C. USS Wasp D. USS Lexington

1-6. What battle was the turning point of the war in the Pacific?

A. Antietam B. Chosin C. Dien Bien Phu D. Midway

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1-7. What year was the Vietnam cease-fire announced?

A. 1845 B. 1968 C. 1972 D. 1973

1-8. Which aviation rating performs administrative, managerial, and clerical duties required in implementing and supporting the Naval Aviation Maintenance Program (NAMP)?

A. AD B. AM C. AZ D. PR

1-9. Which of the following ratings maintains aircraft engines and related systems?

A. AD B. AM C. AZ D. PR

1-10. Removing, installing, and rigging the flight control surfaces on naval aircraft is the responsibility of what rating?

A. AD B. AM C. AZ D. PR

1-11. Which rating Inspects , maintains, and repairs armament equipment?

A. AB B. AC C. AE D. AO

1-12. What is the name of the first official aircraft carrier?

A. USS Lexington B. USS Langley C. USS Nimitz D. USS America

1-13. Which of the following duties will you perform as an Airman?

A. Repair parachutes B. Weld C. Move aircraft D. Plan flights 1-22

1-14. What is the official birthday of naval aviation?

A. 3 April 1892 B. 7 June 1910 C. 8 May 1911 D. 6 June 1944

1-15. After what year was the Aviation Maintenance Administrationman rate established?

A. 1948 B. 1962 C. 1970 D. 1982

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CHAPTER 2 ORGANIZATION OF NAVAL AVIATION INTRODUCTION You first learned about Navy organization in recruit training. Here, we deal primarily with the organization of naval aviation so you will become familiar with the overall picture. This knowledge will help you understand the importance of your job as an Airman. Naval aviation starts with the Secretary of the Navy, who is head of the Navy Department. The Navy Department is under the cabinet post of the Secretary of Defense. The training manual, Basic Military Requirements, Naval Education and Training (NAVEDTRA) 14325, covers the organization of the Navy Department. See Figure 2-1, organization for naval aviation. The Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) is the head of the military part of the Navy Department. He/She is usually the senior naval military officer in the Department. An organization does not remain static. Missions differ and change. Various missions and tasks influence the organization of a particular squadron, station, or ship. Whether you are assigned to a shore duty or shipboard billet, you are part of a division. There is a division officer in charge. The division officer is responsible for training personnel within the division. He/She makes sure that command policies are carried out and that the jobs assigned to the division are completed on time. You will probably be assigned to a smaller group called a crew. A senior petty officer is in charge of the crew, He/She will help you with your on-the-job and in-service training. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Explain the naval aviation chain of command and your role within the chain. 2. Identify the organizational structure of a naval air station. 3. State the responsibilities within the organizational structure of a naval air station. 4. Identify the functions of naval air facilities and Naval Aviation Depots. 5. Identify the basic types of squadrons. 6. Describe the organization within the squadron and the squadron mission. 7. Explain the responsibilities of squadron personnel. 8. State the function of squadron departments. 9. Explain the purpose of the aircraft carrier. 10. State the function of the various organizations on an aircraft carrier. 11. Define the purpose of the aircraft carrier within a Navy task force. 12. Identify the purpose of the aircraft carrier schedule. 13. Identify naval aircraft and their designations. 2-1

NAVAL AVIATION CHAIN OF COMMAND Every organization in the Navy has a chain of command. Figure 2-1, organization for naval aviation, shows a typical chain of command. The commanding officer (CO) of a squadron or ship must report to a superior officer. That superior officer must report to a superior, and this procedure is repeated all the way up to the CNO. You have a chain of command to follow. You report to your crew leader or supervisor. The crew leader or supervisor reports to the branch or division chief petty officer. The branch or division chief reports to the division officer. Normally, all matters concerning you are handled at the division level. Matters of extreme importance should go to your department head. From the department head, the chain goes to the executive officer (XO), and finally to the CO. This chain of command could change some from command to command, but basically it will remain the same. The chain of command serves many purposes in the accomplishment of the Navy's mission. The chain of command provides direction in the assignment of duties. Communication is the key word in the chain of command. Communication must flow in both directions, up and down the chain. A good chain of command provides a way to solve work-related problems. CHIEF OF NAVAL OPERATIONS (CNO) ☆☆☆☆ COMMANDER IN CHIEF U.S. PACIFIC FLEET (CINCPAC) ☆☆☆☆ COMMANDER IN CHIEF U.S. ATLANTIC FLEET (CINCLANT) ☆☆☆☆ COMMANDER NAVAL AIR FORCES U.S. PACIFIC FLEET (COMNAVAIRPAC) ☆☆☆ COMMANDER NAVAL AIR FORCES U.S. ATLANTIC FLEET (COMNAVAIRLANT) ☆☆☆ COMMANDER WING PACIFIC (CDRWINGPAC) ☆ OR ☆☆ CARRIER, WING, PATROL, HELICOPTER COMMANDER WING ATLANTIC (CDRWINGLANT) ☆OR ☆☆ CARRIER, WING, PATROL, HELICOPTER FUNCTIONAL WING COMMANDER CAPT (CDRWING) FUNCTIONAL WING COMMANDER CAPT (CDRWING) TYPE SQUADRON COMMANDER HC VAQ VR HM VAW VRC HS VC VX HSC VFA HSL VP HSM VQ TYPE SQUADRON COMMANDER HC VAQ VR HM VAW VRC HS VC VX HSC VFA HSL VP HSM VQ NOTE: STARS DENOTE FLAG RANK

Figure 2-1 — Organizational chart of naval aviation. 2-2

NAVAL AIR STATION (NAS) ORGANIZATION There are several activities devoted to naval aviation. Certain stations provide facilities for equipping, supplying, repairing, and maintaining aircraft. Others provide specialized training to flight and ground personnel. You have already had duty at the Recruit Training Command (RTC). In this section, you will learn about the basic organization of a naval air station (NAS) that you will see during your naval career. It will show you that there are many duties to be performed. You can strike for any one of the aviation ratings found on an NAS. The organization of an NAS is similar to that of a squadron or a carrier, but it is much more extensive. The mission of an NAS is to provide service and support to the fleet. An NAS carries out its mission through several functions.  It supports operating aircraft and squadrons assigned to the NAS.  It also supports any transient aircraft that land at the NAS.  It provides air traffic control to all aircraft flying in its controlled air space. NAS and squadron personnel perform organizational-level maintenance on their assigned aircraft. The NAS also has the responsibility of providing intermediate-level maintenance. This is a higher level of maintenance work done on aircraft. Some NASs provide depot-level maintenance, which is the highest level of maintenance for naval aircraft.

Providing training is another function of an NAS. Some NASs provide one or more types of flight training. There are three types of flight training— preflight, basic, and advanced. These three types of flight training apply to naval officer aviators and to enlisted aircrew personnel. Some NASs provide Aviation Maintenance Administration Management Training (AMAMT) courses. AMAMT provides formal and On the Job Training (OJT) maintenance training for the type of aircraft and the support equipment used on that aircraft. Not all NASs do everything you will read about here. Some can handle all phases of training. Others may handle only the maintenance phase. The size of NASs varies according to their functions. However, all NASs provide service and support to the fleet. See Figure 2-2, which shows the organization of a typical naval air station. The CO is responsible for the safety, well-being, and efficiency of the command. The CO and XO have several special assistants. They are the legal officer, the service information officer, the chaplain, the aviation safety officer, the management engineer, and the general safety officer. 2-3

NAVAL AIR STATION COMMANDING OFFICER EXECUTIVE OFFICER SPECIAL ASSISTANTS LEGAL OFFICER SERVICE INFORMATION OFFICER CHAPLAIN AVIATION SAFETY OFFICER MANAGEMENT ENGINEER GENERAL SAFETY OFFICER ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT COMPTROLLER DEPARTMENT HUMAN RESOURCES OFFICE SECURITY DEPARTMENT FLEET READINESS CENTER (FRC) DENTAL DEPARTMENT MEDICAL DEPARTMENT AIR OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT SUPPLY (SUPPLY & FISCAL) DEPARTMENT PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT WEAPONS DEPARTMENT

Figure 2-2 — Organizational chart of a naval air station. Administration Department The administration department is responsible for providing administrative services for the station. These services include mail distribution, communications, and maintenance of personnel files. The divisions within the administration department include the administrative, communications, personnel administrative support services (PASS), mess, special services, and family services divisions. Comptroller Department The head of the comptroller department assists the CO and the XO. He/She advises the station budget board, the department heads, and other levels of station management. The comptroller assists in planning, organizing, directing, and executing financial matters that affect the station. In this capacity, the comptroller provides technical guidance, coordination, and advice in budget control. He/She recommends allocations of civilian personnel to departments and programs. The comptroller develops and monitors data collection systems for program performance analysis and progress reporting. He/She also provides accounting and disbursing services. Human Resources Office (HRO) HRO is headed by a naval officer or a civilian personnel officer. He/She is assisted by civilian experts on employment, wage, and classification. Employee relations and services are also handled in this office. Security Department The security department consists of the police guard or marine guard, shore patrol, fire, brig, and administrative divisions. The department is responsible for maintaining the security of the station to 2-4

prevent sabotage, espionage, theft, fire, or other hostile acts. The functions of the department include internal security, investigation, training, and coordination for off-station shore patrol activity. Air Operations Department The air operations department is responsible for providing and operating the airfield. This department provides services to support aircraft operations, which include station, squadron, and transient aircraft (both military and civilian) support. The air operations department is also responsible for providing air traffic control in the air facility assigned to them. They collect, analyze, and report weather data, schedule flights, and update other important information. The department performs organizational maintenance for assigned aircraft, performs flight line services for transient aircraft, and operates firing ranges. Other services provided by the air operations department include ground electronics maintenance, photographic, and administrative functions within the department.

Supply Department The supply department is headed by the senior supply corps officer. The department is responsible for the logistic support of the NAS and all activities on the station. The supply officer and assistants have the responsibility of issuing all fuel and oils. Responsibilities extend to issuing aircraft parts and support equipment. The supply department also operates the general mess. Public Works Department The public works department is headed by a civil engineer corps officer. The officer in this position is responsible for the minor construction, maintenance, and operation of all public works and utilities. This department consists of utilities, maintenance, transportation, engineering, maintenance control, and administrative divisions. The department is staffed by both naval and civilian personnel. Weapons Department The weapons department is headed by a weapons officer. The department is responsible for the care, handling, stowage, accountability, and issuance of aviation ordnance, ammunition, and pyrotechnics. The department is also responsible for the maintenance of magazines, armories, and the equipment associated with ordnance. Dental Department The dental department is responsible for the oral health of all station military personnel. The senior dental officer performs dental examinations and does other dental work. He/She is assisted by dental officers and dental technicians. Medical Department The medical officer is responsible for all health-related problems on the base. Their responsibilities include prevention and control of disease and treatment of the sick or injured. The medical officer is informed of all matters regarding hygiene, sanitation, and epidemics. The medical officer also advises NOTE The aircraft maintenance division is responsible for organizational-level maintenance of assigned and transient aircraft. The organization of this division is similar to that of a squadron, which is discussed later in this chapter.

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the CO in matters affecting the health and physical fitness of personnel. A flight surgeon, under the direction of the medical officer, takes care of all aviation medicine. The medical department is also responsible for the medical care of dependents of military personnel. Levels of Naval Aircraft Maintenance Naval aircraft maintenance is divided into three levels—organizational, intermediate, and depot. Organizational maintenance is work performed by operating units, such as a squadron, on a day-to- day basis. This work consists of inspecting, servicing, lubricating, adjusting, and replacing parts, minor assemblies, and subassemblies. Intermediate maintenance is work performed at centrally located facilities, such as an FRC, in support of operating units. This work consists of calibration, repair, or replacement of damaged or unserviceable parts, components, or assemblies; limited manufacture of parts; and technical assistance. Depot maintenance is performed at large industrial- type facilities, such as a Naval Aviation Depot (NADEP), and includes major overhaul and major repair or modifications of aircraft, components, and equipment, and the manufacture of parts. Fleet Readiness Center (FRC) The primary function of the FRC is to perform intermediate-level maintenance. It supports station aircraft, tenant squadrons, and special units. The FRC department is broken down into divisions, as shown in Figure 2-3. A brief description of each is provided in the following paragraphs. Shipboard Intermediate maintenance departments are referred to as Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Departments (AIMDs). MAINTENANCE OFFICER/ FRC EQUIVALENT ASSISTANT MAINTENANCE OFFICER/ FRC EQUIVALENT QUALITY ASSURANCE MAINTENANCE/MATERIAL CONTROL (NOTE 1) ADMINISTRATION MANPOWER, PERSONNEL & TRAINING COORDINATOR (NOTE 2) SUPPLY DEPARTMENT MATERIAL CONTROL PRODUCTION CONTROL OMD (NOTE 3) POWER PLANTS AIRFRAMES AVIONICS ARMAMENT EQUIPMENT AVIATION LIFE SUPPORT EQUIPMENT SUPPORT EQUIPMENT SUPPORT/ SERVICES (NOTE 4)

Figure 2-3 — Fleet Readiness Center (FRC) (ashore) organizational chart. Breakdowns beyond the basic divisions are not illustrated because of the variety of branches possible. Activities will be required to establish the necessary branches to meet their individual requirements. Branches should be established only when more than one work center is involved, for example, jet engine branch with work center J52 engine. 2-6

Quality Assurance/Analysis (QA/A) QA/A is staffed with a relatively small group of highly skilled personnel. These permanently assigned personnel are responsible for conducting and managing the QA/A programs of the department. The maintenance personnel assigned to QA/A are known as Quality Assurance Representatives (QARs). A data analyst is assigned to QA/A. His/Her purpose is to get more efficient use of the information collected by the aviation Maintenance Data System (MDS). The primary duty of the data analyst is to perform all MDS functions of QA/A. The QA/A division also maintains the technical library. The QA concept is that of preventing defects. The concept takes in all events from the start of the maintenance operation to its completion. QA is the responsibility of all maintenance personnel. The achievement of QA depends on prevention, knowledge, and special skills. Administration Division The administration division provides clerical and administrative services for the FRC department. The administration division maintains, controls, and establishes a central reporting and record-keeping file system for all maintenance reports and correspondence. The safeguarding and distributing of personal mail to department personnel is another function of the administration division. Manpower, Personnel, and Training Coordinator The manpower, personnel, and training coordinator will normally be a senior enlisted (E-9) person. The co ordinator ensures that all divisions in FRC are conducting training sessions to improve the quality of performance. He/She also ensures promotional opportunities are available for the assigned personnel. The coordinator directs periodic inspections of assigned work spaces and personnel. Maintenance material control Is the heart of the FRC. It is tasked with the accomplishment of the overall production effort. It is responsible for repairing aircraft and related support equipment at the intermediate level of maintenance. There are two control centers under maintenance material control—production control and material control. Production Control Production control schedules workloads and coordinates production. It ensures the efficient movement of all aircraft or parts through the FRC activity. Production control ensures maximum use NOTE 1. Direct authority for production matters only. 2. For larger IMAs/FRCs that have more than 500 personnel (including Temporary Assignment of Duty (TAD) personnel). This position is not required for IMAs/FRCs with less than 500 personnel. 3. When specific authority has been granted to combine the Organizational Maintenance Division (OMD) and IMA, an organizational maintenance division will be established. 4. This is an optional division. Support services may include Individual Material Readiness List (IMRL) and other functions as determined by the maintenance officer (MO). 2-7

of personnel and material resources. Production control has many functions in an FRC, but its main responsibility is to manage resources efficiently. Material Control Material control within a maintenance organization is responsible for parts and material used in the activity. Material control ensures that parts and materials are ordered and received. Once parts or material are received, they are routed to the applicable work centers and are not allowed to accumulate. Supply The Supply Support Center (SSC) of an FRC is responsible for receiving all parts and materials ordered. SSC prepares the requisitions and picks up and delivers the material to the various FRC work centers. If maintenance is being performed 24 hours a day, the SSC will be open 24 hours a day. This allows for a quick response to the work centers' material needs. ORGANIZATIONALAND OPERATIONS MAINTENANCE DIVISION (OMD) An Organizational Maintenance Division (OMD) is normally established in an FRC. Specific authority

has to be granted to combine the organizational maintenance divisions and the intermediate maintenance activities on board an NAS. Not all FRCs will have an organizational maintenance division. An operations maintenance division is normally established when there is four or less aircraft assigned. OMDs on board an NAS are responsible for all organizational-level maintenance that must be performed to their assigned aircraft. Power Plants Division The power plants division performs all of the three-degree gas turbine engine repairs. The three- degree repair program is divided into first-degree repair, second-degree repair, and third-degree repair. The program covers all gas turbine engines, their accessories, and components. Their responsibilities include aircraft engines, auxiliary power units, and airborne or ground starting units. Airframes Division The airframes division has responsibilities associ ated with the Hydraulic Fluid Contamination Control Program. The division fabricates and tests hoses, tubes, and sheet metal parts for aircraft structural components. The division is responsible for the recertification of aeronautical equipment welders, Nondestructive Inspection (NDI), aircraft tire/wheel maintenance safety, and corrosion prevention/control programs Avionics Division The avionics division tests and repairs electrical and electronics system components. The division is responsible for calibration of precision measuring equipment (PME) and for ensuring that personnel performing calibrations are qualified and trained. Corrosion prevention/control of avionics equipment, maintenance, and the safety of aircraft batteries are also the responsibility of the avionics division. Armament Equipment Division The armament equipment division is responsible for testing and repairing airborne weapon systems. This includes calibrations, cleaning, corrosion control, preservation, and storage programs. 2-8

Aviation Life Support Equipment Division The aviation life support equipment division is responsible for the Aviator's Breathing Oxygen (ABO) program, which includes surveillance, contamination, and handling. The division maintains the egress, air-conditioning, and pressurization systems. Survival equipment for the aircraft and aircrew is another responsibility of the division. Support Equipment (SE) Division The SE division supplies aircraft support equipment to all organizational-level activities at the NAS. This division performs major repair and periodic inspection and maintenance of all aviation support equipment. Aviation support equipment includes, but is not limited to, such items as test stands, workstands, mobile electric power plants, pneumatic and hydraulic servicing equipment, and avionics test equipment.

NAVAL AIR FACILITIES AND NAVAL AVIATION DEPOTS Naval Air Facility (NAF) Performs maintenance functions on aircraft and support equipment assigned to that command. These functions sometimes include organizational- and intermediate-level maintenance. NAFs are normally smaller than an NAS. NAFs are not equipped to handle large numbers of aircraft. NADEP Maintains and operates facilities for a complete range of depot-level rework operations to include designated weapons systems, accessories, and equipment. The depot manufactures parts and assemblies as required. It also provides engineering services in the development of changes to hardware design. The depot furnishes technical and other professional services on aircraft maintenance and logistic problems. The depot also performs other levels of aircraft maintenance for eligible activities when requested. The facility performs other functions as the Commander, Naval Air Systems Command may direct. SQUADRONS Squadrons are designated by the purpose they serve. You should be familiar with the various types, classes, and missions of each type of squadron. TYPES OF SQUADRONS There are four basic types of squadrons— carrier, patrol, composite, and noncombatant. In this section, you will learn about squadron missions and the primary aircraft that operate within a specific squadron. Carrier Squadrons There are many types of carrier squadrons, including strike/fighter, antisubmarine, and airborne early- warning squadrons. Strike fighter squadrons (VFAs) VFAs are employed for both fighter and attack missions. The F/A-18 Hornet aircraft are assigned to strike fighter squadrons. 2-9

Antisubmarine Squadrons The primary mission of includes Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW), search and attack of enemy submarines, supply convoy coverage, and antisurface surveillance and targeting. Their secondary mission provides search and rescue (SAR), vertical replenishment (VERTREP), and medical evacuation (MEDIVAC). Helicopters assigned to Helicopter Antisubmarine (HS), Helicopter Antisubmarine Light (HSL), Helicopter Sea Combat (HSC), and Helicopter Maritime Strike (HSM) squadrons are the H-60. Airborne early-warning squadrons (VAWs) VAWs are carrier-based squadrons that provide early warning against submarines, weather, missiles, shipping, and aircraft. Aircraft assigned to an early-warning squadron include the E-2 Hawkeye. Patrol Squadrons Patrol squadrons (VPs) consist of aircraft that are land based and operate singly over land and sea areas. These squadrons are designed primarily for ASW, reconnaissance, and mining. Aircraft assigned to a patrol squadron include the P-3 Orion and P-8 Poseidon. Composite Squadrons Composite (utility) squadrons (VC and HC) Composite squadrons include both fixed-wing aircraft (VC) and helicopters (HC). VC squadrons perform duties such as adversary, simulation, and target towing. HC squadrons perform duties such as ship's plane-guard, SAR, MEDIVAC, VETREP, cargo and mail delivery, and troop and personnel transfer. Aircraft assigned to utility squadrons include the F/A-18 Hornet, H-60, and H-53 Sea Stallion. Noncombatant Squadrons There are three types of noncombatant squadrons. They are the development, tactical, and training squadrons. Development squadrons Include both fixed-wing aircraft (VX) and rotary-wing aircraft (helicopters) (HX). The mission of a development squadron is to test and evaluate VX and HX aircraft and their equipment. This type of squadron closes the gap between the experimental stages and the operational use of the new aircraft and its equipment. All types of aircraft that require testing and evaluation are assigned to these squadrons. Tactical support squadrons (VRs and VRCs) Provide for long-distance transfer of personnel and supplies (logistic support). Aircraft assigned to a tactical support squadron include the C-130 Hercules, C-40 Clipper, and C-2 Greyhound. Training squadrons are designated VT and HT The mission of a training squadron is to provide basic, advanced, operational, and refresher-type flight training. These squadrons cover both fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. Some aircraft assigned to a training squadron include the T-6 Texan, T-34 Mentor, T-45 Goshawk, and TH-57 Sea Ranger. ORGANIZATION OF A SQUADRON Operating squadrons have a CO assisted by an XO, department heads, division officers, maintenance officers, and enlisted personnel. You should know the organization of your squadron. 2-10

Recognize your CO and display the courtesy required by military etiquette. Know your division officer and your responsibilities to that position. Know your chief petty officers and other rated personnel in your division. They should be your biggest help in your professional advancement. Know your part in your own organization. Now, let's take a look at a typical squadron organization, starting with the CO. Commanding Officer (CO) The CO is the senior naval officer in the squadron. He/She is known as the squadron commander. The CO has the duties and responsibilities as outlined in U.S. Navy Regulations. These duties and responsibilities include morale, discipline, readiness, and efficiency. The CO issues operational and employment orders to the entire squadron. The XO, department heads, and other officers and personnel fall under the CO. See Figure 2-4. The CO is responsible for the operational readiness of the squadron. The squadron safety officer works directly under the CO. The safety officer's responsibility is to ensure the squadron follows all pertinent safety orders. The squadron safety officer is a member of the squadron aircraft accident board. He/She serves as crash investigator of all crashes occurring within the squadron. COMMANDING OFFICER EXECUTIVE OFFICER AIR OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENT MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT ADDITIONAL DEPARTMENTS SAFETY DEPARTMENT

Figure 2-4 — Typical aircraft squadron organizational chart. Executive Officer (XO) The XO is the second senior naval aviator in the squadron. He/She is the direct representative of the CO, and his/her duties are prescribed in U.S. Navy Regulations. The XO is assisted by various department heads, whose duties vary according to their designated mission and tasks. The XO assures that the squadron is administered properly and the squadron commander's orders are carried out. Maintenance Officer (MO) The MO has administrative control over the maintenance department and is responsible to the CO for accomplishing the squadron mission. The MO establishes procedures and delegates authority to subordinates. The MO reviews the decisions and actions of subordinates and controls personnel assigned to divisions within the department. The MO is assisted by the assistant maintenance officer (AMO). The AMO receives the same training and is qualified under the same guidelines as the MO. One of the major responsibilities of the AMO is the Maintenance In-Service Training Program. 2-11

Maintenance Material Control Officer (MMCO) This officer is responsible for the production effort of the department. The MMCO plans, schedules, and supervises all activities of the production divisions. The MMCO is responsible for obtaining all supplies needed to support the squadron workload and keeping related records. AIRCRAFT SQUADRON DEPARTMENTS All aircraft squadrons have an administrative department and a safety department. Most squadrons also have an operations department and a maintenance department. Some squadrons have one or more additional departments. Based upon the mission of the squadron, there may be a training, photographic, or intelligence department. A department head reports to the CO and is responsible for the operational readiness of the department and for organizing and training within the department. Operation, planning, security, safety, cleanliness of areas assigned, and records and reports are some of the department head responsibilities. Operations department The operations (OPS) department is responsible for the operational readiness and tactical efficiency of the squadron. Normally, the OPS department consists of the logs and records, schedules, training, communications, and navigation divisions. Administrative department The administrative (ADMIN) department is responsible for all the administrative duties within the squadron. This department takes care of official correspondence, personnel records, and directives. The personnel office, educational services office, public affairs office, and legal office are all part of the ADMIN department. The first lieutenant and command career counselor work as members of this department. Safety department The safety department is responsible for all matters concerning the squadron's safety program. Generally, this department is divided into the ground safety, aviation safety, and Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures Standardization (NATOPS) divisions. The NATOPS division is responsible for ensuring that standardized procedures are followed in operating the squadron's aircraft. Maintenance department The maintenance department is responsible for the overall maintenance of the squadron's aircraft. The maintenance department is usually divided into six areas: maintenance/material control, QA/A, maintenance administration, aircraft, avionics/armament, and line divisions. See Figure 2-5. 2-12

MAINTENANCE OFFICER MAINT. CONTROL MATERIAL CONTROL AVIONICS/ARMAMENT DIVISIONAIRCRAFT DIVISION LINE DIVISIONUAS DIVISION POWER PLANTS BRANCH AIRFRAMES BRANCH AVIATION LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS BRANCH INSPECTION BRANCH ELECTRONICS BRANCH ELECTRICAL/INSTRUMENT BRANCH RECONNAISSANCE/PHOTO BRANCH ARMAMENT BRANCH PLANE CAPTAINS BRANCH TROUBLESHOOTERS BRANCH SUPPORT EQUIPMENT BRANCH ASSISTANT MAINTENANCE OFFICER QUALITY ASSURANCE MAINTENANCE/ MATERIAL CONTROL OFFICER MAINTENANCE/ MASTER CHIEF PETTY OFFICER MAINTENANCE ADMINISTRATION

Figure 2-5 — Squadron aircraft maintenance department organizational chart. TYPES OF DIVISIONS Maintenance administration Provides administrative and clerical services for the aircraft maintenance department. QA/A The QA/A section inspects the work of the maintenance department. QA/A ensures that maintenance performed on aircraft, engines, accessories, and equipment is done according to current Navy standards. QA collects and reviews maintenance data, source documents prepared by shop personnel, and delivers the documents to data processing for computer input. The analysis petty officer receives the results from machine-produced reports. The reports are used to develop statistical charts, graphs, and additional reports, which the maintenance officer and other management personnel use. Maintenance control Maintenance control is the heart of the aircraft maintenance department. Maintenance control is responsible for planning and scheduling the daily, weekly, and monthly workloads for the entire maintenance department. Material control Material control is responsible for ordering and receiving all aircraft parts and materials needed to support the maintenance department. Material control is also responsible for keeping the records involved in obtaining such material. 2-13

There are four basic types of divisions within a squadron: unmanned aircraft systems, aircraft, avionics/armament, and line divisions. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) division UAS assignment and classification of O-level and I-level maintenance functions are applicable to UAS. All UAS operating activities are designated as O-level with limited I-level capability because of unique characteristics inherent in UAS design, operation, and life. Only designated squadrons will have a UAS division. Aircraft division The aircraft division supervises, coordinates, and completes scheduled and unscheduled maintenance. It also performs inspections in the areas of power plants, airframes, and aircrew personnel protective/survival equipment. The aircraft production branches are located within the aircraft division. They are the power plants, airframes, aviation life support equipment, and inspection branches. Avionics/Armament division The avionics/armament division maintains the electronic, electrical instrument, fire control, reconnaissance/photo, and ordnance portion of the aircraft. The avionics/armament production branches are located within the avionics/armament division. They are the electronics, electrical/instrument, reconnaissance/photo, and armament branches. Line Division The line division performs scheduled and unscheduled maintenance work on the aircraft. This responsibility includes preflight, turnaround, daily and post-flight inspections, servicing, and troubleshooting discrepancies. The correction of aircraft discrepancies occurs on the line, providing the job does not require the removal of major assemblies. The ground handling of the squadron's aircraft is a function of the line division. The plane captain assignment/qualification program is administered by and is a responsibility of the line division. The line division is responsible for the squadron’s support equipment. This includes preoperation, postoperation, and daily inspections, as well as servicing and maintenance of the support equipment. Daily Maintenance Requirements Cards (MRCs) are provided for each major type of support equipment used by the squadron. The MRCs set forth the minimum daily inspection required for each piece of support equipment. The Foreign Object Damage (FOD) prevention, fuel, oil, hydraulic fluid, and oxygen surveillance programs are the responsibility of the line division. The plane captains, troubleshooters, and support equipment branches are located within the line division. AIRCRAFT CARRIER ORGANIZATION The purpose of aircraft carriers is to maintain the aircraft at sea. Their operation is mobile and independent of land facilities. These operations include naval air defensive and offensive missions. The types of aircraft aboard a carrier vary from turboprop aircraft to high-performance jets. To maintain and operate these aircraft, carriers are equipped with many well-known special features. These features include the flight deck, hangar deck, elevators, arresting gear, and catapult systems. 2-14

You should know something of the organization of the carrier to better understand your relationship to the carrier's mission. You should also recognize the CO of your carrier and know something about the responsibilities of that position. In addition to being a line officer qualified for command at sea, the CO must be a naval aviator. The CO is directly responsible for the ship's efficient performance of assigned tactical duties. The CO is also responsible for the personnel assigned to his command. Responsibilities include welfare, morale, training, discipline, military etiquette, customs, and daily routines. COs have duties that are so extensive they cannot personally attend to all the details involved. See Figure 2-6 typical aircraft carrier organization chart. The XO aboard a carrier assists the CO the same as the XO of a squadron helps the squadron's CO. The XO, the operations officer, and the air officer also must be qualified naval aviators. COMMANDING OFFICER EXECUTIVE OFFICER ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER PERSONNEL OFFICER EDUCATIONAL OFFICER SHIP'S SECRETARY CHAPLAIN PUBLIC INFO OFFICER CHIEF MASTER-AT-ARMS BAND ENGINEERING DEPT. NAVIGATION DEPT. AIR DEPT. AIR WING OR GROUP WHEN EMBARKED MEDICAL DEPT. AIRCRAFT INTERMEDIATE MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT (AFLOAT) OPERATIONS DEPT. WEAPONS DEPT. SUPPLY DEPT. DENTAL DEPT.

Figure 2-6 —Typical aircraft carrier organizational chart. CARRIER AIR WING Carrier air wings consist of squadrons assigned by the CNO. The air wing is under the command of an air wing commander. Air wing commanders report for duty to the CO of the parent carrier. They have tactical command of their wings during wing operations. When ship-based, the air wing commander exercises the rights conferred by U.S. Navy Regulations on heads of departments. The air wing commander also has responsibilities similar to that of a department head. These responsibilities include internal administration of air wing personnel and material upkeep of assigned spaces and aircraft. In matters concerning air department functions, the air wing commander acts under the direction of the air department officer. In matters concerning operations department functions, the commander acts under the direction of the operations officer. Air wings, squadrons, and units are established aboard Carrier Vessel Nuclear (CVN), Landing ship Helicopter Assault (LHA), and Multi-purpose amphibious assault ship (LHD) types of ships. See Figure 2-7.

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Under the carrier CO and the air wing commander, squadron COs maintain the squadron organization. See Figure 2-8. Operations Department The operations department has the responsibility of air operations and the Combat Information Center (CIC). The allied divisions, including air intelligence, photography, meteorology, lookout, recognition, and air plot are added responsibilities. Air Department The carrier air department is organized into divisions that are responsible for landing and launching operations. They also handle and service aircraft and maintain the equipment necessary for these functions. Air department personnel are ship's company, and the department is a permanent shipboard activity. Figure 2-7 — Typical aviation-type ships. 2-16

AIR WING AIR WING COMMANDER AIR WING STAFF OPERATIONS AND SAFETY OFF. AIR INTELLIGENCE OFFICER FLIGHT SURGEON AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE OFF. ELECTRONICS MAINT. OFFICER ADMINISTRATION AND PERSONNEL LANDING SIGNAL OFFICER STRIKE FIGHTER SQUADRON (VFA) STRIKE FIGHTER SQUADRON (VFA) STRIKE FIGHTER SQUADRON (VFA) AIRCRAFT DETACHMENTS* ANTISUBMARINE (HSC) (HSM) STRIKE FIGHTER SQUADRON (VFA) AIRBORNE EARLY WARNING SQUADRON (VAW) ELECTRONIC ATTACK SQUADRON (VAQ)

Figure 2-8 — Administrative organization of a typical CVN air wing.  Detachment of aircraft configured for special puposes, such as photo reconnaissance, night attack, helicopter sea-air rescue, and cargo. Divisions within the air department may vary from ship to ship, but each one follows a broad general pattern. The maximum number of divisions is normally four in peacetime and seven in wartime. These are grouped according to the major functions of aircraft handling and aircraft maintenance. Division designation and responsible officers are shown in Figure 2-9. AIR DEPARTMENT AIR OFFICER ASSISTANT AIR OFFICER AIRCRAFT CRASH AND SALVAGE OFFICER FLIGHT DECK OFFICER CATAPULT AND ARRESTING GEAR OFFICER AVIATION FUELS OFFICER HANGAR DECK OFFICER ASSISTANT CATAPULT AND ARRESTING GEAR OFFICER AIR TRAINING ASSISTANT AIR ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT AIRCRAFT HANDLING GROUP AIRCRAFT HANDLING OFFICER V-1 DIVISION V-2 DIVISION V-4 DIVISIONV-3 DIVISION (I) (I)

Figure 2-9 — Administrative organization of an air department. The principal duties and responsibilities of each division are discussed in the following paragraphs. V-1 Division The flight deck division is responsible for the handling of all aircraft on the flight deck. Spotting and directing aircraft, and operating aircraft-handling equipment, such as tractors and cranes. Also included in this division is the aircraft crash, fire, and rescue party. This crew is under the direction of the aircraft crash and salvage officer. The crew is responsible for flight deck firefighting, rescuing, clearing flight deck crashes, and maintaining crash and fire-fighting equipment. 2-17

V-2 Division Personnel in the catapult and arresting gear division are usually assigned to one of two crews. The catapult crew is charged with the operation and maintenance of all catapult machinery. The arresting gear crew is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the arresting gear and barricade equipment. Occasionally, the catapult and arresting gear crews assist in clearing flight deck crashes. V-3 Division The hangar deck division is charged with the handling of all aircraft on the hangar deck. Other responsibilities include operation of aircraft elevators, hangar bay doors, and roller curtains. The division also maintains assigned fire-fighting equipment, such as sprinkler systems, water curtains, and foam monitors. Certain personnel from the V-3 division are assigned to the conflagration (fire) control stations on the hangar deck. Repair 1A (hangar deck forward) is operated by personnel from the V-3 division. V-4 Division The aviation fuels division is charged with the operation and upkeep of the carrier aviation fuel and lube oil transfer system. Including the inert gas producer and distribution systems (when installed). The division services embarked aircraft with clean, uncontaminated fuel and replenishes the ship's supply of aviation fuel and lube oil. Weapons Department In general, the weapons department is responsible for requisitioning, receiving, inspecting, unpacking, inventorying, accounting for, storing, and processing shipment of weapons and weapon components. These weapons and components include air/surface and sub-surface missiles, bombs, rockets, aircraft guns and accessories, ammunition handling equipment, aircraft arming equipment, suspension equipment, and launch and release equipment. Engineering Department The engineering department is responsible for all machinery, propulsion, ventilation, water supply, piping systems, electrical systems, and electronic devices on board the ship. Navigation Department The navigation department is responsible to the CO for the safe navigation and piloting of the aircraft carrier. This department also trains deck watch officers, orders navigational equipment for the ship, and provides for its upkeep. Supply Department The supply department handles such matters as ordering, receiving, storing, issuing, and accounting for all supplies needed for the ship's operation. Medical Department The medical department is responsible for maintaining the health of all personnel and advising the CO in matters of sanitation and hygiene. Dental Department The senior dental officer is responsible for the dental care and oral hygiene of the personnel aboard. 2-18

Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department (Afloat) To improve fleet readiness, the CNO established an AIMD on aircraft carriers. The AIMD assumes the entire responsibility for the intermediate maintenance effort on the carrier, thereby relieving the air wing commander of the responsibility of providing O- and I-level maintenance for aircraft assigned. AIMDs are organized in a manner similar to shore-based aviation maintenance departments. See Figure 2-10. Some personnel are permanently assigned to the AIMD, and some are temporarily assigned from the squadrons embarked on the carrier. The temporarily assigned personnel accompany their squadrons when the squadrons disembark to be based ashore. CARRIER DIVISIONS Now you know the basic organization of a carrier. This knowledge allows you to understand how your carrier fits in the total organization of the Navy. If more than one carrier is operating with a Navy task force, your carrier is a part of a carrier division (CARDIV). The commander of a CARDIV is usually an admiral, who is assisted by a staff of highly qualified officers and administrative personnel. The CARDIV will be a part of the Naval Air Force, the U.S. Atlantic Fleet, or the U.S. Pacific Fleet. A CARDIV operating with the Atlantic Fleet will receive orders from the Commander, Naval Air Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (COMNAVAIRLANT). If the carrier operates with the Pacific forces, orders will come from the Commander, Naval Air Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet (COMNAVAIRPAC). COMNAVAIRLANT is directed by the Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (CINCLANTFLT). COMNAVAIRPAC is directed by the Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet (CINCPACFLT). CINCLANTFLT and CINCPACFLT are directly under the CNO. The CNO is the Navy representative for the Joint Chiefs of Staff. They have the responsibility for the protection of the United States. MAINTENANCE OFFICER ASSISTANT MAINTENANCE OFFICER (NOTE 1) QUALITY ASSURANCE MAINTENANCE MATERIAL CONTROL (NOTE 2) ADMINISTRATION MANPOWER, PERSONNEL, & TRAINING COORDINATOR (NOTE 3) SUPPLY DEPARTMENT MATERIAL CONTROL PRODUCTION CONTROL GENERAL MAINTENANCE DIVISION SUPPORT/SERVICES DIVISION (NOTE 4) AVIONICS/ ARMAMENT DIVISION SE MAINTENANCE DIVISION OMD POWER PLANTS AIRFRAMES AVIATION LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS AVIONICS ARMAMENT EQUIPMENT IM 1 IM 2 IM 3 IM 4

Figure 2-10 — Aircraft intermediate-level maintenance department (afloat) organizational chart. IM1 — QA, Maintenance Material Control, Administration, and Manpower/Training. IM2 — General Maintenance, OMD, Powerplants, Airframes, and Aviation Life Support Systems. 2-19

IM3 — Support Equipment (SE). IM4 — Avionics and Armament Equipment.

TYPICAL CARRIER SCHEDULE A carrier needs periodic repair and refitting. The time scheduled for this work is called a yard period. In a Navy shipyard, the carrier is repaired and any change or modernization is done. Included are rearrangement of compartments, repair of machinery, and installation of new systems. At this time, required supplies and spare parts are loaded aboard for both the carrier and its supported squadrons. The carrier then takes several shakedown and training cruises. During the shakedown cruises, the carrier is checked for satisfactory operation of machinery, equipment, and systems. A return to the shipyard may be needed to correct discrepancies. During the training cruises, the squadron's and ship's personnel are trained in operations and procedures necessary to complete the ship's mission. The carrier proceeds to its patrol area and conducts operations according to its mission. Supplies are provided by supply ships by Underway Replenishment (UNREP), Carrier Onboard Delivery (COD) aircraft, or VERTREP helicopter squadrons. The carrier usually takes a breather one or more times during this deployment period. This break allows personnel to go on liberty in foreign countries and bring supplies on board that are difficult to get at sea. After the deployment period, the carrier returns to its home port for refitting. Each return to home port does not involve a yard period. While the carrier is home ported, the squadrons that were aboard are based ashore. While the carrier is being refitted and re-supplied during home port periods, personnel are transferred and new personnel are trained. The carrier is then ready for deployment. DESIGNATION AND TYPES OF NAVAL AIRCRAFT The present system of designating naval aircraft was initiated in late 1962. This system applies to all U.S. military aircraft. All the aircraft designations have one thing in common— a hyphen. The letter just before the hyphen specifies the basic mission, or type, of aircraft. The basic mission letters are as follows: A— Attack C—Transport E—Special electronic installation F—Fighter H—Helicopter K—Tanker NOTE 1. This organization chart may be authorized by cognizant Type Commanders (TYCOM) for certain shore activities with limited manpower allowances. 2. Direct authority for production matters only. 3. Authorized for CVNs and ashore IMAs larger than 500 personnel. 4. This is an optional division authorized for CVNs only. Support services may include IMRL, damage control, and other functions as determined by the MO. 2-20

P—Patrol R—Reconnaissance S—Antisubmarine T—Trainer U—Utility V—VTOL and STOL X—Research If the aircraft has been modified from its original mission, a letter in front of the basic mission letter indicates its modified mission. Mission modification letters are as follows: A—Attack C—Transport D—Director (for controlling drone aircraft or missiles) E—Special electronic installation H—Search/rescue K—Tanker L—Cold-weather aircraft (for Arctic or Antarctic operations) M—Mine countermeasures O—Observation P—Patrol Q—Drone R—Reconnaissance S—Antisubmarine T—Trainer U—Utility V—Staff W—Weather As stated above, all the aircraft designations have one thing in common—a hyphen; for example, the F/A-18E Hornet has a multipurpose role. The first letter(s) identify its mission. A number after the hyphen specifies the design number of the aircraft. A letter other than A (A being the original design) after the design number shows a change in the original design. For example, in F/A-18E, the F means fighter and A means attack aircraft. Its design number is 18, and it has been modified four times, represented by the E (fifth letter of the alphabet). Another example is the A-6A. When it is modified to perform early-warning missions, it then becomes the EA-6B Prowler because of the special electronic installation required for such missions. If both the special-use letter and the modified mission letter apply to the same aircraft, the special-use letter comes first. For example, YEP-3E refers to a prototype (Y), early warning (E), patrol aircraft (P), design number 3, and the design has been modified four times (E). Table 2-1 gives the basic mission, design number, manufacturer, and popular name of most naval aircraft. The Navy has aircraft of each major type, including fighter, attack, patrol, and ASW that are far superior to those flown in the past. As you read the rest of this section, refer to Figures 2-11 and 2-21

2-12, which show some of the aircraft currently in the Navy inventory. The Navy is constantly seeking better and more advanced aircraft operational capabilities. Manufacturers are aware of this and are constantly developing products to meet these demands. Some combat aircraft are described in the following paragraphs.

Table 2-1 — Naval Aircraft Identification, Manufacturers and Names BASIC MISSION AND DESIGN NUMBER CONTRACTOR/ MANUFACTURER POPULAR NAME AV-8 McDonnell-Douglas Harrier C-2 Grumman Greyhound C-40 Boeing Clipper C-12 Beechcraft Kingair C-20 Gulfstream-Aerospace Gulfstream C-130 Lockheed Hercules E-2 Grumman Hawkeye E-6 Boeing Mercury EA-6 Grumman Prowler F/A-18 McDonnell-Douglas Hornet F-35 Lockheed Martin Lightning P-3 Lockheed Orion P-8 Boeing Poseidon T-6 Beech Texan T-34 Beech Mentor T-45 McDonnell-Douglas Goshawk OV-10 North American Bronco UH-1 Bell Iroquois/Huey AH-1 Bell Cobra CH-46 Boeing-Vertol Sea Knight H-57 Bell Jet Ranger H-60 Sikorsky Sea Hawk, Knight Hawk H-53 Sikorsky Sea Stallion V-22 Bell-Boeing Osprey 2-22

Figure 2-11 — F/A-18 Hornet. Figure 2-12 — F-35 Lightning. McDonnell-Douglas Hornet, F/A-18 The F/A-18 is a twin-jet-engine aircraft designed for all- weather fighter escort and light attack. The Hornet is capable of catapult launch and arrested landings for carrier operations. The crew consists of a pilot on the F/A-18 model aircraft, and a pilot and student on the TF/A-18 model aircraft. The Hornet is powered by two General Electric F404-GE- 400 engines. Each jet engine is rated in the 16,000 pounds of thrust class. The F/A-18 has in-flight refueling capability, and it can carry three external fuel tanks for additional range. The Hornet has nine weapon stations. Two are wing-tip stations for Sidewinders, and two outboard wing stations for fuel tanks or air-to-ground weapons. There are two nacelle fuselage stations for Sparrows or sensor pods, and two inboard wing stations for fuel tanks or air-to- ground weapons. Also, there is one centerline station for fuel or air-to-ground weapons. The internal M61A1 (20mm) gun is mounted in the nose. See Figure 2-11.

Lockheed Martin Lightning, F-35 The F-35 is a single-engine aircraft. It has three main models: the F-35A is a conventional takeoff and landing variant, the F-35B is a short takeoff and vertical-landing variant, and the F-35C is a carrier-based variant. The F-35 has a maximum speed of over Mach 1.6, with a maximum takeoff weight of 60,000 pounds. The F-35’s

main engine is a Pratt & Whitney F135. Its modern engine delivers over 60 percent more thrust in an aircraft of the same weight. The F-35 includes a Gun Aircraft Unit 22 (GAU-22) and a four-barrel 25 mm cannon. The cannon is mounted internally with 182 rounds for the F-35A or in an external pod with 220 rounds for the F-35B/F-35C. It has two internal weapons bays, and external hard points that can mount four under-wing pylons and two near-wingtip pylons. See Figure 2-12.

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Figure 2-13 — EA-6 Prowler. Grumman Prowler, EA-6B The EA-6 Prowler was designed to complement the Navy's defenses in today's electronic warfare environment for carrier and advanced base operations. With a crew of four, a pilot and three Electronic Countermeasures Officers (ECMOs), this long-range, all- weather-capable aircraft has the ability to intercept, analyze, and effectively jam and neutralize hostile radar. The EA-6 is powered by two Pratt and Whitney J52-P- 408 turbojet engines, and it has a combat range of 2,083 nautical miles and a maximum speed at sea level of 651 miles per hour (mph). It can carry Electronic

Countermeasure (ECM) pods, external fuel cells, and stores to support strike aircraft, ships, and ground troops. See Figure 2-13.

McDonnell Douglas Harrier II, AV-8 The Harrier is one of today's truly unique and most widely known military aircraft. It is the only fixed-wing, Vertical Short Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) aircraft in the free world. The original design was based on a French engine concept, which was adopted and improved upon by the British. The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps showed a major interest in the Harrier for day or night attack and close troop ground support missions. With a crew of one pilot, it is powered by one Rolls- Royce Pegasus F-402-RR -404 vectored thrust turbofan engine. Its movable engine exhaust nozzles give it the capability of vertical flight. Ordnance wing mounts carry 500- or 1,000-pound bombs, and under belly pod- mounted, high-speed machine guns. Forward looking infrared radar (FLIR) and night vision goggles (NVGs) are some of the Harrier's war-fighting capabilities. See Figure 2-14.

Figure 2-14 — AV-8 Harrier. 2-24

Figure 2-16 — P-8 Poseidon. Lockheed Orion, P-3 The P-3 Orion is a land-based ASW aircraft. It represents advancements stemming from the Navy's antisubmarine research and development program over the last several years. It is the world's most complete airborne antisubmarine detection system. The C model has a new data processing system. It uses a high-speed digital computer for obtaining information from both the aircraft's submarine detection sensors and a memory bank. The system display provides a readout of tactical ASW detection information to the operator. It is powered by four Allison turboprop engines. The cabin is air-conditioned, pressurized, and equipped with bunks and a galley. Normally, a crew of 10 is needed for ASW operations. Included in its armament are depth charges, torpedoes, and rockets. See Figure 2-15.

Boeing Poseidon, P-8 The P-8 Poseidon is modified from the 737. Its primary mission is long-range ASW, anti-surface warfare, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance. The P-8 is capable of broad-area, maritime, and littoral operations, which involve carrying torpedoes, depth charges, SLAM-ER anti-ship missiles, and other weapons. It will also be able to drop and monitor s onobuoys. It is designed to operate in conjunction with the Broad Area Maritime Surveillance unmanned aerial vehicle. See Figure 2-16.

Figure 2-15 — P-3 Orion. 2-25

Figure 2-17 — E-2 Hawkeye. Figure 2-18 — C-2 Greyhound. Grumman Hawkeye, E-2 The Hawkeye was designed with one primary mission in mind: patrolling the skies to detect impending attack by hostile aircraft, missiles, or sea forces. Capable of all- weather carrier operations, the Hawkeye provides strike and traffic control, area surveillance, SAR guidance, navigational assistance, and communications relay. With its 24-foot revolving radar dish and sophisticated electronic equipment, it can track, detect, or direct targets within a 3-million-cubic -mile area. The Hawkeye has a five-man crew, two pilots and three equipment operators. It is powered by two Allison T56-A- 422 turboprop engines and has a speed of 630 mph. See Figure 2-17.

Grumman Greyhound, C-2 The Greyhound’s primary mission is cargo and passenger transport, or a combination of both, for c arrier onboard delivery (COD). The Greyhound has an 80-foot wingspan, with a ceiling of 33,500 feet. It is powered by two Allison T56 turboprop engines and has a speed of 630 mph. See Figure 2-18.

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Figure 2-19 — C-130 Hercules. Figure 2-20 — C-40 Clipper. Lockheed Hercules, C-130 The C-130 is a multi-mission and tactical transport aircraft with four engines and a high wing. A rear ramp provides access to the cargo compartment and can be opened in flight for parachuting troops or equipment. Reversible pitch propellers allow for very short landing distance. See Figure 2-19.

Boeing Clipper, C-40 The C-40 Clipper provides critical logistics support to the United States Navy. Its flight deck features a flight management computer system with an integrated global positioning system ( GPS). It has the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System II on board. It also has an enhanced ground proximity warning system, predictive wind shear, and head-up display (HUD). The U.S. Navy Reserve, which operates and maintains the aircraft, was the first customer for the newest member of the Boeing 737 Next-Generation family. The Clipper was ordered by the U.S. Navy to replace its fleet of aging C-9B Skytrain. The C-40 is the first new logistics aircraft in 17 years to join the U.S. Navy Reserve. Currently, the Navy Reserve provides 100 percent of the Navy's worldwide in-theater medium and heavy airlift. See Figure 2-20.

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2-28 Figure 2-22 — H-53 Super Stallion. Sikorsky Sea Hawk, H-60 The Sea Hawk, better known as the LAMPS (Light Airborne Multipurpose System), helicopter provides all- weather capability for detection, classification, localization, and interdiction of ships and submarines. Secondary missions include SAR, MEDIVAC, VERTREP, special warfare support, and communications relay. It has a crew of four, two pilots and two enlisted aircrew, and is powered by two General Electric T700-GE-401 engines. Different variants of the Sea Hawk enable it to perform ASW, logistic, weapons delivery, or troop transport missions. See Figure 2-21.

Sikorsky Sea Stallion, H-53 The Super Stallion's primary mission is to move cargo and equipment with a secondary role of troop transfer during amphibious assault operations. With two versions, utility and mine countermeasures, this heavy lift helicopter is one of the free world’s largest and most powerful. It has a crew of three, is powered by three General Electric T64-GE-416 engines, has seven main rotor blades, and weighs 73,500 pounds maximum loaded. The Super Stallion can refuel in flight, has accommodations for 38 combat-equipped troops or 24 litter patients, and can lift over 16 tons. See Figure 2-22.

Figure 2-21 — H-60 Sea Hawk.

Figure 2-23 — AH-1 Cobra. Figure 2-24 — UH-1 Huey. Bell Cobra, AH-1 The AH-1 is a two-place, tandem-seat, twin-engine helicopter capable of land- or sea-based operations. The rear seat pilot is primarily responsible for maneuvering the aircraft. The front pilot controls the aircraft's weapons systems, but also has a full set of aircraft controls. The AH-1 distinguished itself with its more powerful T700-GE-401 engines and advanced electronic weapons capability. The AH-1W has significantly improved power available in high altitude, hot environment, and single engine performance. The Cobra is armed with a 20 mm turret gun and is qualified to carry Hellfire, Sidewinder, and Sidearm missiles and 5-inch or 2.75-inch rockets. The Hellfire missile s ystem increased ordnance delivery and firepower capabilities. The AH-1 Cobra provides full night-fighting capability with the night targeting system (NTS). The NTS further enhanced the AH-1 war fighting capability by adding FLIR sensor and laser designator/rangefinder. See Figure 2-23.

Bell Huey, UH-1 The UH-1 main rotor is powered by a PT6T-3/T400 Turbo Twin Pac made up of two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboshaft power turbines driving a single output shaft. They are capable of producing up to 1,800 shaft horsepower (SHP). Should one engine fail, the remaining engine can deliver 900 SHP for 30 minutes, enabling the UH -1 to maintain cruise performance at maximum weight. The United States Marine Corps (USMC) modified a large number of their UH-1 with a Stability Control Augmentation System (SCAS), which provides servo inputs to the rotor head to help stabilize the aircraft during flight. The UH-1 armament is variable, but may include a combination of:  2 x 7.62 mm M60 machine guns , or 2 x 7.62 mm GAU-17/A machine guns.  2 x 7-round or 19-round 2.75 in (70 mm) rocket pods.  2 x .303 Browning Mk II. See Figure 2-24.

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Figure 2-25 — TH-57 Jet Ranger. Figure 2-26 — V-22 Osprey. Bell Jet Ranger, TH-57 The Sea Ranger is primarily used for training but also for photos, chase, and utility missions. It also provides advanced instrument flight rules (IFR) training to aviation students. See Figure 2-25.

Boeing Osprey, V-22 The Osprey is a joint service multi-role combat aircraft that uses tilt rotor technology to combine the vertical performance of a helicopter with the speed and range of a fixed wing aircraft. See Figure 2-26.

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Figure 2-27 — T-6 Texan. Figure 2-28 — T-45 Goshawk. Beech Aircraft Texan, T-6 The Texan is a tandem-seat, turboprop trainer whose mission is to train Navy and Marine Corps pilots and Naval Flight Officers (NFOs). See Figure 2-27.

McDonnell-Douglas Goshawk, T-45 The Goshawk’s primary mission is to provide intermediate and advanced strike fighter training. It is aircraft carrier capable. See Figure 2-28

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End of Chapter 2 Organization of Naval Aviation Introduction Review Questions 2-1. What department at a naval air station (NAS) is responsible for providing and operating the airfield?

A. Air operations B. Supply C. Public Works D. Weapons

2-2. What officer is next in the chain of command after the department head?

A. CO B. DO C. XO D. AO

2-3. What officer is responsible for the safety, well-being, and efficiency of the command?

A. DO B. XO C. CO D. AO

2-4. The mission of an NAS is to provide service and support to whom?

A. Operations B. Fleet C. Maintenance D. Supply

2-5. In what department does the aviation safety officer work?

A. Security B. Medical C. Air operations D. Special assistants

2-6. What department is responsible for the logistic support of the NAS?

A. Security B. Supply C. Medical D. Special assistants

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2-7. What department’s primary function is to perform intermediate-level maintenance?

A. Medical B. FRC C. Air operations D. Security

2-8. Which of the following is the concept of quality assurance (QA)?

A. Preventing defects B. Establishing central reporting C. Improving quality of performance D. Coordinating production

2-9. What are the functions of a Naval Air Facility (NAF)?

A. Organizational- and intermediate-level maintenance B. Organizational- and depot-level maintenance C. Intermediate- and depot-level maintenance D. Scheduled and organizational-level maintenance

2-10. What level of maintenance provides development of changes to hardware design?

A. Organizational B. Intermediate C. Unscheduled D. Depot

2-11. Which of the following commands is not equipped to handle large numbers of aircraft?

A. NAS B. Aircraft Carrier C. NAF

D. Squadron

2-12. How many basic types of squadrons are there?

A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8

2-13. What type of squadron ’s mission is designed primarily for antisubmarine warfare (ASW), reconnaissance, and mining?

A. Patrol (VP) B. Strike fighter (VFA) C. Composite (utility) D. Early-warning (VAW)

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2-14. What type of squadron provides long-distance transfer of personnel and supplies?

A. Training (VT) B. Development (VX) C. Patrol (VP) D. Tactical support (VR)

2-15. Who is the senior naval officer in a squadron?

A. MO B. XO C. CO D. DO

2-16. Who is responsible for the production of the maintenance department?

A. MO B. MMCO C. AMO D. XO

2-17. Who is responsible for the Maintenance In-Service Training program?

A. MMCO B. MCO

C. DO D. AMO

2-18. What department in a squadron is responsible for operational readiness?

A. Admin B. Safety C. Operations D. Maintenance

2-19. What work center inspects the work of the maintenance department?

A. Quality assurance (QA) B. Maintenance c ontrol C. Airframes D. Avionics

2-20. What division in a squadron is responsible for the support equipment?

A. Aircraft B. Avionics C. UAS D. Line

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2-21. What must the CO of an aircraft carrier be qualified as?

A. Surface officer B. Naval aviator C. Supply officer D. Chaplain

2-22. What is the purpose of an aircraft carrier?

A. To m aintain aircraft ashore B. To perform depot-level maintenance C. To provide support equipment to the fleet D. To m aintain aircraft at sea

2-23. Who assigns the squadrons attached to a carrier air wing?

A. QAO B. MO C. CNO D. CO

2-24. What department on an aircraft carrier is responsible for landing and launching operations?

A. Operations B. Engineering C. Air D. Navigation

2-25. What division is responsible for clearing flight deck crashes and maintaining crash and fire- fighting equipment?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

2-26. What division is responsible for handling all aircraft on the hangar deck?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

2-27. What division is responsible for operation and upkeep of the carrier aviation fuel and lube oil transfer system?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

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2-28. What division is responsible for operation and maintenance of the arresting gear and barricade equipment?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

2-29. What period of the carrier schedule is repair and change or modernization done?

A. Shake down B. Yard C. UNREP D. Deployment

2-30. What aircraft is powered by two General Electric F404-GE-400 engines?

A. AV-8 B. EA-6 C. F/A- 18 D. F- 35

2-31. Which of the following aircraft normally has a crew of 10?

A. AV-8 B. EA-6 C. P-3 D. T- 45

2-32. What does the letter X stand for in the designation of an aircraft?

A. Attack B. Fighter C. Patrol D. Research

2-33. What does the letter S stand for in the designation of an aircraft?

A. Antisubmarine B. Attack C. Helicopter D. Trainer

2-34. What is the design number of the Harrier?

A. AH-1 B. AV-8 C. CH -46 D. H- 60

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2-35. What is the design number of the Poseidon?

A. C- 40 B. C- 130 C. P-3 D. P-8

2-36. What aircraft ’s mission is patrolling the skies to detect impending attack by hostile aircraft, missiles, or sea forces?

A. C-2 Greyhound B. C-12 Kingair C. E-2 Hawkeye D. H-57 Jet Ranger

2-37. What type of engine is in the H-60 Helicopter?

A. F404- GE-400 B. T700- GE-401 C. T- 56 D. T64- GE-416

2-38. What type of aircraft uses tilt rotor technology uses tilt rotor technology to incorporate the vertical performance of a helicopter?

A. C-130 Hercules B. C-40 Clipper C. T-45 Goshawk D. V-22 Osprey

2-39. Who manufactures the F/A-18 Hornet?

A. McDonnell-Douglas B. Lockheed C. North American D. Sikorsky

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CHAPTER 3 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT Man has always wanted to fly. Legends from the very earliest times bear witness to this wish. Perhaps the most famous of these legends is the Greek myth about a father and son who flew with wings made of wax and feathers. It was not, however, until the successful flight by the Wright Brothers at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, that the dream of flying became a reality. Since the flight at Kitty Hawk, aircraft designers have spent much time and effort in developing that first crude flying machine into the modern aircraft of today. To understand the principles of flight, you must first become familiar with the physical laws affecting aerodynamics. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Identify the physical laws of aerodynamics, to include Newton's laws of motion and the Bernoulli principle. 2. Recognize the terms used to describe the various parts of an airfoil section. 3. Identify the terms used in airflow lift generation. 4. Recognize the four primary forces acting on an aircraft. 5. Identify the three axes of rotation and the terms relative to the aircraft's rotation about these axes. 6. Recognize the difference in aerodynamic principles that apply to fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft. PHYSICAL LAWS AFFECTING AERODYNAMICS Aerodynamics is the study of the forces that let an aircraft fly. You should carefully study the principles covered here. Whether your job is to fly the aircraft or to maintain it, you should know why and how an aircraft flies. Knowing why and how lets you carry out your duties more effectively. Laws Of Motion Motion is the act or process of changing place or position. Simply put, motion is movement. An object may be in motion in relation to one object and motionless in relation to another. For example, a person sitting in an aircraft flying at 200 miles per hour (mph) is at rest or motionless in relation to the aircraft. However, the person is in motion in relation to the air or the earth. Air has no force or power other than pressure when it is motionless. When air is moving, its force becomes apparent. A moving object in motionless air has a force exerted on it as a result of its own motion. It makes no difference in the effect whether an object is moving in relation to the air or the air is moving in relation to the object. The following information explains some basic laws of motion. Newton's First Law Of Motion According to Newton's first law of motion (inertia), an object at rest will remain at rest, or an object in motion will continue in motion at the same speed and in the same direction, until an outside force acts on it. For an aircraft to taxi or fly, a force must be applied to it. It will remain at rest without an outside force. Once the aircraft is moving, another force must act on it to bring it to a stop. It will continue in motion without an outside force. This willingness of an object to remain at rest or to continue in motion is referred to as inertia. 3-1

Newton's Second Law of Motion The second law of motion (force) states that if an object moving with uniform speed is acted upon by an external force, the change of motion (acceleration) will be directly proportional to the amount of force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object being moved. The motion will take place in the direction in which the force acts. Simply stated, this means that an object being pushed by 10 pounds of force will travel faster than it would if it were pushed by 5 pounds of force. A heavier object w ill accelerate more slowly than a lighter object when an equal force is applied. Newton's Third Law of Motion The third law of motion (action and reaction) states that for every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force). This law can be demonstrated with a balloon. If you inflate a balloon with air and release it without securing the neck, as the air is expelled the balloon moves in the opposite direction of the air rushing out of it. Figure 3-1 shows this law of motion. Bernoulli's Principle Bernoulli's principle (Figure 3-2) states that when a fluid flowing through a tube reaches a constriction or narrowing of the tube, the speed of the fluid passing through the constriction is increased and its pressure is decreased. AIRFOIL An airfoil is defined as that part of an aircraft that produces lift or any other desirable aerodynamic effect as it passes through the air. The wings and the propeller blades of a fixed-wing aircraft and the rotor blades of a helicopter are examples of airfoils.

Figure 3-1 — Newton’s third law of motion. Figure 3-2 — Bernoulli’s principle. 3-2

Figure 3-3 — Airfoil terminology. Figure 3-4 — Angle of attack. AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY The shape of an airfoil and its relationship to the airstream are important. The following are common terms that you should understand before you learn about airfoils.  Leading edge —the front edge or surface of the airfoil (Figure 3-3).  Trailing edge —the rear edge or surface of the airfoil (Figure 3-3).  Chord line —an imaginary straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil (Figure 3-3).  Camber —the curve or departure from a straight line (chord line) from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the airfoil (Figure 3-3).  Relative wind —the direction of the airstream in relation to the airfoil (Figure 3-4).  Angle of attack —the angle between the chord line and the relative wind (Figure 3-4). Airflow Around An Airfoil The generation of lift by an airfoil depends on the airfoil's ability to create a special airflow in the airstream. This airflow develops the lifting pressure over the airfoil surface. The effect is shown in Figure 3-5, which shows the relationship between lift and Bernoulli's principle. As the relative wind strikes the leading edge of the airfoil, the flow of air is split. A portion of the relative wind is deflected upward and aft, and the rest is deflected downward and aft. Since the upper surface of the airfoil has camber to it, the flow over its surface is disrupted. This disruption causes a wavelike effect to the airflow. The lower surface of the airfoil is relatively flat. The airflow across its surface is not disrupted. Lift is accomplished by this difference in the airflow across the airfoil.

3-3

Figure 3-5 — Airflow across an airfoil. Figure 3-6 — Forces affecting flight. The shaded area of Figure 3-5 shows a low-pressure area on the airfoil's upper surface. This low-pressure area is caused by the air that is disrupted by the camber of the airfoil, and it is the key to lift. There is less pressure on the top surface of the airfoil than there is on the lower surface. The air pressure pushes upward on the lower surface. This difference in pressure causes the airfoil to rise. You know that lift is developed by the difference between the air pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. As long as there is less pressure on the upper surface and more pressure on the lower surface of an airfoil, an aircraft has lift. Lift is one of the forces affecting flight. FORCES AFFECTING FLIGHT An aircraft in flight is in the center of a continuous battle of forces. The conflict of these forces is the key to all maneuvers performed in the air. There is nothing mysterious about these forces—they are definite and known. The direction in which each acts can be calculated. The aircraft is designed to take advantage of each force. These forces are lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Lift Lift is the force that acts in an upward direction to support the aircraft in the air. It counteracts the effects of weight. Lift must be greater than or equal to weight if flight is to be sustained. Weight Weight is the force of gravity acting downward on the aircraft and everything in the aircraft, such as crew, fuel, and cargo. Thrust Thrust is the force developed by the aircraft's engine. It acts in the forward direction. Thrust must be greater than or equal to the effects of drag for flight to begin or to be sustained. Drag Drag is the force that tends to hold an aircraft back. Drag is caused by the disruption of the airflow about the wings, fuselage (body), and all protruding objects on the aircraft. Drag resists motion as it acts parallel and in the opposite direction in relation to the relative wind. Figure 3-6 shows the direction in which each of these forces acts in relation to an aircraft. Up to this point, you have lea rned the physical laws of aerodynamics, airfoils, and the forces affecting flight. To fully understand flight, you must learn about the rotational axes of an aircraft. 3-4

Figure 3-7 — Motion about the axes. ROTATIONAL AXES Any vehicle, such as a ship, a car, or an aircraft, is capable of making three primary movements (roll, pitch, and yaw). The vehicle has three rotational axes that are perpendicular (90 degrees) to each other. These axes are referred to by their direction— longitudinal, lateral, and vertical. Perhaps the most descriptive reference is by what action takes place about a given axis or pivot point—roll, pitch, and yaw. Longitudinal Axis The longitudinal axis is the pivot point about which an aircraft rolls. The movement associated with roll is best described as the movement of the wing tips (one up and the other down). Figure 3-7 shows this movement. This axis runs fore and aft through the length (nose to tail) of the aircraft. This axis is parallel to the primary direction of the aircraft. The primary direction of a fixed-wing aircraft is always forward. Figure 3-8 shows the longitudinal axis. Lateral Axis The lateral axis is the pivot point about which the aircraft pitches. Pitch can best be described as the up and down motion of the nose of the aircraft. Figure 3-7 shows this movement. The pitch axis runs from the left to the right of the aircraft (wing tip to wing tip). It is perpendicular to and intersects the roll axis. Figure 3-8 shows the pitch axis and its relationship to the roll axis. Vertical Axis The vertical axis runs from the top to the bottom of an aircraft. It runs perpendicular to both the roll and pitch axes. The movement associated with this axis is yaw. Yaw is best described as the change in aircraft heading to the right or left of the primary direction of an aircraft. Figure 3-7 shows this movement. Assume you are walking from your work space to an aircraft located 100 feet away. You are trying to walk there in a straight line but are unable to do so because there is a strong wind blowing you off course to your right. This movement to the right is yaw. The yaw axis is shown in Figure 3-8. FIXED-WING AND ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFT A fixed-wing aircraft depends on forward motion for lift. A rotary-wing aircraft depends on rotating airfoils for lift. The airfoil sections of a fixed-wing aircraft are not symmetrical. The rotor blades of a 3-5

Figure 3-9 — Center of pressure. helicopter are symmetrical. These differences are important to you if you are to understand aerodynamic principles. Fixed-Wing Aircraft You have learned about the physical laws and forces that affect flight, the airfoil, and the rotational axes of an aircraft. Now, let's apply these principles to a fixed-wing aircraft in flight. First, motion must exist. Motion is provided by the thrust developed by the engine of the aircraft. This is accomplished by the force exerted by the exhaust gases of a jet aircraft or by the action of the propeller blades on a propeller-driven aircraft. The thrust overcomes the force of inertia and, as the fixed- wing aircraft accelerates, the air flows by the wings. The relative wind striking the leading edge of the wings is split and flows across the upper and lower surfaces. The camber of the upper surface acts as a constriction, which speeds up the airflow and reduces the pressure o f the air. The lower surface, being relatively flat, does not affect the speed or pressure of the air. There is lower air pressure on the upper surface of the wing than on the lower surface. The fixed-wing aircraft is lifted into the air. Now that the aircraft is safely in the air, rotational axes come into play. If the nose of the aircraft is raised, the angle of attack changes. Changing the angle of attack causes the aircraft to pivot on its lateral or pitch axis. If you lower the right wing of the aircraft, the left wing rises. The aircraft moves about its longitudinal or roll axis. Assume that the aircraft is in a straight and level flight. There is a strong wind striking the aircraft's nose on the left side, pushing the nose to the right. This causes the tail of the aircraft to move to the left, and the aircraft is pivoting on its vertical or yaw axis. All of these forces are necessary for flight to begin or be sustained. Rotary-Wing Aircraft (Helicopters) The same basic aerodynamic principles you read about earlier in this chapter apply to rotary-wing aircraft. The main difference between fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft is the way lift is achieved (Figure 3-9). Lift The fixed-wing aircraft gets its lift from a fixed airfoil surface. The helicopter gets lift from rotating airfoils called rotor blades. The word helicopter comes from the Greek words meaning helical wing or rotating wing. A helicopter uses two or more engine-driven rotors from which it gets lift and propulsion. Figure 3-8 — Axes of an aircraft. 3-6

The helicopter's airfoils are the rotor blades. The airfoils of a helicopter are perfectly symmetrical. This means that the upper and lower surfaces are shaped the same. This fact is one of the major differences between the fixed-wing aircraft's airfoil and the helicopter's airfoil. A fixed-wing aircraft's airfoil has a greater camber on the upper surface than on the lower surface. The helicopter's airfoil camber is the same on both surfaces. The symmetrical airfoil is used on the helicopter because the center of pressure across its surface is fixed. On the fixed-wing airfoil, the center of pressure moves fore and aft, along the chord line, with changes in the angle of attack. If this type of airfoil were used on a rotary-wing aircraft, it would cause the rotor blades to jump around (dive and climb) uncontrollably. With the symmetrical airfoil, this undesirable effect is removed. The airfoil, when rotated, travels smoothly through the air. The main rotor of a helicopter consists of two or more rotor blades. Lift is accomplished by rotating the blades through the air at a high rate of speed. Lift may be changed by increasing the angle of attack or pitch of the rotor blades. When the rotor is turning and the blades are at zero angle (flat pitch), no lift is developed. This feature provides the pilot with complete control of the lift developed by the rotor blades. Directional Control A pilot controls the direction of flight of the helicopter by tilting the main rotor. If the rotor is tilted forward, the force developed by the rotor is directed downward and aft. Now, apply Newton's third law of motion (action and reaction). Lift will be developed in an upward and forward direction, and the helicopter will tend to rise and move forward. From this example, you should realize that a pilot can move a helicopter forward or rearward, or to the right or left, simply by tilting the main rotor in the desired direction. Figure 3-10 points out another major difference between fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. The fixed-wing aircraft cannot move up or down or right or left without forward movement. Remember, a fixed-wing aircraft's primary direction is forward. However, a helicopter can move in any direction, with or without forward movement. Hovering Hovering is defined as maintaining a position above a fixed spot on the ground. A helicopter has the ability to remain in one spot in the air with little or no movement in any direction. This feat is done by equalizing all the forces acting on the helicopters (lift, drag, weight, and thrust). This action also allows a helicopter to take off or land without a runway. This is another advantage the rotary-wing aircraft has over the fixed-wing aircraft. Torque Reaction As the helicopter's main rotor turns in one direction, the body (fuselage) of the helicopter tends to rotate in the opposite direction (Newton's third law). This is known as torque reaction. In a single main rotor helicopter, the usual way of getting rid of torque reaction is by using a tail rotor (anti-torque rotor). This rotor is mounted vertically on the outer portion of the helicopter's tail section(Figure 3-10). The tail rotor produces thrust in the opposite direction of the torque reaction developed by the main rotor. Figure 3-10 shows the manner in which torque reaction is eliminated in a single main rotor helicopter. 3-7

Figure 3-10 — Directional flight attitudes and torque reaction. 3-8

End of Chapter 3 Principles of Flight Review Questions 3-1. What is Newton’s first law of motion?

A. Ac tion and reaction B. Force C. Inertia D. gravity

3-2. Wh ich of the following is Newton’s second law motion?

A. Action and reaction B. Force C. Inertia D. gravity

3-3. Wh ich of the following is Newton’s third law motion?

A. Action and reaction B. Force C. Inertia D. gravity

3-4. Which of the following is Bernoulli’s principle?

A. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. B. An object moving with uniform speed is acted upon by an external force; the change of motion will be directly proportional to the amount of force. C. A n object at rest will remain at rest. D. When a fluid flowing through a tube reaches a constriction or narrowing of the tube, the speed of the fluid passing through the constriction is increased and its pressure is decreased.

3-5. What is the front edge of an airfoil called?

A. Camber B. Chord C. Leading D. Trailing

3-6. What is the rear edge of an airfoil called?

A. Camber B. Chord C. Leading D. Trailing

3-9

3-7. What is the name for the imaginary line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil?

A. Camber B. Chord C. Leading D. Trailing

3-8. What is the name for the curve or departure of a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the airfoil?

A. Camber B. Chord C. Leading D. Trailing

3-9. What is the direction of the airstream in relation to the airfoil known as?

A. Angle of attack B. Camber C. Relative wind D. Trailing edge

3-10. What is the angle between the chord line and the relative wind known as?

A. Angle of attack B. Camber C. Relative wind D. Trailing edge

3-11. What is the force that acts in an upward direction called?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-12. What is the force developed by the aircraft’s engine?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-13. What is the force acting downward on the aircraft?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-10

3-14. What is the force that tends to hold an aircraft back?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-15. What resists motion as it acts parallel and in the opposite direction in relation to the relative wind?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-16. What axis runs from the top to the bottom of an aircraft?

A. Lateral B. Longitudinal C. Pitch D. Vertical

3-17. What axis is the pivot point about which an aircraft rolls?

A. Lateral B. Longitudinal C. Pitch D. Vertical

3-18. What axis is the pivot point about which an aircraft pitches?

A. Lateral B. Longitudinal C. Pitch D. Vertical

3-19. From what type of surface does a fixed-wing aircraft get its lift from?

A. Fixed B. Rotating C. Smooth D. Rough

3-20. From what type of surface does a helicopter get its lift from?

A. Fixed B. Rotating C. Smooth D. Rough 3-11

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CHAPTER 4 AIRCRAFT BASIC CONSTRUCTION Naval aircraft are built to meet certain specified requirements. These requirements must be selected so they can be built into one aircraft. It is not possible for one aircraft to possess all characteristics. It is not possible, for example, for an aircraft to have the comfort of a passenger transport and the maneuverability of a fighter. The type and class of the aircraft determine how strong it must be built. A Navy fighter must be fast, maneuverable, and equipped for attack and defense. To meet these requirements, the aircraft is highly powered and has a very strong structure. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Identify the principal structural units of fix ed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. 2. State the five basic stresses acting on an aircraft. 3. Describe the various types of metallic and nonmetallic materials used in aircraft construction. AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal units. These units include the fuselage, wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces, and landing gear. A rotary-wing aircraft airframe consists of four units: the fuselage, landing gear, main rotor assembly, and tail rotor. The following text describes the purpose, location, and construction features of each unit. FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT There are nine principal structural units of a fixed-wing (conventional) aircraft: the fuselage, engine mount, nacelle, wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces, landing gear, arresting gear, and catapult equipment.

Fuselage The fuselage is the body of the aircraft, the main structure to which all other units attach. It provides space for the crew, passengers, cargo, most of the accessories, and other equipment. Fuselages of naval aircraft have much in common from the standpoint of construction and design. They vary mainly in size and arrangement of the different compartments. Designs vary with the manufacturers and the requirements for the types of service the aircraft must perform. The fuselages of most naval aircraft are of all-metal construction assembled in a modification of the monocoque design. The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin or shell (covering) to carry the various loads. This design may be divided into three classes: monocoque, semimonocoque, and reinforced shell, and different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any of these classes. The monocoque has only vertical reinforcement rings, station webs, and bulkheads. In the semimonocoque design—in addition to these components— the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members known as stringers and longerons, but has no diagonal web members. The reinforced shell is strengthened by a complete framework of structural members. The cross sectional shape is derived from bulkheads, station webs, and rings. The longitudinal contour is developed with longerons, formers, and stringers. The skin, which is fastened to all these members, primarily carries the shear load and, together with the longitudinal members, the loads of tension and bending 4-1

Figure 4-1 — Semimonocoque fuselage construction.

stresses. Station webs are built-up assemblies located at intervals to carry concentrated loads and at points where fittings are used to attach external parts such as wings, alighting gear, and engine mounts. Formers and stringers may be single pieces of built-up sections. The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminum alloy; however, on newer aircraft, graphite epoxy composite material is often used. Steel and titanium are found in areas subject to high temperatures. Primary bending loads are absorbed by the “longerons,” which usually extend across several points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members called “stringers.” Stringers are lighter in weight and are used more extensively than longerons. The vertical structural members are referred to as “bulkheads, frames, and formers.” These vertical members are grouped at intervals to carry concentrated loads and at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings, engines, and stabilizers. Figure 4-1 shows a modified form of the monocoque design used in combat aircraft. The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members and carries part of the load. Skin thickness varies with the loads carried and the stresses supported. There are many advantages in the use of the semimonocoque fuselage. The bulkheads, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the construction of a streamlined fuselage. They also add to the strength and rigidity of the structure. The main advantage of this design is that all structural members aid in the strength of the fuselage for strength and rigidity— not just a few. This means that a semimonocoque fuselage may withstand considerable damage and still remain strong enough to hold together. Fuselages are usually constructed in two or more sections on fighters and other small aircraft. Larger aircraft may be constructed in as many as six sections. Various points on the fuselage are located by station number. A station on an aircraft may be described as a rib or frame number. Aircraft drawings use various systems of station markings. For example, the centerline of the aircraft on one drawing may be taken as station zero. Objects to the right or left of center along a wing or stabilizer are found by giving the number of inches between them and the centerline station zero. Figure 4-2 shows station numbers for a typical aircraft. 4-2

Figure 4-2 — Typical fuselage station diagram. Station 0 (zero) is usually located at or near the nose of the aircraft. The other fuselage stations (FS) are located at distances measured in inches aft of station 0. On this particular aircraft, stations are indicated by the letters X, Y, and Z as coordinates. Lines used to indicate vertical planes dividing the aircra ft from wingtip to wingtip are called X coordinates. Lines used to indicate longitudinal planes dividing the aircraft from nose to tail are called Y coordinates. Y000.00, for example, is 60.50 inches in front of the radome nose. Lines used to indicate horizontal planes dividing the aircraft parallel to an arbitrary reference plane to ground level and to tail tip are called Z coordinates. Quick access to the accessories and other equipment carried in the fuselage is achieved through numerous doors, inspection panels, wheel wells, and other openings. Servicing diagrams showing the arrangement of equipment and the location of access doors are supplied by the manufacturer in the maintenance instruction manuals and maintenance requirement cards for each model or type of aircraft. 4-3

Figure 4-3 — Typical wing construction.

Engine Mounts Engine mounts are designed to meet particular conditions of installations, such as their location on the aircraft; methods of attachment; and size, type, and characteristics of the engine they are intended to support. Although engine mounts vary widely in their appearance and in the arrangement of their members, the basic features of their construction are similar. They are usually constructed as a single unit that may be detached quickly and easily from the remaining structure. In many cases, they are removed as a complete assembly or power plant with the engine and its accessories. Vibrations originating in the engine are transmitted to the aircraft structure through the engine mount. Nacelles In single-engine aircraft, the power plant is mounted in the center of the fuselage. On multiengine aircraft, the power plants are usually mounted in nacelles. The nacelle is primarily a unit that houses the engine. Nacelles are similar in shape and design for the same size aircraft. They vary with the size of the aircraft. Larger aircraft require less fairing, and therefore smaller nacelles. The structural design of a nacelle is similar to that of the fuselage. In certain cases the nacelle is designed to transmit engine loads and stresses to the wings through the engine mounts. Wings The wings of an aircraft are designed to develop lift when they are moved through the air. The particular wing design depends upon many factors: for example, size, weight, use of the aircraft, desired landing speed, and desired rate of climb. In some aircraft, the larger compartments of the wings are used as fuel tanks. The wings are designated as right and left, corresponding to the right- and left-hand sides of a pilot seated in the aircraft. The wing structures of most naval aircraft are of all-metal construction, usually of the cantilever design; that is, no external bracing is required. Usually wings are of the stress-skin type. This means that the skin is part of the basic wing structure and carries part of the loads and stresses. The internal structure is made of “spars and stringers” running spanwise, and “ribs and formers” running chordwise (leading edge to trailing edge). The spars are the main structural members of the wing, and are often referred to as “beams.” One method of wing construction is shown in Figure 4-3. In this illustration, two main spars are used with ribs placed at frequent intervals between the spars to develop the wing contour. This is called 4-4

“two-spar” construction. Other variations of wing construction include “monospar” (open spar), “multispar” (three or more spars), and “box beam.” In the box beam construction, the stringers and sparlike sections are joined together in a box-shaped beam. Then, the remainder of the wing is construct ed around the box. The skin is attached to all the structural members and carries part of the wing loads and stresses. During flight, the loads imposed on the wing structure act primarily on the skin. From the skin, the loads are transmitted to the ribs and then to the spars. The spars support all distributed loads as well as concentrated weights, such as a fuselage, landing gear, and nacelle. Corrugated sheet aluminum alloy is often used as a subcovering for wing structures, as, for example, in the Lockheed P-3 Orion wing. Inspection and access panels are usually provided on the lower surface of a wing. Drain holes are also placed in the lower surfaces. Walkways are provided on the areas of the wing where personnel should walk or step. The substructure is stiffened or reinforced in the vicinity of the walkways to take such loads. Walkways are usually covered with a nonskid surface. Some aircraft have no built-in walkways. In these cases removable mats or covers are used to protect the wing surface. On some aircraft, jacking points are provided on the underside of each wing. The jacking points may also be used as tiedown fittings for securing the aircraft. Various points on the wing are located by station number. Wing station 0 (zero) is located at the centerline of the fuselage. All wing stations are measured in inches outboard from that point, as shown in Figure 4-2. Stabilizers The stabilizing surfaces of an aircraft consist of vertical and horizontal airfoils. These are known as the vertical stabilizer (or fin) and the horizontal stabilizer. These two airfoils, together with the rudder and elevators, form the tail section. For inspection and maintenance purposes, the entire tail section is considered a single unit of the airframe, and is referred to as the “empennage.” The primary purpose of the stabilizers is to stabilize the aircraft, that is, to keep the aircraft in straight and level flight. The vertical stabilizer maintains the stability of the aircraft about its vertical axis. This is known as “directional stability.” The vertical stabilizer usually serves as the base to which the rudder is attached. The horizontal stabilizer provides stability of the aircraft about the lateral axis. This is “longitudinal stability.” It usually serves as the base to which the elevators are attached. At high speeds, forces acting upon the flight controls increase, and control of the aircraft becomes difficult. This problem can be solved through the use of power-operated or power-boosted flight control systems. These power systems make it possible for the pilot to apply more pressure to the control surface against the air loads. By changing the angle of attack of the stabilizer, the pilot maintains adequate longitudinal control by rotating the entire horizontal stabilizer surface. Construction features of the stabilizers are in many respects identical to those of the wings. They are usually of all-metal construction and cantilever design. Monospar and two-spar construction are both commonly used. Ribs develop the cross-sectional shape. A “fairing” is used to round out the angles formed between these surfaces and the fuselage. The construction of control surfaces is similar to that of the wing and stabilizers. They are usually built around a single spar or torque tube. Ribs are fitted to the spar near the leading edge. At the trailing edge, they are joined together with a suitable metal strip or extrusion. For greater strength, especially in thinner airfoil sections typical of trailing edges, a composite construction material is used. On most modern day fighters like the F/A-18 there is also a stabilator incorporated as part of the flight controls. The stabilator is a control surface located on either side of the tail. In flight, the stabilator deflects symmetrically to produce pitch motion and asymmetrically to produce roll motion. The 4-5

maximum surface deflection of each stabilator is 10.5 degrees trailing edge down to 24 degrees trailing edge up. FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES The flight control surfaces are hinged or movable airfoils designed to change the attitude of the aircraft during flight. Flight control surfaces are grouped as systems and are classified as being either primary or secondary. Primary controls are those that provide control over the yaw, pitch, and roll of the aircraft. Secondary controls include the speed brake and flap systems. All systems consist of the control surfaces, cockpit controls, connecting linkage, and other necessary operating mechanisms. The systems discussed in this chapter are representative of those with which you will be working. However, you should bear in mind that changes in these systems are sometimes necessitated as a result of later experience and data gathered from fleet use. Therefore, prior to performing the maintenance procedures discussed in this chapter, you should consult the current applicable technical publications for the latest information and procedures to be used. PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS The primary flight controls are the ailerons, elevators, and rudder. The ailerons and elevators are operated from the cockpit, by a control stick on fighter aircraft, and a wheel and yoke assembly on large aircraft such as transports and patrol planes. The rudder is operated by rudder pedals on all types of aircraft. The ailerons are operated by a lateral (side-to-side) movement of the control stick or a turning motion of the wheel on the yoke. The ailerons are interconnected in the control system and work simultaneously, but in opposite directions to one another. As one aileron moves downward to increase lift on its side of the fuselage, the aileron on the opposite side of the fuselage moves upward to decrease lift. This opposing action allows more lift to be produced by the wing on one side of the fuselage than on the other side; this results in a controlled movement or roll because of unequal forces on the wings. The aileron system can be improved with the use of either powered controls or alternate control systems. The elevators are operated by a fore-and-aft movement of the control stick or yoke. Raising the elevators causes the aircraft to climb. Lowering the elevators causes it to dive or descend. The pilot raises the elevators by pulling back on the stick or yoke and lowers them by pushing the stick or yoke forward. The rudder is connected to the rudder pedals and is used to move the aircraft about the vertical axis. If the pilot moves the rudder to the right, the aircraft turns to the right; if the rudder is moved to the left, the aircraft turns to the left. The pilot moves the rudder to the right by pushing the right rudder pedal and to the left by pushing the left rudder pedal. Power control systems are used on high-speed jet aircraft. Aircraft traveling at or near supersonic speeds have such high air loads imposed upon the primary control surfaces that the pilot cannot control the aircraft without power-operated or power-boosted flight control systems. In the power- boost system, a hydraulically operated booster cylinder is incorporated within the control linkage to assist the pilot in moving the control surface. The power-boost cylinder is still used in the rudder control system of some high-performance aircraft; however, the other primary control surfaces use the full power-operated system. In the full power-operated system, all force necessary for operating the control surface is supplied by hydraulic pressure. Each movable surface is operated by a hydraulic actuator (or power control cylinder) incorporated into the control linkage. In addition to the current Navy specification requiring two separate hydraulic systems for operating the primary flight control surfaces, specifications also call for an independent hydraulic power source 4-6

for emergency operation of the primary flight control surfaces. Some manufacturers provide an emergency system powered by a motor-driven hydraulic pump; others use a ram-air-driven turbine for operating the emergency system pump. Lateral Control Systems Lateral control systems control roll about the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. On many aircraft the aileron is the primary source of lateral control. On other aircraft flaperons and spoilers are used to control roll. AILERONS – Some aircraft are equipped with a power mechanism that provides hydraulic power to operate the ailerons. When the control stick is moved, the control cables move the power mechanism sector. Through linkage, the sector actuates the control valves, which, in turn, direct hydraulic fluid to the power cylinder. The cylinder-actuating shaft, which is connected to the power crank through a latch mechanism, operates the power crank. The crank moves the push-pull tubes, which actuate the ailerons. In the event of complete hydraulic power failure, the pilot may pull a handle in the cockpit to disconnect the latch mechanisms from the cylinder and load-feel bungee. This places the aileron system in a manual mode of operation. In manual operation, the cable sector actuates the power crank. This lateral control system incorporates a load-feel bungee, which serves a dual purpose. First, it provides an artificial feeling and centering device for the aileron system. Also, it acts as an interconnection between the aileron system and the aileron trim system. When the aileron trim actuator is energized, the bungee moves in a corresponding direction and actuates the power mechanism. The power mechanism repositions the aileron control system to a new neutral position. FLAPERON – As aircraft speeds increased, other lateral control systems came into use. Some aircraft use a flaperon system. The flaperon, shown in Figure 4-4, is a device designed to reduce lift on the wing whenever it is extended into the airstream. With this system, control stick movement will cause the left or right flaperon to rise into the airstream and the opposite flaperon to remain flush with the wing surface. This causes a decrease of lift on the wing with the flaperon extended and results in a roll. 4-7

Figure 4-4 — Flaperon control system.

4-8

SPOILER/DEFLECTOR — Many aircraft use a combination aileron and spoiler/deflector system for longitudinal control. The ailerons are located on the trailing edge of the outer wing panel and, unlike most aircraft, can be fully cycled with the wings folded. The spoiler/deflector on each wing operates in conjunction with the upward throw of the aileron on that wing. They are located in the left- and right- hand wing center sections, forward of the flaps. The spoiler extends upward into the airstream, disrupts the airflow, and causes decreased lift on that wing. The deflector extends down into the airstream and scoops airflow over the wing surface aft of the spoiler, thus preventing airflow separation in that area. A stop bolt on the spoiler bell crank limits movement of the spoiler to 60 degrees deflection. The deflector is mechanically slaved to the spoiler, and can be deflected a maximum of 30 degrees when the spoiler is at 60 degrees. The spoilers open only with the upward movement of the ailerons. Longitudinal Control Systems Longitudinal control systems control pitch about the lateral axis of the aircraft. Many aircraft use a conventional elevator control system for this purpose. However, aircraft that operate in the higher speed ranges usually have a movable horizontal stabilizer. Both types of systems are discussed in the following text. ELEVATOR CONTROL SYSTEM — A typical conventional elevator control system is operated by the control stick in the cockpit, and is hydraulically powered by the elevator power mechanism. The operation of the elevator control system is initiated when the control stick is moved fore or aft. When the stick is moved, it actuates the control cables that move the elevator control bell crank. The bell crank transmits the movement to the power mechanism through the control linkage. In turn, the power mechanism actuates a push-pull tube, which deflects the elevators up or down. If the hydraulic system fails, the cylinder can be disconnected. In this condition, the controls work manually through the linkage of the mechanism to actuate the elevators. HORIZONTAL STABILIZER CONTROL SYSTEM — Horizontal stabilizer control systems are given a variety of names by the various aircraft manufacturers. Some aircraft systems are termed a unit horizontal tail (UHT) control system, while others are labeled the stabilator control system. Regardless of the name, these systems function to control the aircraft pitch about its lateral axis. The horizontal stabilizer control system of the aircraft shown in Figure 4-5 is representative of the systems used in many aircraft. The slab-type stabilizer responds to fore-and-aft manual inputs at the control stick and to automatic flight control system inputs introduced at the stabilizer actuator. The actuator can operate in three modes: manual, series, or parallel. MANUAL MODE — In this mode, pilot input alone controls the power valve. SERIES MODE — In this mode, input signals from the automatic flight control system (AFCS) may be used independently or combined with manual inputs to control stabilizer movement. PARALLEL MODE — In this mode, input signals from the AFCS alone control stabilizer movement. 4-9

Figure 4-5 — Horizontal stabilizer control system.

Directional Control Systems Directional control systems provide a means of controlling and stabilizing the aircraft about its vertical axis. Most aircraft use conventional rudder control systems for this purpose. The rudder control system is operated by the rudder pedals in the cockpit, and is powered hydraulically through the power mechanism. In the event of hydraulic power failure, the hydraulic portion of the system is bypassed, and the system is powered mechanically through control cables and linkage. When the pilot depresses the rudder pedals, the control cables move a cable sector assembly. The cable sector, through a push-pull tube and linkage, actuates the power mechanism and causes deflection of the rudder to the left or right. Secondary Flight Controls Secondary flight controls include those controls not designated as primary controls. The secondary controls supplement the primary controls by aiding the pilot in controlling the aircraft. Various types are used on naval aircraft, but only the most common are discussed here. TRIM TABS — Trim tabs are small airfoils recessed in the trailing edge of a primary control surface. Their purpose is to enable the pilot to neutralize any unbalanced condition that might exist during flight, without exerting any pressure on the control stick or rudder pedals. Each trim tab is hinged to its parent control surface, but is operated independently by a separate control. The pilot moves the trim tab by using cockpit controls. The tab on the control surface moves in a direction opposite that of the desired control surface movement. The airflow striking the trim tab causes the larger surface to move to a position that will correct the unbalanced condition of the aircraft. For example, to trim a nose-heavy condition, the pilot sets the elevator trim tab in the “down” position. This causes the elevator to be moved and held in the “up” position, which, in turn, causes the tail of the aircraft to be lowered. Without the use of the trim tab, the pilot would have to hold the elevator in the up position by exerting constant pressure on the control stick or wheel. 4-10

Figure 4-6 — Types of flaps. Construction of trim tabs is similar to that of the other control surfaces, although greater use is being made of plastic materials to fill the tab completely, which improves stiffness. Tabs may also be honeycomb-filled. Tabs are covered with either metal or reinforced plastic. Trim tabs are actuated either electrically or manually. WING FLAPS —Wing flaps are used to give the aircraft extra lift. Their purpose is to reduce the landing speed, thereby shortening the length of the landing rollout. They are also used to assist in landing in small or obstructed areas by permitting the gliding angle to be increased without greatly increasing the approach speed. In addition, the use of flaps during takeoff serves to reduce the length of the takeoff run. Most flaps are hinged to the lower trailing edges of the wings inboard of the ailerons; however, leading edge flaps are in use on some Navy aircraft. Four types of flaps are shown in Figure 4-6. The PLAIN flap forms the trailing edge of the airfoil when the flap is in the up position. In the SPLIT flap, the trailing edge of the airfoil is split, and the bottom half is so hinged that it can be lowered to form the flap. The FOWLER flap operates on rollers and tracks. This causes the lower surface of the wing to roll out and then extend downward. The LEADING EDGE flap operates similarly to the plain flap. It is hinged on the bottom side and, when actuated, the leading edge of the wing actually extends in a downward direction to increase the camber of the wing. Leading edge flaps are used in conjunction with other types of flaps. SPOILERS — Spoilers are used for decreasing wing lift; however, their specific design, function, and use vary with different aircraft. The spoilers on some aircraft are long, narrow surfaces hinged at their leading edge to the upper wing skin. In the retracted position, the spoiler is flush with the wing skin. In the extended position, the spoile r is pivoted up and forward approximately 60 degrees above the hinge point. The spoilers disturb the smooth flow of air over the wing so that burbling takes place. The lift is consequently reduced, and considerable drag is added to the wing. Another type of spoiler in common use is a long, slender, curved, and perforated baffle that is raised edgewise through the upper surface of the wing forward of the aileron. It also disrupts the flow of air over the airfoil and destroys lift. These spoilers are actuated through the same linkage that actuates the ailerons. This arrangement makes movement of the spoiler dependent upon movement of the aileron. The linkage to the aileron is devised so that the spoiler is extended only when the aileron is raised. In other words, when the aileron moves downward, no deflection of the spoiler takes place. SPEED BRAKES — Speed brakes are hinged, movable control surfaces used for reducing the speed of aircraft. Some manufacturers refer to them as dive brakes or dive flaps. They are hinged to the top or bottom of the fuselage. Regardless of their location, speed brakes serve the same purpose on all aircraft. Their primary purpose is to keep aircraft from building up excessive speed during dives. They are also used to reduce the speed of the aircraft prior to landing. Speed brakes are operated hydraulically or electrically. SLATS — Slats are movable control surfaces attached to the leading edge of the wing. When the slat is retracted, it forms the leading edge of the wing. At low airspeed, the slat improves the lateral 4-11

Figure 4-7 — Typical landing gear system.

control-handling characteristics and allows the aircraft to be controlled at airspeeds below the normal landing speed. When the slat is opened (extended forward), a slot is created between the slat and the leading edge of the wing. The slot allows high-energy air to be introduced into the air layer moving over the top of the wing. This is known as boundary layer control. Boundary layer control is primarily used during operations from carriers; that is, for catapult takeoffs and arrested landings. Boundary layer control can also be accomplished by a method of directing high-pressure engine bleed air through a series of narrow orifices located just forward of the wing flap leading edge. AILERON DROOP — The ailerons are also sometimes used to supplement the flaps. This is called an aileron droop feature. When the flaps are lowered, both ailerons can be partially deflected downward into the airstream. The partial deflection allows them to act as flaps as well as to serve the function of ailerons. Landing Gear The landing gear of the earliest aircraft consisted merely of protective skids attached to the lower surfaces of the wings and fuselage. As aircraft developed, skids became impractical and were replaced by a pair of wheels placed side by side ahead of the center of gravity with a tail skid supporting the aft section of the aircraft. The tail skid was later replaced by a swiveling tail wheel. This arrangement was standard on all land-based aircraft for so many years that it became known as the conventional landing gear. As the speed of aircraft increased, however, the elimination of drag became increasingly important. This led to the development of retractable landing gear. Just before World War II, aircraft were designed with the main landing gear located behind the center of gravity and an auxiliary gear under the nose of the fuselage. This became known as the tricycle landing gear. It was a big improvement over the conventional type. The tricycle gear is more stable during ground operations and makes landing easier, especially in crosswinds. It also maintains the fuselage in a level position that increases the pilot's visibility. Nearly all Navy aircraft are equipped with tricycle landing gear. See Figure 4-7 for a typical landing gear system. Main Landing Gear A main landing gear assembly is shown in Figure 4-8. The major components of the assembly are the shock strut, tire, tube, wheel, brake assembly, retracting and extending mechanism, side brace, downlock actuator, and drag braces. Tires, tubes, and wheels are discussed in another chapter of this nonresident training course. The shock strut absorbs the shock that would otherwise be sustained by the airframe structure during takeoff, taxiing, and landing. The air-oil shock strut is used on all Navy aircraft. This type of strut is composed essentially of two telescoping cylinders filled with hydraulic fluid and compressed air or nitrogen. Figure 4-9 shows the internal construction of a shock strut. 4-12

Figure 4-8 — Main landing gear.

Figure 4-9 — Shock strut showing internal construction.

The telescoping cylinders, known as cylinder and piston, form an upper and lower chamber for the movement of the fluid. The upper chamber (cylinder) contains the compressed air or nitrogen, while the lower chamber (piston) is always filled with fluid. An orifice is placed between the two chambers through which the fluid passes into the upper chamber during compression and returns during extension of the strut. The size of the orifice is controlled by the up-and-down movement of the tapered metering pin. Whenever a load is placed on the strut because of the landing or taxiing of the aircraft, compression of the two strut halves begins. The piston (to which the wheel and axle are attached) forces fluid through the orifice into the cylinder and compresses the air or nitrogen above it. When the strut has made a stroke to absorb the energy of the impact, the air or nitrogen at the top expands and forces the fluid back into the lower chamber. The slow metering of the fluid acts as a snubber to prevent rebounds. Instructions for the servicing of shock struts with hydraulic fluid and compressed air or nitrogen are contained on an instruction plate attached to the strut, as well as in the maintenance instruction manual (MIM) for the type of aircraft involved. The shock absorbing qualities of a shock strut depend on the proper servicing of the shock strut with compressed nitrogen and the proper amount of fluid. RETRACTING MECHANISMS — Some aircraft have electrically actuated landing gear, but most are hydraulically actuated. Figure 4-8 shows a retracting mechanism that is hydraulically actuated. The landing gear control handle in the cockpit allows the landing gear to be retracted or extended by directing hydraulic fluid under pressure to the actuating cylinder. The locks hold the gear in the desired position, and the safety switch prevents accidental retracting of the gear when the aircraft is resting on its wheels. 4-13

Figure 4-10 — Nose gear assembly.

A position indicator on the instrument panel indicates the position of the landing gear to the pilot. The position indicator is operated by the position-indicating switches mounted on the UP and DOWN locks of each landing gear. EMERGENCY EXTENSION — Methods of extending the landing gear in the event of normal system failure vary with different models of aircraft. Most aircraft use an emergency hydraulic system. Some aircraft use pneumatic (compressed air or nitrogen), mechanical, or gravity systems, or a combination of these systems. Nose Gear A typical nose gear assembly is shown in Figure 4-10. Major components of the assembly include a shock strut, drag struts, a retracting mechanism, wheels, and a shimmy damper. The nose gear shock strut, drag struts, and retracting mechanism are similar to those described for the main landing gear. The shimmy damper is a self-contained hydraulic unit that resists sudden twisting loads applied to the nosewheel during ground operation, but permits slow turning of the wheel. The primary purpose of the shimmy damper is to prevent the nosewheel from shimmying (extremely fast left-right oscillations) during takeoff and landing. This is accomplished by the metering of hydraulic fluid through a small orifice between two cylinders or chambers. Most aircraft are equipped with steerable nosewheels and do not require a separate self-contained shimmy damper. In such cases, the steering mechanism is hydraulically controlled and incorporates two spring-loaded hydraulic steering cylinders that, in addition to serving as a steering mechanism, automatically subdue shimmy and center the nosewheel. A rresting Gear A carrier aircraft is equipped with an arresting hook for stopping the aircraft when it lands on the carrier. (See Figure 4-11.) The arresting gear is composed of an extendible hook and the mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic equipment necessary for hook operation. The arresting hook on most aircraft is mechanically released, pneumatically lowered, and hydraulically raised. The hook is hinged from the structure under the rear of the aircraft. A snubber, which meters hydraulic fluid and works in conjunction with nitrogen pressure, is used to hold the hook down to prevent it from bouncing when it strikes the carrier deck. 4-14

Figure 4-12 — Nose gear launch equipment.

Catapult Equipment Carrier aircraft are equipped with facilities for catapulting themselves off the aircraft carrier. This equipment consists of nose-toe launch equipment. Older aircraft have hooks that are designed to accommodate the cable bridle, which is used to hook the aircraft to the ship's catapult. The holdback assembly allows the aircraft to be secured to the carrier deck for full- power turnup of the engine prior to takeoff. The holdback tension bar separates when the catapult is fired and allows the aircraft to be launched with the engine at full power. For nose gear equipment, a track is attached to the deck to guide the nosewheel into position. (See Figure 4-12.) The track also has provisions for attaching the nose gear to the catapult shuttle and for holdback. In comparison with the bridle and holdback pendant method of catapult hookup for launching, the nose gear launch equipment requires fewer personnel, the hookup is accomplished more safely, and time is saved in positioning an aircraft for launch. ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFT The history of rotary-wing development embraces 500-year-old efforts to produce a workable direct- lift-type flying machine. Aircraft designers' early experiments in the helicopter field were fruitless. Figure 4-11 — Arresting gear installation.

4-15

Figure 4-13 — H-60 helicopter.

Today, helicopters are found throughout the world. They perform countless tasks especially suited to their unique capabilities. Helicopters are the modern-day version of the dream envisioned centuries ago by Leonardo da Vinci. Early in the development of rotary-wing aircraft, a need arose for a new word to designate this direct- lift flying device. A resourceful Frenchman chose the two words—heliko, which means screw or spiral, and pteron, which means wing. The word “helicopter” is the combination of these two words. A helicopter employs one or more power-driven horizontal airscrews, or rotors, from which it derives lift and propulsion. If a single rotor is used, it is necessary to employ a means to counteract torque. If more than one rotor is used, torque is eliminated by turning the rotors in opposite directions. The fundamental advantage the helicopter has over conventional aircraft is that lift and control are independent of forward speed. A helicopter can fly forward, backward, or sideways, or it can remain in stationary flight (hover) above the ground. No runway is required for a helicopter to take off or land. The roof of an office building provides an adequate landing area. The helicopter is considered a safe aircraft because the takeoff and landing speed is zero. The construction of helicopters is similar to the construction of fixed-wing aircraft. Fuselage Like the fuselage in fixed-wing aircraft, helicopter fuselages may be welded truss or some form of monocoque construction. Many Navy helicopters are of the monocoque design. A typical Navy helicopter, the H-60, is shown in Figure 4-13. The fuselage consists of the entire airframe, sometimes known as the body group. The body group is of all-metal semimonocoque construction, consisting of an aluminum and titanium skin over a reinforced aluminum frame. Landing Gear Group The landing gear group includes all the equipment necessary to support the helicopter when it is not in flight. Conventional landing gear consists of main landing gear and a tail landing gear. Most helicopters have nonretractable landing gear. See Figure 4-13. Main Landing Gear The main landing gear system consists of left and right single-wheel landing gear assemblies and the weight-on-wheels system. Each main landing gear assembly is composed of a shock strut, drag beam, axle, wheel, tire, and wheel brake. The left main landing gear assembly also includes a weight-on-wheels sensing switch. The main landing gear supports the helicopter when on the ground and cushions the helicopter from shock while landing. The weight-on-wheels switch provides helicopter ground/flight status indications for various helicopter systems. Tail Landing Gear The tail landing gear system consists of a dual- wheel landing gear, tail wheel lock system, and tail bumper. The tail landing gear is a 4-16

Figure 4-14 — H-60 main rotor blades.

Figure 4-15 — H-60 main rotor blade pressurization system.

cantilever-type with an integral shock strut. The gear is capable of swiveling 360 degrees. It can be locked in trail position by the tail wheel locking system. A tail recovery assist, secure, and traverse (RAST) probe is mounted on the tail gear. Main Rotor Assembly The main rotor (rotary wing) and the rotor head are discussed in the following section. Their functions are closely related and neither functions without the other. Rotor Wing The H-60 has four main rotor blades that provide lift for the helicopter. (See Figure 4-14.) They receive power from the main rotor head to which they are attached. The root (inboard end of the main rotor blade) allows bolting of the main rotor blade to the main rotor head. A heater mat in the main rotor blade leading edge provides blade deicing, and it is connected to the blade deicing system. Each main rotor blade has a titanium spar that is pressurized with nitrogen (to detect cracks), and contai ns a honeycomb core, fiberglass skin, and nickel and titanium abrasion strips. A removable sweptback tip cap is attached by screws onto the end of each main rotor blade. Pressure loss in the spar is indicated through the use of a blade inspection method (BIM®) indicator. This indicator is located at each main rotor blade root, and continuously monitors spar pressure. See Figure 4-15. 4-17

Figure 4-16 — H-60 main rotor head.

Figure 4-17 — H-60 tail rotor.

Rotor Head The H-60 main rotor head transmits the movement of the flight controls to the four main rotor blades. The components of the main rotor head are as follows: hub, droop stops, bifilar absorber, pitch control rods, dampers, damper accumulator, anti-flap assemblies, swashplate, swashplate guide shaft extension, pressure plates, and rotor blade fold system. See Figure 4-16. Main Rotor Pylon The main rotor pylon is attached to the upper cabin and transition section. The forward section is made up of a sliding control/ accessories fairing, removable platform, air inlet fairings, and engine air inlets. The midsection includes the No. 1 and No. 2 work platform/engine access, left and right oil cooler access, environmental control system (ECS) access, auxiliary power unit APU inlet, APU access, and exhaust module. The aft section contains the fire bottle access and aft fairing. Tail Rotor Assembly The H-60 tail rotor is a bearingless, controllable-pitch, cross-beam-type system. The tail rotor blades are built around two interchangeable graphite composite spars that cross each other in the center. The two tail rotor blades are retained on the tail rotor hub by a set of retention plates. These plates bolt the tail rotor blades together to form four blades 90 degrees apart. Counterweights are bolted to each tail rotor blade for balancing. See Figure 4-17. 4-18

Figure 4-18 — H-60 tail pylon. Tail Rotor Blades The tail rotor blades are built around two graphite composite spars. The spar is the main structural member of the tail rotor blade and is continuous from tip cap to tip cap. Two paddle assemblies, made up of honeycomb, are bonded to the spar. Several layers of fiberglass are bonded over the honeycomb and spar. These form the tail rotor blade skin and aerodynamic shape of the tail rotor blade. A deice heater mat is bonded into the tail rotor blade leading edge. The heater mat connects to an electrical connector mounted close to each counterweight. Power to heat the tail rotor blades is supplied through a slipring on the tail gearbox from the deice system. Tail Pylon The tail rotor pylon is a foldable section at the aft end of the helicopter. The pylon is supported by and hinged to the tail cone section. It supports the horizontal stabilator, intermediate gearbox, tail gearbox, connecting tail rotor drive shaft, tail rotor assembly, and part of the flight controls. See Figure 4-18. STRUCTURAL STRESS Primary factors in aircraft structure design are strength, weight, and reliability. These three factors determine the requirements to be met by any material used in airframe construction and repair. Airframes must be strong and light in weight. An aircraft built so heavy that it could not support more than a few hundred pounds of additional weight would be useless. In addition to having a good strength-to-weight ratio, all materials must be thoroughly reliable. This reliability minimizes the possibility of dangerous and unexpected failures. TYPES OF STRESS Numerous forces and structural stresses act on an aircraft when it is static and when it is flying. When it is static, gravity force alone produces weight, which is supported by the landing gear. The landing gear also absorbs the forces imposed during takeoffs and landings. During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or deceleration increases the forces and stresses on the wings and fuselage. These loads are tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion stresses. These stresses are absorbed by each component of the wing structure and transmitted to the fuselage structure. The empennage, or tail section, absorbs the same stresses and also transmits them to the fuselage structure. The study of such loads is called a “stress analysis.” The stresses must be analyzed and considered when an aircraft is designed. These stresses are shown in Figure 4-19. 4-19

Figure 4-19 — Five stresses acting on an aircraft.

Tension Tension may be defined as “pull.” Tension is the resistance to pulling apart or stretching, produced by two forces pulling in opposite directions along the same straight line. An elevator control cable is in additional tension when the pilot moves the control column. Compression If forces acting on an aircraft move toward each other to squeeze the material, the stress is called compression. Compression is the opposite of tension. Tension is a “pull,” and compression is a “push.” Compression is the resistance to crushing, produced by two forces pushing toward each other in the same straight line. While an airplane is on the ground, the landing gear struts are under a constant compression stress.

Shear Cutting a piece of paper with a pair of scissors is an example of shearing action. Shear in an aircraft structure is a stress exerted when two pieces of fastened material tend to separate. Shear stress is the outcome of sliding one part over the other in opposite directions. The rivets and bolts in an aircraft experience both shear and tension stresses. Bending Bending is a combination of tension and compression. Consider the bending of an object such as a piece of tubing. The upper portion stretches (tension) and the lower portion crushes together (compression). The wing spars of an aircraft in flight undergo bending stresses. 4-20

Figure 4-20 – Engine torque creates torsional stress in aircraft fuselages. Torsion Torsional stresses are the result of a twisting force. When you wring out a chamois skin, you are putting it under torsion. Torsion is produced in an engine crankshaft while the engine is running. Forces that cause torsional stresses produce torque. VARYING STRESS All materials are somewhat elastic. A rubber band is extremely elastic, whereas a piece of metal is not ve ry elastic. All the structural members of an aircraft experience one or more stresses. Sometimes a structural member has alternate stresses. It is under compression one moment and under tensions the next. The strength of aircraft materials must be great enough to withstand maximum force of varying stresses. SPECIFIC ACTION OF STRESSES You should understand the stresses encountered on the main parts of an aircraft. A knowledge of the basic stresses on aircraft structures helps you understand why aircraft are built the way they are. The fuselage of the aircraft encounters the five types of stress—torsion, bending, tension, shear, and compression. Torsional stress in a fuselage is created in several ways. An example of this stress is encountered in engine torque on turboprop aircraft. Engine torque tends to rotate the aircraft in the opposite direction that the propeller is turning. This force creates a torsional stress in the fuselage. Figure 4-20 shows the effect of the rotating propellers. Another example of torsional stress is the twisting force in the fuselage due to the action of the ailerons when the aircraft is maneuvered. 4-21

Figure 4-21 — Bending action occurring during carrier landing.

When an aircraft is on the ground, there is a bending force on the fuselage. This force occurs because of the weight of the aircraft itself. Bending greatly increases when the aircraft makes a carrier landing. This bending action creates a tension stress on the lower skin of the fuselage and a compression stress on the top skin. This bending action is shown in Figure 4-21. These stresses are also transmitted to the fuselage when the aircraft is in flight. Bending occurs due to the reaction of the airflow against the wings and empennage. When the aircraft is in flight, lift forces act upward against the wings, tending to bend them upward. The wings are prevented from folding over the fuselage by the resisting strength of the wing structure. This bending action creates a tension stress on the bottom of the wings and a compression stress on the top of the wings. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION An aircraft requires materials that must be both light and strong. Early aircraft were made of wood. Lightweight metal alloys with strength greater than wood were developed and used on later aircraft. Materials currently used in aircraft construction may be classified as either metallic or nonmetallic. METALLIC MATERIALS The most common metals in aircraft construction are aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel, and their alloys. Aluminum alloy is widely used in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation industry because the alloy has a high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminum alloys are corrosion-resistant and comparatively easy to fabricate. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight. Magnesium—the world's lightest structural metal— is a silvery-white material weighing only two-thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is used in the manufacture of helicopters. Magnesium's low resistance to corrosion has limited its use in conventional aircraft. Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion-resistant metal. It was discovered years ago, but has only recently been made suitable for use in aircraft. Recent developments make titanium ideal for applications where aluminum alloys are too weak and stainless steel is too heavy. In addition, titanium is unaffected by long exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere. An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in the largest portion is called the base metal. All other metals added to the alloy are called alloying elements. Alloying elements— in either small or large amounts—may result in a marked change in the properties of the base metal. For example, pure aluminum is relatively soft and weak. When small amounts of other elements such as copper, manganese, and magnesium are added, aluminum's strength is increased many times. An increase or a decrease in an alloy's strength and hardness may be achieved through heat treatment of the alloy. Alloys are of great importance to the aircraft industry, because they provide materials with properties not possessed by a pure metal alone. Alloy steels that are of much greater strength than those found in other fields of engineering have been developed. These steels contain small percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and 4-22

Figure 4-22 — Reinforced plastic. molybdenum. High-tensile steels will stand stresses of 50 to 150 tons per square inch without failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods, and wires. Another type of steel that is used extensively is stainless steel. This alloy resists corrosion and is particularly valuable for use in or near salt water. NONMETALLIC MATERIALS In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are found in aircraft construction. Transparent plastic is found in canopies, windshields, and other transparent enclosures. Transparent plastic surfaces must be handled with care because this material is relatively soft and scratches easily. At approximately 225 °F, transparent plastic becomes soft and very pliable. Reinforced plastic is made for use in the construction of radomes, wing tips, stabilizer tips, antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is resistant to mildew and rot. Its ease of fabrication makes it equally suitable for other parts of the aircraft. Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material. (See Figure 4-22.) It is made up of two outer facings and a center layer. The facings are made up of several layers of glass cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. The core material (center layer) consists of a honeycomb structure made of glass cloth. Reinforced plastic is fabricated into a variety of cell sizes. High-performance aircraft require an extra high strength- to-weight ratio material. Fabrication of composite materials satisfies this special requirement. This construction method uses several layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron epoxy). These materials are mechanically fastened to conventional substructures. Another type of composite construction consists of thin graphite epoxy skins bonded to an aluminum honeycomb core. METALLIC MATERIALS Metallurgists have been working for many years to improve metals for aircraft construction. Each metal has certain properties and characteristics that make it desirable for a particular application, but it may have other qualities that are undesirable. For example, some metals are hard, others comparatively soft; some are brittle, some tough; some can be formed and shaped without fracture; and some are so heavy that weight alone makes them unsuitable for aircraft use. The metallurgist's objectives are to improve the desirable qualities and tone down or eliminate the undesirable ones. This is done by alloying (combining) metals and by various heat-treating processes. You do not have to be a metallurgist to be a good AN, but you should possess a knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitations, and other characteristics of aircraft structural metals. Such knowledge and understanding is vital to properly construct and maintain any equipment— especially airframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight deviation from design specifications or the substitution of inferior materials may result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of unsuitable materials can readily erase the finest craftsmanship. The selection of the specific material for a specific repair job demands familiarity with the most common properties of various metals. 4-23

End of Chapter 4 Aircraft Basic Construction Review Questions 4-1. How many principal structural units are there in a fixed-wing aircraft?

A. Two B. Four C. Six D. Nine

4-2. On a semimonocoque fuselage, what component absorbs the primary bending loads?

A. Engine mounts B. Fuselage C. Landing gear D. Longerons

4-3. What aircraft structure is designed to transmit engine loads, stresses, and vibrations to the aircraft structure?

A. Fuselage B. Landing gear C. Nacelle D. Tires

4-4. What type of stress is produced by two forces pulling in opposite directions along the same straight line?

A. Compression B. Shear C. Tension D. Torsion al

4-5. What force is the opposite of tension?

A. Bending B. Compression C. Shear D. Torsion al

4-6. What type of stress is a combination of tension and compression?

A. Bending B. Shear C. Stretching D. Torsion al

4-24

4-7. What is the most widely used metal in modern aircraft construction?

A. Aluminum alloy B. Composite C. Steel D. Titanium

4-8. What is the world's lightest structural metal?

A. Aluminum B. Coppe r C. Magnesium D. Steel

4-9. What where early aircraft made of?

A. Copper B. Magnesium C. Steel D. Wood

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4-26

CHAPTER 5 GENERAL AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE This chapter discusses the various types of routine aircraft maintenance performed by the mechanics. When performing maintenance, it is your responsibility to comply with all safety procedures and tool control requirements. Because no single set of rules applies to all aircraft, you should refer to the maintenance instruction manual (MIM) for the tools, materials, and procedures required for that particular aircraft or piece of equipment. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter you will be able to do the following: 1. State the importance of the Navy's Tool Control Program (TCP). 2. Identify sources of information regarding hazards and terms applicable to hazardous situations and materials. 3. Explain basic steps used in troubleshooting aircraft systems. 4. Recognize the definition of troubleshooting. Identify the seven steps in the troubleshooting procedures. 5. Describe the different types of lubricants. Recognize the different methods of application. Understand the use of lubrication charts. 6. State the different types of aircraft hoisting slings and hoisting requirements for naval aircraft. 7. Explain the procedures for the safe raising and lowering of aircraft by the proper use of aircraft jacks. Identify the various types of jacks presently found in the naval inventory. 8. State the purpose and procedures of the Navy's Hydraulic Contamination Control Program. 9. Identify the types and sources of hydraulic contamination found in naval aircraft. 10. Define the procedures for sampling hydraulic fluid. Identify the sampling point requirements. 11. Recognize the analysis methods used to identify and measure fluid contamination. TOOL CONTROL PROGRAM Major problems, such as aircraft accidents and incidents, may result from tools left in an aircraft after maintenance has been performed. Tools out of place may result in foreign object damage (FOD). To reduce the potential for tool FOD-related mishaps, the Tool Control Program (TCP) provides a means of rapidly accounting for all tools after completing a maintenance task on an aircraft or its related equipment.

TOOL CONTAINERS The means by which tools can be rapidly inventoried and accounted for is accomplished by using silhouetted tool containers. All tools have individual silhouetted locations that highlight a missing tool. These containers are called "shadow boxes." A shadow (silhouette) of the tool identifies the place where the tool belongs. The TCP is based on the instant inventory concept and is accomplished, in part, through the use of shadow boxes. (See Figure 5-1.) On containers where silhouetting is not feasible, a note with the inventory and a drawing of the container is included. Either system enables 5-1

Figure 5-1 — Typical silhouette toolbox. the work center supervisor or inspector to quickly ensure that all tools have been retrieved after a maintenance action. The material control officer is responsible for coordinating the TCP and for ensuring that tools are procured and issued in a controlled manner consistent with the approved tool control plan (TCPL). A TCPL contains information that includes material requirements, tool inventories, and detailed instructions for the implementation and operation of the TCPL for a specific type/model of aircraft. But the main responsibility remains with the work center and quality assurance. QUALITY ASSURANCE/ANALYSIS (QA/A) RESPONSIBILITIES The QA/A division is responsible for monitoring the overall TCP in the command. While monitoring the program or performing "spot checks," the QA/A division will ensure that tool control procedures are being followed. Some of the special requirements are to ensure the following: 1. All tools are etched with the organization code, work center, and tool container number. 2. Special accountability procedures are being complied with for those tools not suitable for etching; for example, drill bits (too hard) and jewelers’ screwdrivers (too small). 3. Work center inventories are being conducted and procedures are being followed during work center audits and periodic spot checks. 4. All equipment in the work centers or tool control centers that require calibration is scheduled and calibrated at the prescribed interval. 5. Defective tools received from supply are reported to the Fleet Material Support Office (FLEMATSUPPO) via CAT II Quality Deficiency Reports (QDRs). 6. Tools of poor quality are reported to FLEMATSUPPO via CAT II QDRs. 7. Visual Information Display System Maintenance Action Forms (VIDS/MAFs) are annotated with a tool container number and appropriate initials are obtained following task completion/work stoppage. 8. The department's tool control environment is maintained when work is to be performed by contractor maintenance teams or depot field teams. A Quality Assurance Representative (QAR) will brief field team/contractor supervisor/leader(s) upon their arrival regarding the activity's TCP. Depot teams working in O- or I-level facilities will comply with the host activity's TCP. 5-2

WORK CENTER RESPONSIBILITIES All work center supervisors have specific responsibilities under the TCP. All tool containers should have a lock and key as part of their inventory. The supervisor should be aware of the location of each container's key and have a way of controlling it. When work is to be completed away from the workspaces (for example, the flight line/flight deck), complete tool containers—not a handful of tools—should be taken to the job. If more tools are needed than the tool container contains, tool tags can be used to check out tools from other tool containers in a work center. The following is a list of additional responsibilities of the work center supervisor. 1. Upon task assignment, note the number of the tool container on copy 1 of the VIDS/MAF, left of the accumulated work hours section. Ensure a sight inventory is conducted by the technician prior to commencement of each task and all shortages are noted. Every measure must be taken to ensure that missing tools do not become a cause of FOD. Check to see inventories are performed before a shift change, when work stoppage occurs, after maintenance has been completed, and before conducting an operational systems check on the equipment. 2. When all tools are accounted for and all maintenance actions have been completed, sign the VIDS/MAF signifying that this has been done. 3. If any tool is found to be missing during the required inventories, conduct an immediate search prior to reporting the work completed or signing off the VIDS/MAF. If the tool cannot be located, notify the maintenance officer or assistant maintenance officer via the work center supervisor and maintenance control to ensure that the aircraft or equipment is not released. If the tool cannot be located after the maintenance officer's directed search, the person doing the investigation will personally sign a statement in the Corrective Action block of the VIDS/MAF that a lost tool investigation was conducted and that the tool could not be found. Subsequently, the normal VIDS/MAF completion process will be followed. The flight engineer/crew chief (or senior maintenance man in the absence of an assigned crew chief) will assume the responsibilities of the work center supervisor applicable to the TCP in the event of in- flight maintenance or maintenance performed on the aircraft at other-than-home station. OCCUPATIONAL AWARENESS Many different materials are used in the workplace. Some are hazardous. You must know where to retrieve information on these materials used in and around naval aircraft. The MIMs give information on correct maintenance practices, but may not always give complete information regarding necessary safety practices. The Navy Occupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH) program was established to inform workers about hazards and the measures necessary to control them. The DOD has established the Hazardous Material Information System (HMIS), which is designed to acquire, store, and disseminate data on hazardous material procured for use. The primary source for you to get the necessary information before beginning any operation involving the use of hazardous material is the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). The MSDS, known as Hazard Communication Standard, 29 CFR 1910.1200, is shown in Figure 5-2. This nine-section form informs you of hazards ingredient/identity information; physical and chemical characteristics; fire and explosive hazards; health hazards; and precautions for safe handling in case of spills, fire, overexposure, or other emergency situations. 5-3

Spectrum Group Division of United Industries P.O. Box 142942 St. Louis, MO 63114-0642 Material Safety Data Sheet Complies with OSHA’s Hazard Communication Standard, 29 CFR 1910.120 Hazardous Material Identification System- (HMIS) HEALTH-1 REACTIVITY-0 FLAMMABILITY- 0 PERSONAL – Rubber gloves, boots I. Trade Name: Spectracide Stump Remover Product Type: Granular Stump Decomposer Product Item Number: 56420 Formula Code Number: EPA Registration Number Manufacturer

Emergency Telephone Numbers N/A Chemsico Division of United Industries Corporation 8494 Chapin Industrial Drive St. Louis, MO 63114 For Chemical Em. 1-800-633-2893 For Information: 1-800-917-5438 Prepared by: C.A Duckworth Date Prepared: November 12, 2001 II. Hazards Ingredient/Identity Information III. Physical and Chemical Characteristics Chemical % OSHA PEL ACGIH ILV Potassium Nitrate 100.0 NE NE CAS #7757.79.1 Appearance & Odor: White to off-white granules. No odor. Boiling Point: NA Melting Point: 633 Vapor Pressure: 78lb/fl3 Bulk Density: NA % Volatile (by vol): NA Solubility in Water: 31g in 100g water IV. Fire and Explosive Hazards Data V. Reactivity Data Flash Point: NA Flame Extension: NA Flammable Limits: NA

Autoignition temperature: NA Fire Extinguisher Media: Water fog Decomposition Temperature: 752 Special Fire-fighting Procedures: Do not use Dry Chemicals. Carbon Dicode or Halogenated agents. Unusual Fire & Explosion Hazards This material is an oxidizer which may support burning or explosion when mixed with combustible materials and ignited Stability: Stable under normal storage conditions Polymerization: Will not occur Conditions to Avoid: May burn vigorously or explode when mixed with combustible materials and ignited Incompatible Materials: Hazardous Decomposition Or Byproducts: NA VI. Health Hazard Data Ingestion: Harmful if swallowed. First Aid: Give one or two glasses of water or milk and call a physician. Eye Contact: May Cause irritation. First Aid: Rinse with plenty of water. Call a physician if irritation persists Skin Contact: May Cause irritation. First Aid: Rinse with plenty of water. Call a physician if irritation persists Health conditions Aggravated by Exposure: None under normal use. Ingredients listed by NTP, OSHA, or IARC as Carcinogens or Potential Carcinogens: None

VII. Precautions for Safe Handling and Use Steps to be Taken in case Material is Released or Spilled: Avoid contact with granules. Sweep up and place in waste container. Avoid contact with combustible materials.

Waste Disposal: Do not reuse container. Place container in trash.

Handling & Storage Precautions: Store in cool area. VIII. Control Measures Read and follow label direction. They are your best guide to using this product effectively, and give necessary safety precautions to protect your health. IX. Transportation Data DOI Shipping Name: Stump decomposer DOI Hazard Class: None The information and statements herein are believed to be reliable but are not to be construed as warranty or representation for which we assume legal responsibility. Users should undertake sufficient verification and testing to determine the suitability for their own particular purpose of any information or products referred to herein. NO WARRANY OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE IS MADE. Figure 5-2 — Material safety data sheet.

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The maintenance of safe and healthful working conditions is a chain-of-command responsibility. Implementation begins with the individual sailor and extends to the commanding officer. The chain of command responsibilities are covered in OPNAVINST 5100.19 (series) and OPNAVINST 5100.23 (series). Work center supervisors are responsible for training work center personnel in the use of the MSDS. Furthermore, they must ensure that personnel under their supervision are trained on the hazards associated with the material and are equipped with the proper protective equipment before using any hazardous materials. All sections of the MSDS are important, and contain information to accomplish tasks without causing damage to equipment or personnel. Always ensure that you are using the correct MSDS for the material being used. You should check the Military Specification (MILSPEC), part number, federal stock number, and the name of the manufacturer. Never use an MSDS from a different manufacturer. The formula for a given product may differ , but still meet the specification requirements. The handling and safety requirements may therefore change from manufacturer to manufacturer. Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) in section II of the MSDS are established by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (CGIH). TLVs refer to airborne concentrations of a substance and represent conditions that nearly all workers may be exposed, day after day, without adverse effects. You should know the effects of overexposure and the emergency procedures required before using any material. Section V (Reactivity Data) of the MSDS contains a list of materials and conditions to avoid that could cause special hazards. Prompt cleanup of spills and leaks will lessen the chance of harm to personnel and the environment. Section VII (Precautions for Safe Handling and Use) of the MSDS lists the required steps to be taken for cleanup and proper disposal methods. You should be familiar with section VIII (Control Measures) of the MSDS. In doing so, you will protect yourself and others from dangerous exposure. Some protective equipment is complex and requires special training in proper use and care. Never use a respirator that you have not fit-tested to wear. Always check to see that the cartridge installed meets the requirements of the MSDS. If you haven’t been trained and use a respirator that doesn’t fit or has the wrong cartridge installed, it could be as dangerous to your health as wearing no protection at all. You need to be aware of word usage and intended meaning as it pertains to hazardous equipment and/or conditions. These terms are used in most technical manuals prepared for the Navy. The following is a list of safety hazard words and definitions as they appear in most naval aviation technical manuals.

WARNING

An operating procedure, practice, or condition, etc., that may result in injury or death if not carefully observed or followed. CAUTION

An operating procedure, practice, or condition, etc., that may result in damage or destruction to equipment if not carefully observed or followed. 5-5

SHALL is used only when application of a procedure is mandatory. SHOULD is used only when application of a procedure is recommended. MAY and NEED NOT are used only when application of a procedure is optional. WILL is used only to indicate futurity, never to indicate any degree of requirement for application of a procedure. AIRCRAFT DRAWINGS Much of the information contained in the various manuals issued by the Naval Air Systems Command for Navy aircraft and equipment is in the form of schematic, block, and pictorial drawings or diagrams. To understand how a system or component of the aircraft functions, you must be able to read and understand these drawings and diagrams. MEANING OF LINES The alphabet of lines is the common language of the technician and the engineer. In drawing an object, a draftsman not only arranges the different views in a certain manner, but also uses different types of lines to convey information. Line characteristics, such as width, breaks in the line, and zigzags, have meanings, as shown in Figure 5-3. NOTE An operating procedure, practice, or condition, etc., that is essential to emphasize. 5-6

Figure 5-3 — Line characteristics.

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INTERPRETATION OF DRAWINGS Schematic drawings are usually used to illustrate the various electrical circuits, hydraulic systems, fuel systems, and other systems of the aircraft. The components of an electrical circuit are normally represented by the standard electrical symbols shown in Figure 5-4. Look at this figure and notice the electrical symbols for fuse, splice, ground, and polarity. Figure 5-5 is a schematic diagram that shows an arresting gear system. Different symbols in the legend indicate the flow of hydraulic fluid. The diagram also indicates energized and nonenergized wires. Each component is illustrated and identified by name. Arrows indicate the movement of each component.

Figure 5-4 — Electrical symbols.

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Figure 5-5 — Arresting gear system schematic.

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Figure 5-7 — Pictorial drawing with exploded view. Figure 5-6 — Nosewheel steering system schematic.

Block diagrams may be used to illustrate a system. The nosewheel steering system in Figure 5-6 is a good example of the use of a block diagram.

In the block diagram, each of the components of the system is represented by a block. The name of the component represented by each block is near that block. Block diagrams are also useful in showing the relationship of the components. In addition, they may show the sequence in which the different components operate. A pictorial drawing is a representation of both the detail and the entire assembly. Figure 5-7 is an example of a pictorial drawing. Another use of this type of drawing is to show disassembly, or an exploded view. This type of drawing enables the mechanic to see how the parts of a particular piece of equipment are put together. Orthographic drawings are used to show details of parts, components, and other objects, and are primarily used by the manufacturer of the object. Usually, two or more views of the object are given on the drawing. Detailed instructions on reading orthographic, as well as all other types of drawings, are contained in Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVEDTRA 12014. 5-10

DIAGRAMS One of the more important factors in logically troubleshooting a system is your understanding of the components and how they operate. You should study the information and associated schematics provided in the MIM. The function of each component and possible malfunctions can be used in the process of analyzing actual malfunction symptoms. A primary concern in troubleshooting an aircraft hydraulic system is to determine whether the malfunction is caused by hydraulic, electrical, or mechanical failure. Actuating systems are dependent on power systems. Some of the troubles exhibited by an actuating system may be caused by difficulties in the power system. A symptom indicated by a component of the power system may be caused by leakage or malfunction of one of the actuating systems. When any part of the hydraulic system becomes inoperative, use the diagrams in conjunction with the checkout procedures provided in the aircraft MIM. Possible causes of trouble should always be eliminated systematically until the pertinent cause is found. No component should be removed or adjusted unless there is a sound reason to believe the unit is faulty. In order to gain a complete knowledge of a specific system, you should familiarize yourself with two classes of diagrams. These are the schematic and installation diagrams. A diagram— whether it is a schematic diagram or an installation diagram—may be defined as a graphic representation of an assembly or system. Schematic Diagrams Figure 5-8 is another example of a schematic diagram. Diagrams of this type do not indicate the actual physical location of the individual components in the aircraft. They do, however, locate components with respect to each other within the system. Various components are indicated by symbols in schematic diagrams, while drawings of the actual components are used in the installation (pictorial) diagrams. The symbols used in the schematic diagrams conform to the military standard mechanical symbols provided in MIL-STD-17B-1 and MIL-STD-17B-2. Most manufacturers improve upon these basic symbols by showing a cutaway portion on each component. These cutaways aid in clarifying the operation of that component. You should be able to trace the flow of fluid from component to component. On most diagrams of this type, an uncolored legend or different colors are used to represent the various lines. The legend identifies the lines in relation to their purpose and the mode of operation being represented. Each component is further identified by name, and its location within the system can be determined by noting which lines lead into and out of the component. 5-11

Figure 5-8 — Hydraulic system schematic.

Since many systems are electrically controlled, you should be capable of reading the electrical portion of a schematic diagram. Knowledge of the electrical symbols and the use of a multimeter in making voltage and continuity checks will contribute significantly to efficient troubleshooting. If a malfunction is caused by electrical problems, the assistance of Navy Aviation Electrician’s Mate (AE) personnel may be required. All electrical wiring in the aircraft is marked at specified intervals with a wire identification code. These identification codes are defined in the electrical volume(s) of the MIM, and they are useful in tracing wires throughout the aircraft. If an elusive malfunction is reasonably traced to or considered to be of an electrical nature, the electrical circuit should be checked by a qualified AE. Many wires can give a good continuity reading under a no-load or low-current condition and still be malfunctioning when under a load condition.

NOTE Electrical schematics are especially useful in determining annunciator panel malfunctions. 5-12

Figure 5-9 — Installation diagram of a motor-driven hydraulic pump. Installation Diagrams Figure 5-9 is an example of an installation diagram. This is a diagram of the motor-driven hydraulic pump installation. Installation diagrams show general location, function, and appearance of parts and assemblies. On some installation diagrams, letters on the principal view refer to a detailed view located elsewhere on the diagram. Each detailed view is an enlarged drawing of a portion of the system identifying each of the principal components for purposes of clarification. Diagrams of this type are invaluable to maintenance personnel in identifying and locating components. Installation diagrams will aid you in understanding the principle of operation of complicated systems. TROUBLESHOOTING AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS Troubleshooting/trouble analysis may prove to be the most challenging part of system maintenance. Troubleshooting is the logical or deductive reasoning procedure used when determining what unit is causing a particular system malfunction. The MIM for each aircraft generally provides troubleshooting aids that encompass the following seven steps: 1. Conduct a visual inspection. 2. Conduct an operational check. 3. Classify the trouble. 4. Isolate the trouble. 5. Locate the trouble. 6. Correct the trouble. 7. Conduct a final operational check. Table 5-1 shows a representative troubleshooting table. The troubles in this table are numbered to correspond with the step of the operational check procedures where the trouble will become apparent.

Other MIMs use trouble analysis sheets to pursue a trouble to a satisfactory solution by the process of elimination. The symptom is defined in tabular form with a remedy for each symptom. Example trouble analysis sheets are shown in Tables 5-2 and 5-3. The sheets used with the checkout procedures relate to checkout steps by direct reference or to discrepancies occurring in flight or during ground operations. Each table provides a remedy for each symptom. 5-13

When the remedy is as simple as replacing a component or making an adjustment, this fact will be stated. When the remedy requires further analysis, the entry in the REMEDY column will be a reference to an applicable paragraph, figure, or possibly another manual. See Tables 5-1 and 5-2. Each trouble analysis procedure provides preliminary data, such as tools and equipment, manpower requirements, and material. In the block type of troubleshooting sheet, the procedure is arranged in the order of most likely occurrence. The sheet contains a series of NO-YES responses to direct maintenance personnel through a logical series of steps. These directed responses assist in isolating the malfunction. When the requirements of a step are satisfactory, you go to the YES column and perform the referenced step. When the requirements of a step are not satisfactory, you go to the NO Table 5-1 — Troubleshooting Flight Hydraulic Power System 5-14

column and perform the referenced step. This process is continued until the malfunction is isolated and corrected. The original checkout procedure must then be repeated to ensure that the malfunction has been corrected.

Table 5-2 — Troubleshooting Wheel Brake System 5-15

TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES Troubleshooting procedures are similar in practically all applications, whether they are mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical. These procedures are certainly adaptable to all aircraft maintenance, as well as other types of installations. Auto mechanics use these steps to find and repair malfunctions in automobiles. You will use the same procedure to find and repair malfunctions within aircraft systems. Clarification of the seven distinct troubleshooting steps previously mentioned is as follows: 1. Conduct a visual inspection. This inspection should be thorough and searching, to include checking all lines, units, mechanical linkage, and components for evidence of leaks, looseness, security, material condition, and proper installation. During this visual inspection, the hydraulic system should be checked for proper servicing, the reservoir for proper level, and accumulators for specified preload, etc. 2. Conduct an operational check. The malfunctioning system or subsystem is checked for proper operation. This is normally accomplished by attaching the support equipment to the aircraft, which supplies a source of electrical power and pressurized fluid to operate the hydraulic system. In some instances, however, the aircraft may be ground-checked by using aircraft power and equipment. Depending on the circumstances, during movement of the malfunctioning unit, check for external leakage, the correct direction of component movement, its proper sequence of operation, speed, and whether the complete cycle was obtained. 3. Classify the trouble. Malfunctions usually fall into four basic categories— hydraulic, pneumatic, mechanical, or electrical. By using the information gained from steps 1 and 2 above, you can determine under which classification the malfunction occurs. Something affecting normal flow of hydraulic fluid would be classified under the hydraulic classification. The flow of fluid may be affected by external and internal leakage, total or partial restriction, or improper lubrication. Table 5-3 — Troubleshooting Auxiliary Hydraulic Power System 3-18. Step 1. HYDRAULIC HAND PUMP DOES NOT PRESSURIZE ACCUMULATOR TO 2900-3100 PSI. REC-CHECK COMBINED SERVICING RESERVOIR AND REPEAT OPERATIONAL CHECKOUT. RE-CHECK SERVICING OF COMBINED RESERVOIR. SERVICING CORRECT? PRESS AND HOLD AUX HYD PUMP SWITCH IN FORWARD COCKPIT. DOES ACCUMULATOR PRESSURIZE? CHECK OUTPUT PRESSURE OF AUX HYD PUMP. PRESSURE 2900-3100 PSI? RE-CHECK COMBINED SERVICING RESERVOIR AND REPEAT OPERATIONAL CHECKOUT. IF CABLE RIGGING IS CORRECT REPLACE THE HAND PUMP. REPLACE AUX. PUMP. CHANGE SYSTEM RELIEF VALVE. NO YES NO NO YES YES 5-16

Something affecting the normal flow of compressed gases is classified as a pneumatic malfunction. This type of malfunction stems from the same general sources as hydraulic malfunctions. Most units that operate hydraulically or pneumatically incorporate mechanical linkage. If a discrepancy in the linkage exists, it will affect the system's operation. Mechanical discrepancies should be identified during visual inspections, and they are usually in one of the following categories: worn linkages, broken linkages, improperly adjusted linkages, or improperly installed linkages. Many hydraulic units incorporate electrical components to operate or control them. You must be able to determine if the electrical system is functioning normally; electrical malfunctions will usually be a complete power failure, circuit failure, or component failure. 4. Isolate the trouble. This step calls for sound reasoning, and a full and complete knowledge of hydraulic theory, as well as a complete understanding of the affected hydraulic system. During this step, you must use your knowledge and the known facts to determine where the malfunction exists in the system. Usually the trouble can be pinned down to one or two areas. Eliminating those units that could not cause the known symptoms and those that can be proved to be operating normally will usually identify the malfunction. 5. Locate the trouble. This step is used to eliminate unnecessary parts removal, thus saving money, valuable time, and man-hours. Often, you have determined what unit or units in the system could have caused the malfunction, thus verifying the isolation step. Both hydraulic and pneumatic malfunctions are verified in the same manner. You remove lines and inspect them for the correct flow in or at the suspected unit. Internal leaks may occur in valves, actuators, or other hydraulic units. Any unit that has a line that could carry fluid to "return" is capable of internal leakage. Mechanical malfunctions are located by closely observing the suspected unit to see if it is operating in accordance with the applicable aircraft MIM. Mechanical discrepancies are usually located during the visual inspection in step 1 above. Electrical malfunctions are located, with the assistance of AEs, by tracing electrical power requirements throughout the affected system. 6. Correct the trouble. This step is accomplished only after the trouble has been definitely located and there is no doubt that your diagnosis is correct. Malfunctions are usually corrected by replacement of units or components, rigging and adjustments, and bleeding and servicing.

7. Conduct a final operational check. The affected system must be actuated a minimum of five times, or until a thorough check has been made to determine that its operation and adjustments are satisfactory. TESTING AND OPERATIONAL CHECKS Aircraft systems tests and operational checks should be performed under conditions as nearly operational as possible. Such tests or checks should be performed in accordance with the instructions outlined in the applicable MIM. Make the operational checks in the sequence outlined in the MIM. Any discrepancies you find when performing a step should be corrected before proceeding. The operational check and the troubleshooting charts have been coordinated so that malfunctions NOTE Always check the applicable MIM for CAUTION, WARNING, and SAFETY notes concerning maintenance procedures.

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Figure 5-11 — A typical electronic multimeter. Figure 5-10 — A typical multimeter. can be isolated in an efficient manner. If the troubleshooting aids do not list the trouble being exper ienced, you will have to study the system schematics and perform the operational check. Use logic and common sense in pinpointing the cause of the malfunction. The test stand to be used in performing the operational check must be capable of producing the required flow and pressure required for proper operation. Check all electrical switches and circuit breakers, as well as hydraulic selector valves, for proper position. Perform this check before applying external electrical and hydraulic power. Perform all maintenance in accordance with the MIM. Observe all maintenance precautions and requirements for quality assurance verification. Personnel involved in troubleshooting and performing operational checks should consult the records maintained in maintenance control and/or the work center register. Reference to records of previous maintenance may show a progressive deterioration of a particular system or a previous discrepancy. This procedure could be helpful in pinpointing the cause of the malfunction currently being experienced. ELECTRICAL FAILURES Since practically all systems now have some electrically controlled components, troubleshooting in many instances must also include the related electrical circuits. Although an AE is generally called upon to locate and correct electrical troubles, you should be able to check circuits for loose connections and even perform continuity checks when necessary. Therefore, knowledge of electrical symbols and the ability to read circuit diagrams is necessary. Figure 5-4 illustrates the electrical symbols commonly found in schematic diagrams. Loose connections are located by checking all connectors in the circuit. A connector that can be turned by hand is loose and should be hand tightened. A continuity check is simply a matter of determining whether or not the circuit to the selector valve, or other electrically controlled unit, is complete. Continuity checks are made with the use of a multimeter. The name multimeter comes from MULTIPLE METER, and that is exactly what a multimeter is. It is a dc ammeter, an ac ammeter, a dc voltmeter, an ac voltmeter, and an ohmmeter—all in one package. Figures 5-10 and 5-11 show the faces of commonly used multimeters. The applicable instructions should be consulted prior to equipment operation. 5-18

LUBRICATION Perhaps the only connection you have had with lubrication was taking the car to the garage for greasing and oil change. If your car has ever burned out a bearing, you have learned the importance of lubricants. The proper lubrication of high-speed aircraft is very important. You should be familiar with the various types of lubricants, their specific use, and the method and frequency of application. Lubricants are used to reduce friction, to cool, to prevent wear, and to protect metallic parts against corrosion. In the aircraft, lubrication is necessary to minimize friction between moving parts. Only the presence of a layer or film of lubricant between metal surfaces keeps the metals from touching. As a result, friction is reduced between moving parts. Prolonged operating life is ensured when the lubricant keeps metal surfaces from direct contact with each other. If the film disappears, you end up with burned out or frozen bearings, scored cylinder walls, leaky packings, and a host of other troubles. Appropriate use of proper lubricants minimizes possible damage to equipment. LUBRICANTS You can get lubricants in three forms. They are fluids, semisolids, and solids. Additives improve the physical properties or performance of a lubricant. We all know that oils are fluids, and greases are semisolids. You probably think of graphite, molybdenum disulfide, talc, and boron nitride as additives. In fact, they are solid lubricants. A solid lubricant's molecular structure is such that its platelets will readily slide over each other. Solid lubricants can be suspended in oils and greases. There are many different types of approved lubricants in use for naval aircraft. Because the lubricants used will vary with types of aircraft and equipment, it is impractical to cover each type. Some of the more common types are described in Table 5-4. 5-19

Table 5-4 — Common Military Lubricants and Their Use TITLE AND SPECIFICATION RECOMMENDED TEMPERATURE RANGE GENERAL COMPOSITION INTENDED USE MIL-PRF-23827C [Grease, Aircraft, Synthetic, Extreme Pressure] -100 to 250 °F Thickening agent, low-temperature synthetic oils, or mixture EP additive Actuator screws, gears, controls, rolling- element bearings, general instrument use MIL-PRF-21164D [Grease, Aircraft, Synthetic, Molybdenum Disulfide] -100 to 250 °F Similar to MIL-PRF- 23827 plus molybdenum disulfide Sliding steel on steel, heavily loaded hinges, rolling element bearing where specified MIL-PRF-81322G [Grease, Aircraft, General Purpose, Wide Temperature Range] -65 to 350 °F Thickening agent and synthetic hydrocarbon. Has cleanliness requirements O-rings, certain splines, ball and roller bearing assemblies, primarily wheel bearings in internal brake assemblies, and where compatibility with rubber is required MIL-PRF-4343 [Grease, Pneumatic System] -65 to 200 °F Thickening agent and blend of silicone and diester Rubber to metal lubrication: pneumatic and oxygen systems MIL-G-25537C [Grease, Helicopter Oscillating Bearing] -65 to 160 °F Thickening agent and mineral oil Lubrication of bearings having oscillating motion of small amplitude MIL-G-6032D [Grease, Plug Valve, Gasoline and Oil Resistant] 32 to 200 °F Thickening agent, vegetable oils, glycerols, and/or polyesters Pump bearings, valves and fittings where specified for fuel resistance MIL-PRF-2617F [Grease, Aircraft Fuel and Oil Resistant] -30 to 400 °F Thickening agent and fluorocarbon or fluorosilicone Tapered plug and oxygen system valves; certain fuel system components; antiseize MIL-G-25013E [Grease, Ball and Roller Bearing, Extreme High Temp] -100 to 450 °F Thickening agent and silicone fluid Ball and roller bearing lubrication 5-20

Figure 5-12 — Types of grease guns.

Figure 5-13 — Types of lubrication fittings. Methods of Application Different types of lubricants may be applied by any one of several methods. Common methods are by grease gun, by oil/squirt cans, by hand, and by brush. GREASE GUNS — There are numerous types and sizes of grease guns available for different equipment applications. The lever and one-handed lever guns are two of the most common types in use. The grease gun may be equipped with a flexible hose instead of a rigid extension. Different nozzles can be attached to the grease guns for different types of fittings. See Figure 5-12. OIL/SQUIRT CAN — Oil/squirt cans are used for general lubrication. Always use the specified oil for the part being lubricated. Before using oil cans , always check to make sure the oil can contains the proper lubricant. HAND — This method of lubrication is generally used for packing wheel bearings. It involves using grease in the palm of your hand to pack the bearings. BRUSH — This method of lubrication is used when it is necessary to cover a large area, or for coating tracks or guides with a lubricant. Lubrication Fittings There are several different types of grease fittings. They are the hydraulic (Zerk fitting), the buttonhead pin, and the flush type of fittings. (See Figure 5-13.) The two most commonly used fittings in naval aviation are the hydraulic- and flush-type fittings. These fittings are found on many parts of the aircraft. HYDRAULIC FITTINGS — This type protrudes from the surface into which it is screwed, and it has a rounded end that the mating nozzle of the grease gun grips. A spring-loaded ball acts as a check valve. Figure 5-13 shows a cross- sectional view of a straight hydraulic fitting and an angled hydraulic fitting made for lubricating parts that are hard to reach. FLUSH FITTINGS — This type of fitting sits flush with the surface into which it is placed. It will not interfere with moving parts. 5-21

Figure 5-14—Lubrication chart.

LUBRICATION SELECTION How do you know what grease or oil to select for a particular application? Lubrication instructions are issued for all equipment requiring lubrication. You will find that the MIM or Maintenance Requirements Cards (MRCs) provide you with lubrication information. In the event that the exact lubricant is not available and a substitution is not listed, request substitution through the chain of command. LUBRICATION CHARTS The lubrication requirements for each model of aircraft are given in the “General Information and Servicing” section of the MIM. In the MIM you will find the necessary support equipment and consumable material requirements. A table/chart similar to the one shown in Figure 5-14 lists all of the various types of lubricants used in lubricating the whole aircraft. Additional information, such as application symbols, specification numbers, and symbols are provided in this table.

SURFACE TREATMENT IDENTIFICATION LETTERS SPECIFICATION TYPE OF LUBRICANT/COMPOUND BRW

MIL-PRF-81322G

Grease Aircraft, General Purpose, Wide Temperature. GIA

MIL-PRF-23827C Grease Aircraft And Instrument, Gear And Actuator Screw. GMD

MIL-PRF-21164D Grease, Molybdenum Disulfide (For Low And High Temperature). OAI

MIL-PRF-6085D Lubricating Oil; Aircraft Instrument, Low Volatility. OHA

MIL-PRF-83282D Hydraulic Fluid, Fire Resistant Synthetic Hydrocarbon Base, Aircraft. MIL-PRF-6083F Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base, Preservative. PL-SPECIAL

MIL-PRF-32033 Lubricating Oil, General Purpose, Preservative (Water Displacing, Low Temperature). GOS

MIL-PRF-10324A or Silogram APG 75 (Alternate) Lubricating Oil, Gear, Sub-Zero. †(NONE)

MIL-PRF-16173E Corrosion Preventive Compound, Solvent Cutback, Cold Application. ††(NONE)

MIL-PRF-81309 Corrosion Preventive Compound, Water Displacing, Ultra Thin Film. 5-22

You should use the MRCs as a guide to the lubrication of aircraft. Figure 5-15 shows the front and back of these cards, which cover one specific area of aircraft lubrication. The top section of the card gives the card number, MRC publication number, frequency of application, time to do this section of cards, manpower required, name of area being lubricated, and if electrical/hydraulic power is needed. The card illustrates the unit to be lubricated, and the number and types of fittings. The type of grease or oil to be used is listed with each item.

Figure 5-15 — Typical lubrication MRC. 5-23

Figure 5-15 — Typical lubrication MRC—Continued.

5-24

Figure 5-15 — Typical lubrication MRC—Continued. Prior to lubricating any parts, consult the MIMs or MRCs for proper equipment and type of lubricant. Consult the MSDS for any special safety precautions. Remove all foreign matter from joints, fittings, and bearing surfaces. A clean, lint-free cloth soaked with a cleaning solvent may be used for this purpose. The lubricant should be applied sparingly to prevent accumulation of dust, dirt, and other foreign matter. When you apply lubricants through pressure-type fittings with a grease gun, make sure the lubricant appears around the bushing. If no grease emerges around the bushing, check the fitting and grease gun for proper operation. You should make sure the grease gun is properly attached to the fitting, and wipe up all excess grease when done. If the flush-type fitting is being used, the grease gun must be equipped with the flush-type adapter. Hold the adapter perpendicular to the surface of the fitting when you use the gun. A 15-degree variation is permitted. 5-25

Figure 5-16 — Wire rope slings.

Figure 5-17 — Typical steel/aluminum sling. AIRCRAFT HOISTING SLINGS There are three main conditions that might require you to hoist an aircraft or its components. They are aircraft mechanical problems, ship mechanical problems, and aircraft mishap afloat or ashore. Aircraft lifting slings are specialized items of support equipment whose function is to aid in the hoisting of aircraft and aircraft components. Each airframe has structural lifting points for the attachment of a sling designed to lift that aircraft or aircraft subassembly. Slings are used to hoist aircraft from the pier to the carrier deck, clear crash-damaged aircraft, and to remove and install engines and other components during maintenance operations. In general, slings are hand portable and attach to a single suspension hook of a crane or other hoisting equipment. LIFTING SLINGS IDENTIFICATION Aircraft lifting slings are constructed in accordance with MILSPEC MIL-S-5944, and can be classified under four types of construction or combinations of type. The four types are the wire rope, the fabric or webbing type, the structural steel or aluminum type, and the chains. Wire Rope Slings of this type employ wire rope or cable. The wire rope sling is the most common type, and it combines high strength, ease of manufacture, and a great deal of flexibility for compact storage. There are two basic types of wire rope slings. The simplest is a multi -legged wire rope sling with an apex-lifting link. The other is one built with structural steel or aluminum in combination with wire rope supports. See Figure 5-16. Fabric or Webbing Fabric or webbing-type slings are generally reserved for lifting lightweight objects or applications where contact between wire rope and the component being lifted could result in damage. Structural Steel or Aluminum Slings of this type are constructed with plates, tubing, I- beams, and other structural shapes, and they do not contain flexible components. (See Figure 5-17.) Structural steel and aluminum slings are generally compact in size, and they are often used for lifting aircraft subassemblies. 5-26

WARNING

Slings that fail to pass the inspections, or slings suspected of having been used during hoisting operations beyond the rated capacity of the sling, will not be used under any circumstance. Unserviceable slings are forwarded to the applicable Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department for further analysis and disposition.

Figure 5-18 — Combination wire rope and chain sling.

Chains Chains are generally used in combination with one of the other types of sling construction. (See Figure 5-18.) A chain with a chain adjuster provides a simplified method of shifting the lifting point on a sling to match the component's center of gravity under a variety of hoisting configurations. LIFTING SLING MAINTENANCE Load-bearing cables, chains, straps, and other structural members of hoisting and restraining devices are subject to wear and deterioration. It is necessary that these components be inspected and lubricated periodically to ensure safe and proper operation. On initial receipt of equipment or return of equipment from depot-level repair, the Fleet Repair Center (FRC) will perform a visual inspection of the hardware for missing or damaged components. Upon completion of the inspection, the FRC will tag all equipment in accordance with the Inspection and Proofload Testing of Lifting Slings and Restraining Devices for Aircraft and Related Components manual, NAVAIR 17-1-114. Preinstallation Inspection Before each use, or once a month as in the case of emergency handling slings, a complete visual inspection of wire rope, fabric or webbing, structural steel or aluminum, and chain slings must be performed. 5-27

Figure 5-19 — Cross sections of wire rope. Figure 5-20 — Measuring the diameter of a wire rope. WIRE ROPE — To assist in understanding various inspection criteria for wire rope, a basic knowledge of wire rope construction is required. Each individual cylindrical steel rod or thread is known as a wire. Each group of wires twisted together forms a strand. A group of strands twisted around a central core is known as a wire rope or cable. A filler wire is a wire used to fill the voids between wires in a strand and between strands in a wire rope. They provide stability to the shape of the strand or wire rope with little strength contribution. Wire rope construction is designated by two numbers, the first being the number of strands in a cable, and the second being the number of wires in each strand. The following wire rope constructions are used in the fabrication of aircraft hoisting slings. See Figure 5-19. A 7 × 7 wire rope consists of six strands of seven wires each twisted around a single core strand of seven wires. The 7 × 7 construction is used on wire ropes measuring 1/16 and 3/32 inch in diameter. Similarly, 7 × 19 wire rope is constructed with six strands of 19 wires each twisted about a core strand also containing 19 wires. The 7 × 19 wire ropes measure from 1/8 to 3/8 inch in diameter. A 6 × 19 independent wire rope core (IWRC) cable consists of six strands, each containing 19 wires twisted about a core that is of a 7 × 7 construction. The 6 × 19 (IWRC) wire rope measures from 7/16 to 1 1/2 inches in diameter. During the inspection of a wire rope, the measurements of the diameter and lay length (pitch length) often lead to confusion. The diameter and lay length are defined as follows: 1. Diameter. The diameter of a wire rope is the diameter of a circle circumscribed around the cable cross section. Figure 5-20 shows the proper method of measuring the diameter of a wire rope. 2. Lay Length. The distance, parallel to the axis of the cable, in which a strand makes one complete turn about that axis is known as the lay length or pitch length. Figure 5-21 shows the lay length of a wire rope. Wire rope cables are visually inspected for knots, fraying, stretching, abrasions, severe corrosion, and other signs of failure. Of particular importance is the detection of a cable in which a kink has been 5-28

Figure 5-21 —Cable lay length. Figure 5-22 — Cable damage resulting from a pulled-through kink. pulled through in order to straighten the cable. The resultant deformation is known as a bird cage. See Figure 5-22. In such a case, the sling should be discarded. The presence of one or more broken wires in one rope lay length or one or more broken wires near an attached fitting is cause for replacement. If a broken wire is the result of corrosion or if the cable is excessively corroded, the cable must not be used regardless of the number of broken wires. Replace cables exhibiting rust and development of broken wires in the vicinity of attached fittings. Replace wire ropes evidencing bulges, core protrusions, or excessive reductions in rope diameter. FABRIC OR WEBBING — Fabric or webbing straps must be visually inspected for cuts, holes, severe abrasions, mildew, dry rot, broken stitches, frays, and deterioration. Deterioration may be caused by contact with foreign materials such as oil, fuel, solvents, caustic fluids, dirt, and lye. The existence of any of the above conditions renders the sling unserviceable. Twists, knots, and similar distortions must be corrected before use. STRUCTURAL STEEL OR ALUMINUM — Visually inspect all terminals, shackles, lugs, and structural members for misalignment, wear, corrosion, deformation, loosening, slippage, fractures, open welds, pitting, and gouges. Examine slides and screw adjusters for burrs, misalignment, and ease of operation. Inspect sling attachment bolts and pins for elongation, wear, deformed threads, and other signs of imminent failure. CHAINS — Chains must be visually inspected for stretched links, wear gouges, open welds, fractures, kinks, knots, and corrosion. Examine chain attachment fittings and adjusters for security, wear, corrosion, and deformation. Lubrication, Transportation, and Storage Requirements Examine and lubricate all slings once a month in accordance with NAVAIR 17-1-114. When transporting slings, they should be carried at all times. Dragging slings over floors, runways, decks, and obstructions can cut or severely abrade the material. This malpractice results in an unserviceable sling. Whenever possible, slings should be stored indoors in a clean, dry, well-ventilated area so as to be protected from moisture, salt atmosphere, and acids of all types. In addition, slings constructed with nylon or other fabric materials should be stored in such a way as to prevent contact with sharp objects, high temperatures, and sunlight. Fabric materials deteriorate rapidly from prolonged exposure to sunlight or excessive heat, severely reducing strength and service life. Where practicable, slings should be securely fastened to overhead storage racks to prevent accidental damage. Avoid laying slings on ash or concrete floors. 5-29

Hoisting Restrictions There are many restrictions to hoisting for each type of aircraft. Most hoisting restrictions are the same as for jacking aircraft. If you violate any of these restrictions, there is a good chance that you will have an accident, damage the aircraft, or injure someone. The restrictions generally concern aircraft gross weight and configuration. Some of the considerations are access (stress) panels on or off, external stores on or off, and wings fol ded or spread. There are many factors that can affect the safety of the aircraft and personnel during hoisting operation. For details on restrictions and for the proper installation of any sling, consult the applicable MIM. Don't forget that many squadrons have their own local standing instructions for hoisting aircraft that contain additional safety precautions and restrictions. You must know these precautions and restrictions as well. Prior to carrier operation, aircraft hoist points are inspected for serviceability and easy access in an emergency. For details on how to accomplish this inspection on your aircraft, consult the applicable MIM. AIRCRAFT JACKING The following text will familiarize you with the various types of jacks, their use, and general safety procedures. You will become familiar with jack identification, preoperational inspections, and jacking procedures. JACK IDENTIFICATION All aircraft hydraulic jacks are either axle or airframe (tripod) jacks. These jacks use standard, authorized aircraft hydraulic fluid. They have a safety bypass valve that prevents damage when a load in excess of 10 percent over the rated capacity is applied. For example, the safety valve on a 10- ton jack will bypass fluid at 11 tons of pressure. Axle Jacks Axle jacks are used for raising one main landing gear or the nose gear of an aircraft for maintenance of tires, wheels, and struts. There are four different types of axle jacks and many different sizes (lifting capacity in tons). The smaller hydraulic axle jacks are normally squadron or unit permanent custody equipment. That means your outfit is responsible for making sure the jacks are load tested at the support equipment (SE) division of the FRC before being put into service, and annually thereafter. Special inspections include 13-week inspections at FRC SE, but a load test is not required every 13 weeks. A record of maintenance, inspections, technical directives, and load testing is kept on OPNAV Form 4790/51. All model designations for axle jacks begin with the letter A, for axle, such as A10-1HC. The number following the A shows the jack capacity in tons, such as 10 for a 10-ton jack. This is followed by a dash (-) and the specific jack identification number. Then comes two letters that show the type of jack (HC = hand-carried, HS = horseshoe, and OR = outrigger). The three types of axle jacks are discussed in the following text. 5-30

Figure 5-23 — Hand-carried axle jack. Figure 5-24 — Horseshoe axle jack. Figure 5-25 — Outrigger axle jack.

HAND-CARRIED — These axle jacks (Figure 5-23) are portable, self-contained units, with single or double manually operated pumps. They have carrying handles, pump handles, reservoir vent valves, release valves, and safety valves. The different model sizes vary from 4 3/4 inches to 9 inches high (closed). Their weights vary from 26 to 120 pounds. HORSESHOE — Horseshoe axle (Figure 5-24), or crocodile jacks, consist of a lifting arm supported by two hydraulic cylinders. The cylinders move up over the stationary pistons when the manual pump operates. The A25-1HS is a large jack— 5 feet long, 5 feet 8 inches wide, standing 2 feet 1 3/4 inches high, and weighing 900 pounds. OUTRIGGER — This cantilever axle jack (Figure 5- 25) is a very large and heavy jack. It weighs 2,190 pounds and is 7 feet 3 inches long, 6 feet 8 inches wide, and 2 feet 3 inches high. A double (two-speed) pump mounts on the left-hand side of the frame to operate the hydraulic cylinder. Airframe (Tripod) Jacks Airframe (tripod) jacks are used for lifting the entire aircraft off the ground or deck. Airframe jacks are commonly called tripod jacks. You may hear them called wing, nose, fuselage, or tail jacks. These names come from the jack placement on the aircraft. The points for jacking vary with the type of aircraft, and can be found in the MIM for each type of aircraft. There are two different types of tripod jacks—fixed height and variable height. Both are mobile, self-contained, hydraulically operated units. They consist of three basic assemblies. These assemblies are the hydraulic cylinder, the tubular steel wheel tripod leg structure, and the hydraulic pump. The main difference between the two types is that the tripod structure on a variable height jack can be adjusted to different heights by adding leg extensions. All model designations for tripod jacks begin with the letter T, for Tripod, such as T10-2FL or T20-1VH5. The number following the T indicates the jack capacity in tons, such as 10 for a 10-ton jack. This is followed by a dash (-) and the specific jack identification number. Then comes two letters indicating the type of tripod jack (FH = fixed height, or VH = variable height). The number that follows the VH in variable height jacks indicates the number of leg extension 5-31

Figure 5-26 — Airframe (tripod) jacks. kits available for that jack. Figure 5-26 shows a T20-1VH5 jack with only two of five extension leg kits installed. Each leg extension kit increases the effective height of the basic jack by 18 inches. The airframe tripod jacks weight varies from 275 pounds to 837 pounds. Several safety features are built into the tripod jacks. A locknut—also called a ring or collar—on the ram mechanically locks the ram in position. The locknut prevents the ram from settling in the event of hydraulic failure or inadvertent lowering. A safety bypass valve in the system bypasses fluid from the pump or ram when excessive pressure is built up. Airframe (tripod) jacks are normally checked out from the SE division (FRC) when needed. Since transporting these heavy and cumbersome jacks is a problem, they often remain in custody of an organization for a prolonged period of time. The organization must be responsible for their care and cleanliness during periods when not in use. As with axle jacks, these jacks need to be load tested prior to being placed in service—and annually thereafter. Special inspections are performed every 13 weeks at FRC SE and recorded on the OPNAV Form 4790/51. The MIM will show what type of aircraft jack to use at each position. During deployment, the jacks that are called for in the MIM may not be available. The Index and Application Tables for Aircraft Jacks, NAVAIR 19-70-46, contain a list of approved prime and alternate jacks for all Navy and Marine aircraft. It was prepared under the direction of the Commander, Naval Air System Command, by the Naval Air Engineering Center. 5-32

PREOPERATIONAL INSPECTION The same basic safety precautions apply to all jacks. A good preoperational inspection should be conducted before use. NAVAIR 19-600-135-6-1 is the general pre-op MRC for all jacks. The jack must have been tested within the last 13 weeks and if the jack is dirty, it should be wiped down. Cracks or broken welds can’t be seen under dirt. If the jack is covered with hydraulic fluid, it may be leaking and should be inspected more closely. The reservoir should be checked and it should be full with the jack ram fully collapsed. If the reservoir is low, it should be checked for leaks somewhere. The reservoir should be filled with clean, fresh, hydraulic fluid and the filler plug vent valve checked to make sure it is not clogged. If the plug is blocked, it may get an air lock, and the jack may not operate correctly. Pressure could also build up in the reservoir and cause a rupture. The pump handle needs to be checked for bends and the pump rocker arm and link for elongated or out-of-round holes. These are signs that the jack may have been overloaded, and that the safety bypass valve is malfunctioning. With the filler plug air vent valve open and the release valve closed, the ram should be pumped up and checked for leaks and full extension. When the ram reaches full extension, the pumping pressure will increase. It is important not to continue to pump or it may cause damage to the internal ram stops because there is no load on the jack. The ram and screw should be lowered out the extension screw, but not forcibly overextended past the internal stops. It should be checked that it is clean and oiled. If it is dirty, it should be wiped clean and coated with a light film of MIL-PRF-7870 oil. On jacks equipped with wheels, the wheels and springs suspension assemblies must be checked to make sure they are in good condition. Towing or dragging these jacks around with broken wheels will damage the frame or reservoir. Since many leaks in jacks will only appear when the jack is under a load, possible leaks can be found when jacking the aircraft. If a leak or other defect is found during the preoperational inspection, use of the jack should be discontinued. The jack should be downed, red-lined, tagged as bad, reported, and turned into the SE division (FRC) for repairs. A defective jack should never be left where someone else may use it. HANDLING AND MOVEMENT Handling airframe jacks can be hazardous. The jacks are heavy— anywhere from 110 to 900 pounds—and the wheels are free-swiveling and small. Directional stability is poor, and pushing one into position around an aircraft is no simple chore. A jack moved or positioned by one person is hazardous. If the jack is dirty and covered with grease or fluid, it's even more hazardous. The jack footplates and wheels at the base of the tripod stick out, and are notorious "foot-crunchers" and "shin- knockers." It's not hard to damage an aircraft tire, wheel brake assembly, hydraulic lines, landing gear door, or any other part of an aircraft if someone is careless and rams it with a jack. Movement of jacks aboard ship during any pitch or roll of the deck is extremely hazardous. Even with a calm sea, a smart turn into the wind by the ship while you're moving an airframe jack can be disastrous. Movement of jacks from hangar to hangar, through hangar bays, and across hangar tracks and ramp seams can easily damage a jack and put it out of commission— just when someone needs it! Transportation of jacks over longer distances ashore, such as from the SE pool to a hangar on the other side of the field, can be a real problem. If the SE division (FRC) has locally fabricated a special "jack transporter" trailer, you're in luck. If any other type of trailer, truck, or flatbed is used, sufficient manpower must be available to get the jacks on and off the vehicle safely. Jacks are heavy and cumbersome to handle. Loading and unloading is hazardous even when there are enough people. 5-33

Usually, a locally fabricated sling and some sort of hoist are necessary. Forklifts should never be used to handle or lift jacks. The tripod cross braces are not strong enough, and this will damage the jack. The chances of dropping it are also high. Forklifts must NOT be used to handle jacks. The wheels on a tripod jack are not made for towing the jack. They are small, allow only a couple of inches of clearance, and are spring loaded. Bouncing over uneven surfaces will usually cause the jack footplates to hit the ground, and that can spin the jack around, tip it over, or damage the tripod structure. Airframe jacks don't have tow bars , the wheels can't be locked in position so they track, and there are no brakes. NEVER try to tow airframe jacks. Free-swiveling casters and no brakes also mean that jacks can move by themselves if not properly secured. A loose, 900-pound tripod jack on a pitching hangar deck could be disastrous. Jacks can also be moved by jet or prop blast. Therefore, any jack that isn't tied down can be a hazard. Since there are no tie-down rings on the jacks, care must be taken in attaching the tie-down chains or ropes to prevent damage to the jack. This is particularly true aboard ship where the jacks are likely to be "working" against the tie-downs in rough seas. General Hazards The extension screws on jacks have a maximum extension range. This range is stenciled on the jack. An internal stop prevents overextending the screw. If the screw is forcibly overextended—which isn't hard to do—not only could damage be done to the internal stop mechanism, but the jack may be rendered unsafe and hazardous to use. An overextended screw is very likely to bend or break off from any side motion. Each extension screw on a jack is equipped with a jack pad socket. The aircraft jack pad fits into this socket and into a fitting or socket in the aircraft. The sockets and pads are designed to take vertical loads but not much horizontal pressure. The pads can shear or slip from either the jack or aircraft socket if enough side load is applied. Side loads normally result when the jacks are not raised at the same rate. This causes the aircraft to tilt or pitch. When that happens, the distance between the jacking points becomes closer in the ground plane— like the ends of a ruler will cover less distance across a desk top as you raise one end. With the weight of the aircraft holding the jacks in one place, that "shrink" in distance between the jack points creates a tremendous side load on the jacks, and eventually they will break or slip. The same thing happens if all the jacks aren't lowered at the same rate to keep the aircraft level or at the same attitude it was in when jacking started. Lowering the jack can be very hazardous. The rate of descent of a jack depends on how far the release valve is opened. Control can be very tricky when trying to coordinate three jacks at once. Usually, it takes only a small amount of rotation on the valve to get a fast rate of descent. If the valve was tightened hard before jacking, it will take force to open it. Care must be taken so extra force doesn’t cause the valve to open more than expected. The valves may vary in different jacks, so it is best to get an idea of how an individual release valve reacts during the preop check. But remember it comes down a lot quicker with a 30-ton load than with a 5-ton load. There is a safeguard to prevent the jack from lowering too fast—the safety locknut. The safety locknuts on jacks are a very important safeguard in preventing the aircraft from falling off the jacks in the event of jack failure. However, using them during raising, and particularly during lowering operations, is hazardous to hands and fingers. To be effective, the locknut must be kept about one- half thread above the top surface of the jack (the top of the ram cylinder or second ram, depending upon the model of jack). It is important to carefully keep fingers and hands clear of the area between the locknut and cylinder head so they won't be pinched or crushed. This will be easier while the jack is being raised and the locknut rotated down. Variable height jack rams have spiral grooves, which allow the locknut to rotate down the ram by its own weight. However, this means that while lowering 5-34

the jack, the locknut must be held up as it is rotated up the ram. This makes it more dangerous. Depending upon the height of the jack, it normally takes two people to operate the jack and the safety nut. Do NOT try to do it by yourself. Jacking Restrictions There are many restrictions to jacking for each type aircraft. If any of these restrictions are violated, there is a good chance that there will be an accident, damage to the aircraft, or injury. The restrictions generally concern aircraft gross weight and configuration. Some of the considerations are fuel dispersion in fuselage and wing tanks, engines in or out, and tail hook up or down. Details on restrictions and procedures are in the MIMs. These should be learned and followed exactly. Many squadrons will have their own local standing instructions for jacking aircraft, which contain additional safety precautions and restrictions to be followed. JACKING PROCEDURES The jacking procedures vary for each aircraft type and configuration. The procedures that follow are examples of what could be encountered. Fairly exacting steps are given to provide clarity. Remember, these steps are for representative type aircraft, and are not necessarily accurate for all. When actually jacking aircraft, the exact procedures described in the MIMs must be followed. The location of the aircraft will determine what is needed for equipment. Jacking procedures on a ship require tie-down procedures to prevent aircraft from shifting on jacks. When tie-down chains are to be used, they should be positioned in accordance with the MIM, so as not to interfere with the landing gear during the drop check of the gear. Jacking procedures on land do not require tie-downs, except in high-wind conditions. Aboard ship, squadron maintenance controls will request, through the carrier air group (CAG), permission to place an aircraft on jacks. The MIM should be checked for jacking restrictions, warnings, and cautions. The support equipment required by the MIM should be obtained, ensuring all preoperational inspections have been completed. All protective covers and ground safety devices should be installed, as required by the MIM. The surrounding area around the aircraft must be roped off during the entire aircraft jacking operation, and signs posted stating "DANGER: AIRCRAFT ON JACKS." The area below and around the aircraft must be cleared of all equipment not required for the jacking operation. Jack adapters must be installed, as well as aircraft mooring adapters and tie- down chains as required by the MIM. Figure 5-27 shows an example of carrier tie-down for aircraft jacking. Wing and nose jacks must be positioned and extended until seated on wing jack and tie- down adapters. 5-35

Figure 5-27 — Carrier tie-down for aircraft jacking.

Raising Aircraft Jack pressure should be applied on each jack without lifting the aircraft, and checked to see that the base of each jack is evenly seated. The base position of the jack should be corrected, as required, for firm base seating. For shipboard operations, all jacks must be tie-down before jacking aircraft with a minimum of three tie-down chains per jack. The jack must be tied down at the spring-loaded wheel caster mounts, allowing the jacks to make small movements with the aircraft jack points. The aircraft parking brake must be released and main landing gear chocks removed. The aircraft should be jacked evenly and tie-down chains extended while jacking. Extension of tie-down chains must be coordinated in a way that preload on each tie-down chain is partially removed before jacking. Partial preload is maintained with jacking of aircraft by rotation of the chain tensioning grip.

NOTE Some aircraft require the extension of the center screw to provide for clearance of the gear doors. 5-36

Figure 5-28 — Aircraft leveling.

As each jack is being extended, the lock collar must be screwed down. The aircraft should be jacked until its wheels clear the deck, and the lock collar set hand tight. Each tie-down chain must be set to preload by manually rotating and tightening tensioning grip. Leveling Aircraft An aircraft leveling technique is shown in Figure 5-28. Aircraft should be jacked at wing and nose jack point as described earlier. The plumb bob and string should be attached to the eye bolt at FS 259 (fuselage station) and positioned directly over the leveling plate on floor of aircraft. The aircraft should be leveled laterally (left to right) by adjusting wing jacks until the plumb bob tip is directly above the center line in the leveling plate. The aircraft should be leveled longitudinally (forward and aft) by adjusting the nose jack until the plumb bob tip is directly above FS 259 line on the leveling plate. This procedure varies greatly with different types of aircraft. The applicable MIM must be used to perform a leveling procedure. Lowering Aircraft The landing gear safety pins must be safely installed. The arresting hook should be retracted. The arresting hook safety pin should be installed or verified that it is installed. It must also be verified that the landing gear handle in the flight station is in the DN (down) position. Any exposed surfaces of the shock strut piston and nose oleo strut should be lubricated with clean hydraulic fluid.

J acking pressure should be applied and the lock collar on wing jacks and nose jack loosened. All jacks should be lowered evenly and slowly, while maintaining preload on tie-down chains by manually rotating tensioning grips. Jacks should be lowered until landing gear wheels are on deck and jacks are clear of jack pads by a safe margin.

CAUTION

Use extreme care to raise wing jacks in coordinated, small, equal amounts. Preload on the tie-down chain is too high when tensioning grip cannot be rotated manually.

NOTE Wiping down oleo struts with hydraulic fluid helps to prevent them from sticking. 5-37

The chocks must be installed and the parking brakes applied. The jacks should be removed. As required by the MIM, the jack adapters should be removed and the aircraft mooring adapters and tie- down chains installed or removed as required by the MIM. After the aircraft is secured and all protective covers and ground safety devices are installed, the area should be cleaned up and all equipment stowed. HYDRAULIC CONTAMINATION CONTROL PROGRAM Hydraulic contamination in Navy and Marine Corps aircraft and related support equipment (SE) is a major cause of hydraulic system and component failure. Every technician who performs hydraulic maintenance should be aware of the causes and effects of hydraulic contamination. Correct practices and procedures should be followed to prevent contamination. Supervisory and quality assurance personnel must know and ensure compliance with accepted standards. Each maintenance level needs to accept their applicable responsibility. Supervisory personnel at each level of maintenance should indoctrinate and train personnel and implement procedures that apply to that level of maintenance. The Hydraulic Contamination Control Program is defined in the COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2 (series). Within the scope of this program, training must be consistent with the objectives of an effective aircraft hydraulic contamination control program. At all maintenance levels, personnel must be trained in matters pertaining to hydraulic systems contamination control using the Hydraulic Contamination Control Training Device 4B38A or Videotape Number 802577DN. The Hydraulic Contamination Control Program requires that the correct procedures be followed during fluid sampling, maintenance procedures, and practices. FLUID SAMPLING Contamination measurement standards and acceptability limits define and control hydraulic contamination levels. The maximum acceptable hydraulic fluid particulate level is Navy Standard Class 5 for naval aircraft and Navy Standard Class 3 for related SE. The contamination level of a particular system is determined by analysis of a fluid sample drawn from the system. Analysis is accomplished at all levels of maintenance through the use of the HACH Ultra Analytics Portable Oil Diagnostic System (PODS). Hydraulic system fluid sampling is accomplished on a periodic basis according to the applicable maintenance instruction manual (MIM), maintenance requirement cards (MRC), and rework specification. Figure 5-29 shows the requirements for periodic fluid surveillance. CAUTION

Jacks should be promptly removed from the aircraft's underside to prevent structural damage to the aircraft in the event of settling. WARNING

Make sure that the aircraft main and nose landing gear struts have settled to their normal position prior to entering main or nose landing gear wheel wells. Failure to allow landing gear to settle could result in personnel injury. 5-38

Analysis of hydraulic systems should be performed if extensive maintenance and/or crash/battle damage occurs. Analysis should be performed when a metal-generating component fails, an erratic flight control function or a hydraulic pressure drop is noted, or there are repeated and/or extensive system malfunctions. Analysis is performed when there is a loss of system fluid, or when the system is subjected to excessive temperature. Analysis is also performed when an aircraft is removed from storage in accordance with NAVAIR 15-05-500. An analysis of the hydraulic system should also be performed any time hydraulic contamination is suspected.

Figure 5-29 — Periodic fluid surveillance requirements. MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES The general contamination control procedures and testing of hydraulic systems, subsystems, components, and fluids are requirements for each maintenance level. Hydraulic fluid contamination controls ensure the cleanliness and purity of fluid in the hydraulic system. Fluid sampling and analysis is performed periodically. Checks are made sufficiently before the scheduled aircraft induction date so that if fluid decontamination is required, it may be accomplished at that time. The condition of the fluid depends, to a large degree, on the condition of the components in the system. If a system requires frequent component replacement and servicing, the condition of the fluid deteriorates proportionately. Replacement of aircraft hydraulic system filter elements takes place on a scheduled or conditional basis, depending upon the requirements of the specific system. A differential pressure flow check and bubble point test are performed to properly evaluate the condition of a cleanable filter element. These two checks are done to verify that the element is good before it is installed in a system or component. Many filter elements look identical, but not all of them are compatible with flow requirements of the system. If the hydraulic system fluid is lost to the point that the hydraulic pumps run dry or cavitate, the defective pumps should be changed, the filter elements checked, and the system decontaminated as 5-39

required. The applicable MIM should be checked for corrective action to be taken regarding decontamination of the system. If this action is not taken, the complete system could be contaminated. Hydraulic systems and components are serviced by using approved fluid dispensing equipment only. Unfiltered hydraulic fluid should NEVER be introduced into systems or components. All portable hydraulic test stands must receive the required periodic maintenance checks. Each unit must be approved and the applicable MIM should be readily accessible and up to date. When the portable hydraulic test stand is not in use, it should be protected against contaminants such as dust and water. It is important to ensure that correct hoses are used on each stand, and that they are approved for the type of fluid being used. Hoses should be properly capped when they are not being used. Hoses must be serialized and must remain with the equipment. The hoses must be coiled, kept free of kinks, and properly stowed. They should be in satisfactory condition and checked periodically. Any hose that exhibits fluid seepage from the outer cover or separation between the inner tube and the outer cover should be replaced. Portable hydraulic test stands that show indications of contamination or that have loaded (clogged) filters should be removed from service immediately and returned to the supporting activity for maintenance. Only approved lubricants for O-ring seals should be used; incorrect lubricants will contaminate a system. Many lubricants look alike, but few are compatible with hydraulic fluids. The only approved O- ring seal lubricants are hydraulic fluid MIL-PRF -5606H, hydraulic fluid MIL-PRF-83282C, hydraulic fluid MIL-PRF-46170D, or a thin film of grease, MIL-PRF-81322F. MAINTENANCE PRACTICES Good housekeeping and maintenance practices help eliminate problems caused by contamination. Care must be taken when working on a hydraulic system in the open, especially under adverse weather conditions. Caution should be used when working on hydraulic equipment near grinding, blasting, machining, or other contaminant-generating operations. Often, harmful grit cannot be seen. Hydraulic systems should not be broken into unless absolutely necessary (this includes cannibalization). Proper tools should be used for the job. It is important to use only authorized hydraulic fluid, O-rings, lubricants, or filter elements. When dispensing hydraulic fluid, only an authorized fluid service unit should be used. The hydraulic fluid must be clean before it is installed. All empty hydraulic fluid cans and used hydraulic fluid must be disposed of in accordance with Navy and local hazardous material (HAZMAT) instructions. All hydraulic fluid should be in a closed container at all times. All hydraulic test stand reservoirs should be kept above three-quarters full. All hydraulic lines, tubing, hoses, fittings, and components should be sealed with approved metal closures. Plastic plugs or caps should not be used because they are possible contamination sources. Quick-disconnect dust covers should be installed and unused caps and plugs should be stored in a clean container. Exterior contaminants should be removed by using approved wiping cloths. Lint-free wiping cloths should be used on surfaces along the fluid path. If possible, the replacement component should be kept on hand for immediate installation upon removal of defective component. Filters should be replaced immediately after removal. If possible, the filter bowl should be filled with proper hydraulic fluid before it is installed to minimize the induction of air into the system. The differential pressure indicators should not be reset if the associated filter element is loaded and in need of replacement. When cleanable filter elements are removed from hydraulic systems, they should be put in individual polyethylene bags and forwarded to the intermediate- or depot-level maintenance activity for cleaning. Cleanable filter elements should NOT be cleaned by washing them in a container and blowing them out with shop air. Cleanable filter elements must be cleaned and tested according to applicable procedures before they are reused. All connections should be cleaned and the pressure and return lines of the stand should be interconnected. The hydraulic fluid should be circulated through the test stand filters before connecting portable hydraulic test stands to aircraft. 5-40

Figure 5-30 — Graphic comparison of particle sizes.

O-rings, tubing hoses, fittings, and components should be stored in clean packaging. Individual packages of O-rings or backup rings should not be opened or punctured until just before they are used. Used or unidentifiable O-rings should not be used. Seals or backup rings should be replaced with new items when they have been disturbed. The correct O-ring should always be used when O- rings are installed over threaded fittings to prevent threads from damaging the O-ring. If packages of tubing, hoses, fittings, or components are opened when received or found opened, their contents should be decontaminated. The system should be decontaminated if it is suspected the system is contaminated with anything (including water). The working area where hydraulic components are repaired, serviced, or stored should be kept clean and free from moisture, metal chips, and other contaminants. Required period checks should be performed on equipment used to service hydraulic systems. Hydraulic fluid MIL-PRF-46170D should be used in stationary hydraulic test stands. TYPES OF CONTAMINATION There are many different forms of contamination, including liquids, gases, and solid matter of various compositions, sizes, and shapes. Normally, contamination in an operating hydraulic system originates at several different sources. The rate of its introduction depends upon many factors directly related to wear and chemical reaction. Contamination removal can reverse this trend. Production of contaminants in the hydraulic system increases with the number of system components. The rate of contamination from external sources is not readily predictable. A hydraulic system can be seriously contaminated by poor maintenance practices that lead to introducing large amounts of external contaminants. Poorly maintained SE is another source of contamination. Contaminants in hydraulic fluids are classified as particulate and fluid contamination. They may be further classified according to their type, such as organic, metallic solids, nonmetallic solids, foreign fluids, air, and water. PARTICULATE CONTAMINATION The type of contamination most often found in aircraft hydraulic systems consists of solid matter. This type of contamination is known as “particulate contamination.” The size of particulate matter in hydraulic fluid is measured in microns (millionths of a meter). The largest dimensions of the particle (using points on the outside of the particle as reference) are measured when determining its size. The relative size of particles, measured in microns, is shown in Figure 5-30. Table 5-5 shows the various classes of particulate contamination levels. NOTE Do not use chlorinated solvents to clean connectors. Use dry-cleaning solvent MIL-PRF-680 or filtered hydraulic fluid. 5-41

Table 5-5 — Particle Contamination Level by Class Contamination of hydraulic fluid with particulate matter is a principal cause of wear in hydraulic pumps, actuators, valves, and servo valves. Spool-type electro-hydraulic valves have been used in particle contamination experiments. The valves are easy to control and respond rapidly to repositioning. In these experiments, the valves were operated with both ultra clean and contaminated hydraulic fluids. The experiments proved that wear is accelerated by even small amounts of contamination. Contamination increases the rate of erosion of the sharp spool edges and general deterioration of the spool surfaces. Because of the extremely close fit of spools in servo valve housings, the valves are particularly susceptible to damage or erratic operation when operated with contaminated hydraulic fluid. Organic Contamination Organic solids or semisolids are one of the particulate contaminants found in hydraulic systems. They are produced by wear, oxidation, or polymerization (a chemical reaction). Organic solid contaminants found in the systems include minute particles of O-rings, seals, gaskets, and hoses. These contaminants are produced by wear or chemical reaction. Oxidation of hydraulic fluids increases with pressure and temperature. Antioxidants are blended into hydraulic fluids to minimize such oxidation. Oxidation products appear as organic acids, asphaltics, gums, and varnishes. These products combine with particles in the hydraulic fluid to form sludge. Some oxidation products are oil soluble and cause an increase in hydraulic fluid viscosity, while other oxidation products are not oil soluble and form sediment. Oil oxidation products are not abrasive. These products cause system degradation because the sludge or varnish-like materials collect at close-fitting, moving parts, such as the spool and sleeve on servo valves. Collection of oxidation products at these points causes sluggish valve response. 5-42

Metallic Solid Contamination Metallic solid contaminants are usually found in hydraulic systems. The size of the contaminants will range from microscopic particles to those you can see with the naked eye. These particles are the result of the wearing and scoring of bare metal parts and plating materials, such as silver and chromium. Wear products and other foreign metal particles, such as steel, aluminum, and copper, act as metallic catalysts in the formation of oxidation products. Fine metallic particles enter hydraulic fluid from within the system. Although most of the metals used for parts fabrication and plating are found in hydraulic fluid, the major metallic materials found are ferrous, aluminum, and chromium particles. Hydraulic pumps usually contribute the most contamination to the system because of their high- speed, internal movement. Other hydraulic systems produce hydraulic fluid contamination due to body wear and chipping. Hydraulic actuators and valves are affected by contamination. Large metallic or hard nonmetallic particles collect at the seal areas. These particles may groove the inside wall of the actuator body due to a scraping action. Smaller particles act as abrasives between the seals and the actuator body, causing wear and scoring. Eventually, the fluid leaks and the seals fail because the seal extrudes into the enlarged gap between the piston head and the bore of the actuator body. Once wear begins, it increases at a faster rate because wear particles add to the abrasive material. In a similar manner, metallic or nonmetallic parts may lodge in the poppets and poppet-seat portions of valves and cause system malfunction by holding valves open. Inorganic Solid Contamination The inorganic solid contaminant group includes dust, paint particles, dirt, and silicates. These and other materials are often drawn into hydraulic systems from external sources. The wet piston shaft of a hydraulic actuator may draw some of these foreign materials into the cylinder past the wiper and dynamic seals. The contaminant materials are then dispersed in the hydraulic fluid. Also, contaminants may enter the hydraulic fluid during maintenance when tubing, hoses, fittings, and components are disconnected or replaced. To avoid these problems, all exposed fluid ports should be sealed with approved protective closures. Glass particles from glass bead peening and blasting are another contaminant. Glass particles are particularly undesirable because glass abrades synthetic rubber seals and the very fine surfaces of critical moving parts. FLUID CONTAMINATION Hydraulic fluid can be contaminated by air, water, solvents, and foreign fluids. These contaminants and their effects are discussed in the following text. Air Contamination Hydraulic fluids are adversely affected by dissolved, entrained, or free air. Air may be introduced through improper maintenance or as a result of system design. Air is sometimes introduced when changing filters. This kind of contamination can be minimized by putting hydraulic fluid into the filter holder before reassembling the filter. By doing this, less air is introduced into the hydraulic system. The presence of air in a hydraulic system causes spongy response during system operation. Air causes cavitation and erodes hydraulic components. Air also contributes to the corrosion of hydraulic components. Water Contamination Water is a serious contaminant of hydraulic systems. Corrective maintenance actions must be taken to remove all free or emulsified water from hydraulic systems. Hydraulic fluids and hydraulic system 5-43

components are adversely affected by dissolved, emulsified, or free water. Water may be induced through the failure of a component, seal, line, or fitting; poor or improper maintenance practices; and servicing. Water may also be condensed from air entering vented systems. The presence of water in hydraulic systems can result in the formation of undesired oxidation products, and corrosion of metallic surfaces will occur. These oxidation products will also cause hydraulic seals to deteriorate and fail, resulting in leaks. If the water in the system results in the formation of ice, it will reduce fluid flow and impede the operation of valves, actuators, or other moving parts within the system. This is particularly true of water located in static circuits or system extremities and subject to high-altitude, low-temperature conditions. Microorganisms will grow and spread in hydraulic fluid contaminated with water. These microorganisms will clog filters and reduce system performance. Solvent Contamination Solvent contamination is a special form of foreign-fluid contamination. The original contaminating substance is a chlorinated solvent introduced by improper maintenance practices. It is extremely difficult to stop this kind of contamination once it occurs. This type of contamination can be prevented by using the right cleaning agents when performing hydraulic system maintenance. Chlorinated solvents, when allowed to combine with minute amounts of water, hydrolyze to form hydrochloric acids. These acids attack internal metallic surfaces in the system, particularly those that are ferrous, and produce severe rust-like corrosion that is virtually impossible to arrest. Extensive component overhaul and system decontamination are generally required to restore the system to an operational status. Foreign Fluids Contamination Contamination of hydraulic fluid can occur when the wrong fluids get into the system, such as oil, engine fuel, or incorrect hydraulic fluids. For instance, hydraulic oil coolers, which are used in some aircraft, may leak and cause contamination of hydraulic fluids. If contamination has occurred, the system must be checked by chemically analyzing fluid samples. This analysis is conducted by the cognizant engineering activity, which verifies and identifies the contaminant and directs decontamination procedures. The effects of foreign fluid contamination depend upon the nature of the contaminant. The compatibility of the construction materials and the system hydraulic fluid with the foreign fluid must be considered when dealing with contamination. Other effects of this type of contamination are hydraulic fluid reaction with water and changes in flammability and viscosity characteristics. The effects of contamination may be mild or severe, depending upon the contaminant, how much is in the system, and how long it has been there. SAMPLING POINTS A fluid sampling point is a physical point in a hydraulic system from which small amounts of hydraulic fluid are drawn to analyze it for contamination. Sampling points include air bleed valves, reservoir drain valves, quick-disconnect fittings, removable line connections, and special valves installed for this specific purpose. Hydraulic fluid sampling points for most naval aircraft are designated in the applicable MIM. Two major factors determine if a sampling point is adequate—its mechanical feature and its location in the system. To determine the contamination level, a single fluid sample is required. This sample must be representative of the working fluid in the system, and it should be a "worst case" indication of the system particulate level. The worst case requirement is necessary because the particulate level in an 5-44

operating system is not constant throughout the system. Instead, particulate levels differ because of the effects of components (such as filters) on circulating particulates. The mechanical features of a prospective sampling point are evaluated on the basis of accessibility and ease of operation. The sampling point should not distort the particulate level of the sampled fluid either by acting as a filter or by introducing external or self-generated contaminants. The latter point is particularly critical. The introduction of external or self-generated contaminants can be minimized before collecting a sample by cleaning the external parts of the valve or fitting and by dumping a small amount of the initial fluid flow. Consideration must also be given to removal of any static fluid normally entrapped between the actual sampling point and the main body of the fluid to be sampled. To remove this, an initial quantity of the sampled fluid should be dumped. Problems may be encountered where a long line is involved, as in certain reservoir drain lines. The fluid sample should be taken from a main system return line, pump suction line, or system reservoir. Also the sample should be taken upstream of any return or suction line filters that may be present. Reservoir samples should not be taken in a system that has a makeup reservoir, or if the reservoir is bypassed during SE-powered operation. A makeup reservoir is a configuration in which all of the system’s return line fluid does not pass through the reservoir. Fluid exchange in the reservoir is limited, and results only from the changes in fluid volume that occurs elsewhere in the system. The sampling point should be usable after an aircraft flight, without requiring the use of external SE. Taking a sample with the aircraft engines turning is satisfactory, provided no personnel hazards are involved. The sampling point should be usable when the system is being powered by external SE, or immediately after such an operation. The sampling point should be next, or reasonably close, to the main body or stream of fluid being sampled. A minimum amount of static fluid is acceptable; however, it should be purged when the sample flow is started. The sample should not be taken from a point in an area of high sedimentation. If this cannot be avoided, care must be taken that sedimentation effects are minimized by discarding an initial quantity of the sample fluid drawn. Ideally, sample fluid should be obtained from turbulent high-flow areas. When a sample is taken at the sampling point, significant external contaminants should not be introduced into the fluid collected. The background level attributable to the sample point itself should not exceed 10 percent of the normally observed particulate level if the external parts of the valve or fitting are pre-cleaned and the valve or fitting is self-flushed before the sample is taken. The internal porting of the sampling point should not impede the passage of hard particulate matter up to 500 microns in diameter. The sampling point should be accessible and convenient. There must be sufficient clearance beneath the valve or fitting to position the sample collection bottle. Under normal system operating pressure, the sample fluid flow rate should be between 100 and 1,000 milliliters per minute (approximately 3 to 30 fluid ounces). The flow rate should be manageable, and the time required to collect the required sample should not be excessive. The mechanical integrity of the sampling valve or fitting should not degrade because of repeated use. When not in use, it is mechanically secured in the closed position. ANALYSIS METHODS Contamination analysis is used to determine the particulate level of a hydraulic system and the presence of free water or other foreign substances. The methods used to identify and measure contamination is the HACH Ultra Analytics Portable Oil Diagnostic System (PODS) and the patch testing System. The Contamination Analysis Kit 57L414 shall be used for testing only if electronic particle count testing is not available either directly or via the appropriate supporting Intermediate Level (I-level) activity or Navy Oil Analysis Program (NOAP) laboratory. 5-45

Figure 5-31 —Portable Oil Diagnostic System (PODS). HACH Ultra Analytics Portable Oil Diagnostic System (PODS) The PODS is an intelligent, portable, and durable analysis instrument for measuring, storing, and reporting oil contamination levels important for maintaining reliable hydraulic systems operation, shown in Figure 5-31. The PODS can analyze fluid either in the bottle sampling mode or the online sampling mode. There are currently two versions of the PODS: Type 1, MXU-973E and Type 2, MXU-976E. Type 1 can analyze MIL- PRF-83282C and MIL-PRF-5606H and is compatible with most petroleum-based fluids. Type 1 is not compatible with phosphate ester- based fluids (e.g. Skydrol). Type 2 is compatible with phosphate ester- based hydraulic fluids, synthetic and petroleum-based fluids. Figure 5-32 shows the features included on the keypad. To prevent fluid cross contamination, the Type 2 PODS is used only for phosphate ester-based hydraulic fluids. The unit is capable of online sampling at pressures and temperatures up to 13.8 bar (200 psig) and 131ΕF (55 °C), respectively. In bottle sampling mode, the PODS require a clean, dry, steady, pressurized air source. The PODS accessory case contains both an electric-driven compressor and two refillable CO2 bottles. The CO2 bottles are quieter and take less space than the compressor. Electronic particle counters are used to determine counts of the number of particles in the various size ranges. The counts obtained are compared with the maximum allowable under Navy Standard Class 5. Counts that exceed the maximum allowable in any size range make the fluid unsuitable for use in Navy aircraft. The test results obtained by using automatic particle counters and the contamination analysis kit are not always precisely the same. Automatic particle counters optically sense particles contained in the fluid sample and electronically size and count them. Most fleet equipment is calibrated so that the smallest particle counted has an effective diameter of 5 microns. Particles smaller than 5 microns, although always present, do not affect the particle count. The contamination analysis kit uses a patch-test method in which the fluid is filtered through a test-filter membrane. The sample causes the membrane to discolor proportionally to the particulate level. The test filters used have a filtration rating of 5 microns (absolute). However, they also retain a large percentage of those particles less than 5 microns in size. The contamination standards provided with the contamination analysis kit are representative of test indications that result if the fluid sample has a particle size distribution (number of particles versus size) typical of that found in the average naval aircraft. Samples from aircraft systems having typical particle size distributions will, therefore, show good correlation if tested using both particle count and patch test methods. 5-46

Figure 5-32 — Portable Oil Diagnostic System (POD) keypad features.

Some operating hydraulic systems have peculiar design characteristics, so they produce a particle size distribution different from that found in typical naval aircraft. Fluid samples from these systems generally contain an abnormally large amount of silt-like particles smaller than 5 microns in size. Experience has shown that this condition results from inadequate system filtration or from using hydraulic components that have abnormally high wear rates. It is this type of fluid sample that could produce different results when tested, using both particle-counting and patch-test methods. The difference is caused by the particle counter not counting those particles smaller than 5 microns, while many of them are retained by the patch-test filter membrane, causing it to discolor proportionately. When test results conflict, the equipment tested is considered unacceptable if it fails either test method. The equipment should then be subjected to decontamination. It must be recognized that the differing test results may indicate system deficiencies and justify a request for an engineering investigation of the equipment. Poor correlation between particle counts and patch tests can result from improper sample-taking procedures, incorrect particle counter calibration, or faulty test procedures. These possibilities must be carefully investigated if a correlation problem is encountered. 5-47

End of Chapter 5 General Aircraft Maintenance Review Questions 5-1. The tool control program is based on what inventory concept?

A. Daily inventory B. Instant inventory concept C. Log books D. Tool tags

5-2. What officer is responsible for coordinating the tool control program?

A. Admin Officer B. Commanding Officer C. Maintenance Offic er D. Material Control officer

5-3. What division is responsible for monitoring the tool control program?

A. Aircraft Division B. First Lieutenant C. Line Division D. Quality Assurance

5-4. What two manuals outline the chain of command responsibilities regarding occupational safety?

A. NAVAIR 01- 1A-509-1 B. OPNAVINST 5100.19 and OPNAVINST 5100.23 C. OPNAVINST 5355.1 and OPNAVINST 5370.5 D. OPNAVINST 5100.13 and OPNAVINST 5100.14

5-5. What is the primary source of information involving the use of hazardous materials?

A. Corrosion Control Divisi on B. Manufacturer labels C. Material Safety Data Sheet D. Quality Assurance

5-6. Who is responsible for training shop personnel in the use of the Material Safety Data Sheet?

A. Commanding Officer B. Material Control C. Quality Assurance D. Work center supervisor 5-48

5-7. What type of di agram is useful for showing the relationship of components of a system and the sequence in which the different components operate?

A. Block B. Orthographic drawing C. Pictorial drawing D. Schematic diagram

5-8. What type of diagram is a graphic representation of a system that shows how a component fits with other components but does not indicate its actual location in the aircraft?

A. Block B. Orthographic drawing C. Pictorial drawing D. Schematic

5-9. What type of diagrams use actual drawings of components within the system?

A. Installation B. Pictorial drawing C. Orthographic drawing D. Schematic

5-10. The logical/deductive reasoning process for finding a malfunction is known by what term?

A. Drop check B. Functional check flight C. Process of elimination D. Troubleshooting

5-11. What are the seven steps encompassed in the troubleshooting aids generally found in the aircraft MIMS?

A. Visual i nspection, operate system, isolate the trouble, remove and replace, operational check, clean up, and account for tools B. Visual inspection, operational check, classify the trouble, isolate the trouble ,locate the trouble, correct the trouble, and conduct final operational check C. Visual inspection, operational check, classify the trouble, isolate the trouble, locate the trouble, correct the trouble, and drop check D. Visual inspection, drop check A/C, classify the trouble, isolate the trouble, locate the trouble, correct the trouble, and conduct final operational check

5-12. During a visual inspection, a hydraulic system should be checked for what primary concerns?

A. Air B. Fuel in the system C. Leaks D. Proper servicing levels

5-49

5-13. What substance is used to reduce friction, cool metallic parts, prevent wear, and protect against corrosion?

A. Corrosion preventive compounds B. Graphite C. Lubricants D. Water

5-14. What are the four methods of applying lubricants?

A. Grease gun, squirt can, hand, and air brush B. Grease gun, squirt can, hand, and brush C. Paint roller, squirt can, hand, and brush D. Spray can, paint gun, power pack, paint roller

5-15. What type of lubrication fittings rests level with the surface and will not interfere with moving parts?

A. Button-head B. Flush fittings C. Pin-head D. Straight hydraulic

5-16. What are the four types of aircraft slings?

A. Reinforced cable, fabric or webbing, log chains, cable winch B. Reinforced cable, fabric or webbing, structural steel or aluminum, and chain C. Structural steel or aluminum, reinforced cable, aircraft crane, and log chain D. Wire rope, fabric or webbing, structural steel or aluminum, and chain

5-17. What is the most common type of aircraft lifting sling used today?

A. Chain B. Fabric or webbing C. Reinforced cable D. Wire rope

5-18. What types of slings do not contain flexible components?

A. Chains B. Fabric or webbing C. Structural steel D. Wire rope

5-19. What are the two types of hydraulic aircraft jacks used by the Navy?

A. Axle and outrigger B. Axle and tripod C. Tripod and horseshoe D. Tripod and outrigger

5-50

5-20. Aircraft jacks are serviced with what type of fluid?

A. MIL-H-5606A B. MIL-PRF-23699 C. MIL-PRF-32033 D. Standard authorized aircraft hydraulic fluid

5-21. What type of jack is used for changing aircraft tires?

A. Axle B. Fixed height tripod C. Horseshoe D. Variable height jack

5-22. The hydraulic contamination control program is defined in what publication?

A. COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2 B. COMNAVAIRFORINST 4730.2 C. AIRPACINST 4790.2 D. AIRPACINST 4730.2

5-23. What is a major cause of hydraulic system and component failures?

A. Hydraulic contamination B. Magnesium C. Steel D. Oil

5-24. What is the maximum acceptable hydraulic fluid particulate level for naval aircraft?

A. Class 3 B. Class 5 C. Class 6 D. Class 10

5-25. What is the maximum acceptable hydraulic fluid particulate level for support equipment (SE)?

A. Class 3 B. Class 5 C. Class 6 D. Class 10

5-51

5-26. What is the primary use for MIL-PRF-46170D hydraulic fluid?

A. Extremely low surrounding temperatures B. Preservative hydraulic fluid C. Principal hydraulic fluid used in military aircraft D. Support equipment only

5-27. What is the first step in periodic fluid surveillance?

A. Analyze fluid sample B. Certify cleanliness C. Obtain fluid sample D. Replace filter

5-28. What is the size of particulate matter measured in?

A. Centimeter B. Millimeter

C. Megahertz D. Microns

5-29. What does the presence of air in a hydraulic system cause?

A. Abraded synthetic rubber seals B. Spongy response during system operation C. Undesired oxidation D. Rust-like corrosion

5-30. What does the presence of water in a hydraulic system cause?

A. Abraded synthetic rubber seals B. Spongy response during system operation C. Undesired oxidation D. Tight response during system operation

5-31. What is a physical point in a hydraulic system from which small amounts of hydraulic fluid are drawn to analyze it for contamination?

A. Fluid sampling point B. Fluid system point C. Fluid contamination point D. Fluid access point

5-32. Most fleet equipment is calibrated so that the smallest particle counted has an effective diameter of how many microns?

A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7 5-52

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CHAPTER 6 AIRCRAFT HARDWARE Because of the small size of most hardware items, their importance is often overlooked. The safe and efficient operation of any aircraft is greatly dependent upon correct selection and use of aircraft structural hardware and seals. Aircraft hardware is discussed in detail in the Structural Hardware Manual, NAVAIR 01-1A-8. Aircraft hardware is usually identified by its specification number or trade name. Threaded fasteners and rivets are usually identified by AN (Air Force-Navy), NAS (National Aircraft Standard), and MS (Military Standard) numbers. Quick-release fasteners are usually identified by factory trade names and size designations. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Describe the various types of rivets and fasteners and the cable and cable guides used in the construction and repair of naval aircraft. 2. State the different types of common electrical hardware used on naval aircraft. 3. Recognize the importance of the proper torquing of fasteners. Identify the required torquing procedures. 4. Identify the various safety methods used for aircraft hardware. AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL HARDWARE The term aircraft structural hardware refers to many items used in aircraft construction. These items include such hardware as rivets, fasteners, bolts, nuts, screws, washers, cables, guides, and common electrical system hardware. RIVETS The fact that there are thousands of rivets in an airframe is an indication of how important riveting is. A glance at any aircraft will show the thousands of rivets in the outer skin alone. Besides the riveted skin, rivets are also used for joining spar sections, for holding rib sections in place, for securing fittings to various parts of the aircraft, and for fastening bracing members and other parts together. Rivets that are satisfactory for one part of the aircraft are often unsatisfactory for another part. Therefore, it is important that you know the strength and driving properties of the various types of rivets and how to identify, drive, or install them. Solid Rivets Solid rivets are classified by their head shape, by the material from which they are manufactured, and by their size. Rivet head shapes and their identifying code numbers are shown in Figure 6-1. The prefix MS identifies hardware that conforms to written military standards. The prefix AN identifies specifications that are developed and issued under the joint authority of the Air Force and the Navy. Rivet Identification Code The rivet codes shown in Figure 6-1 are sufficient to identify rivets only by head shape. To be meaningful and precisely identify a rivet, certain other information is encoded and added to the basic 6-1

Figure 6-1 — Rivet head shapes and code numbers. Figure 6-2 — Rivet coding example. code. A letter, or letters, following the head-shaped code identify the material or alloy from which the rivet was made. Table 6-1 includes a listing of the most common of these codes. The alloy code is followed by two numbers separated by a dash. The first number is the numerator of a fraction, which specifies the shank diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch. The second number is the numerator of a fraction in sixteenths of an inch, and identifies the length of the rivet. The rivet code is shown in Figure 6-2. 6-2

Rivet Composition Most of the rivets used in aircraft construction are made of aluminum alloy. A few special-purpose rivets are made of mild steel, Monel, titanium, and copper. Those aluminum alloy rivets made of 1100, 2117, 2017, 2024, and 5056 are considered standard. ALLOY 1100 RIVETS — Alloy 1100 rivets are supplied as fabricated (F) temper and are driven in this condition. No further treatment of the rivet is required before use, and the rivet's properties do not change with prolonged periods of storage. They are relatively soft and easy to drive. The cold work resulting from driving increases their strength slightly. The 1100-F rivets are used only for riveting nonstructural parts. These rivets are identified by their plain head, as shown in Table 6-1. Table 6-1 — Rivet Material Identification MATERIAL OR ALLOY CODE LETTERS HEAD MARKING ON RIVET 1100-F A Plain 2117-T4 AD Indented Dimple 2017-T4 D Raised Teat 2024-T4 DD Raised Double Dash 5056-H32 B Raised Cross ALLOY 2117 RIVETS — Like the 1100-F rivets, these rivets need no further treatment before use and can be stored indefinitely. They are furnished in the solution-heat-treated (T4) temper, but change to the solution-heat-treated and cold-worked (T3) temper after driving. The 2117-T4 rivet is in general use throughout aircraft structures and is by far the most widely used rivet, especially in repair work. In most cases the 2117-T4 rivet may be substituted for 2017-T4 and 2024-T4 rivets for repair work by using a rivet with the next larger diameter. This is desirable since both the 2017-T4 and 2024-T4 rivets must be heat-treated before they are used or kept in cold storage. The 2117-T4 rivets are identified by a dimple in the head. ALLOY 2017 AND 2024 RIVETS — Both these rivets are supplied in the T4 temper and must be heat-treated. These rivets must be driven within 20 minutes after quenching or refrigerated at or below 32 °F to delay the aging time 24 hours. If either time is exceeded, reheat treatment is required. These rivets may be reheated as many times as desired, provided the proper solution heat-treatment temperature is not exceeded. The 2024-T4 rivets are stronger than the 2017-T4 and, therefore, are harder to drive. The 2017-T4 rivet is identified by the raised teat on the head, while the 2024-T4 has two raised dashes on the head. ALLOY 5056 RIVETS — These rivets are used primarily for joining magnesium alloy structures because of their corrosion-resistant qualities. They are supplied in the H32 temper (strain-hardened and then stabilized). These rivets are identified by a raised cross on the head. The 5056-H32 rivet may be stored indefinitely with no change in its driving characteristics. Blind Rivets In places accessible from only one side or where space on one side is too restricted to properly use a bucking bar, blind rivets are usually used. Blind rivets may also be used to secure nonstructural parts to the airframe. 6-3

Figure 6-3 — Self-plugging rivet (mechanical lock). Figure 6-4 — Self-plugging rivet (friction lock). Figure 6-5 — Hi-Shear® rivet. Self-Plugging Mechanical Lock Figure 6-3 shows a blind rivet that uses a mechanical lock between the head of the rivet and the pull stem. This lock holds the shank firmly in place from the head side. The self-plugging rivet is made of 5056- H14 aluminum alloy and includes the conical recess and locking collar in the rivet head. The stem is made of 2024- T36 aluminum alloy. Pull grooves that fit into the jaws of the rivet gun are provided on the st em end that protrudes above the rivet head. The blind end portion of the stem incorporates a head and a land (the raised portion of the grooved surface) with an extruding angle that expands the rivet shank. Applied loads for self-plugging rivets are comparable to those for solid shank rivets of the same shear strength, regardless of sheet thickness. The composite shear strength of the 5056-H14 shank and the 2024-T36 pin exceeds 38,000 pounds per square inch (psi). Their tensile strength is in excess of 28,000 psi. Pin retention characteristics are excellent in these rivets. The possibility of the pin working out is minimized by the lock formed in the rivet head. Self-Plugging Friction Lock Self-plugging friction lock rivets are available in universal and flush head styles and are manufactured from 2117 and 5056 aluminum alloy and Monel. Self- plugging friction lock rivets cannot be substituted for solid rivets, nor can they be used in critical applications, such as control surface hinge brackets, wing attachment fittings, landing gear fittings, and fluid-tight joints. Figure 6-4 shows a self-plugging friction lock rivet. Hi-Shear Rivets® Hi -shear® (pin) rivets are essentially threadless bolts. The pin is headed at one end and is grooved about the circumference at the other. A metal collar is swaged onto the grooved end. They are available in two head styles— the flat protruding head and the flush 100-degree countersunk head. Hi-Shear® rivets are made in a variety of materials and are used only in shear applications. Because the shear strength of the rivet is greater than either the shear or bearing strength of sheet aluminum alloys, they are used primarily to 6-4

Figure 6-6 — Rivnut fastener. Figure 6-7 — Lock bolts. rivet thick-gauge sheets together. They are never used with a grip length that is less than the shank diameter. Hi-Shear® rivets are shown in Figure 6-5. Hi-Shear® rivets are identified by code numbers similar to the solid rivets. The size of the rivet is measured in increments of thirty-seconds of an inch for the diameter and sixteenths of an inch for the grip length. For example, an NAS1055-5-7 rivet would be a Hi-Shear® rivet with a countersunk head. Its diameter would be 5/32 of an inch and its maximum grip length would be 7/16 of an inch. The collars are identified by a basic code number and a dash number that correspond to the diameter of the rivet. An A before the dash number indicates an aluminum alloy collar. The NAS528-A5 collar would be used on a 5/32-inch-diameter rivet pin. Repair procedures involving the installation or replacement of Hi-Shear® rivets generally specify the collar to be used. Rivnuts The rivnut is a hollow rivet made of 6063 aluminum alloy, counterbored and threaded on the inside. It is manufactured in two head styles—flat and countersunk—and in two shank designs—open and closed ends. See Figure 6-6. Each of these rivets is available in three sizes: 6-32, 8-32, and 10-32. These numbers indicate the nominal diameter and the actual number of threads per inch of the machine screw that fits into the rivnut.

Open-end rivnuts are more widely used and are generally the recommended and preferred type. However, in sealed flotation or pressurized compartments, the closed-end rivnut must be used. FASTENERS (SPECIAL) Fasteners on aircraft are designed for many different functions. Some are made for high-strength requirements, while others are designed for easy installation and removal. Lock-Bolt Fasteners Lock-bolt fasteners are designed to meet high-strength requirements. Used in many structural applications, their shear and tensile strengths equal or exceed the requirements of AN and NAS bolts. The lock-bolt pin, shown in View A of Figure 6-7, consists of a pin and collar. It is available in two head styles: protruding and countersunk. Pin retention is accomplished by swaging the collar into the locking grooves on the pin. The blind lock bolt, shown in View B of Figure 6-7, is similar to the self-plugging rivet shown in Figure 6-3. It features a positive mechanical lock for pin retention. Hi-Lok® Fasteners The Hi-Lok® fastener, shown in Figure 6-8, combines the features of a rivet and a bolt and is used for high-strength, interference-free fit of primary structures. The Hi-Lok® fastener consists of a threaded pin and threaded locking collar. The pins are made of cadmium-plated alloy steel with protruding or 100-degree flush heads. Collars for the pins are made of anodized 2024-T6 aluminum or stainless 6-5

Figure 6-8 — Hi-Lok® fastener. Figure 6-9 — Jo-Bolt®. steel. The threaded end of the pin is recessed with a hexagon socket to allow installation from one side. The major diameter of the threaded part of the pin has been truncated (cut undersize) to accommodate a 0.004-inch maximum interference-free fit. One end of the collar is internally recessed with a 1/16-inch, built-in variation that automatically provides for variable material thickness without the use of washers and without fastener preload changes. The other end of the collar has a torque-off wrenching device that controls a predetermined residual tension of preload (10%) in the fastener. Jo-Bolt® Fasteners The Jo-Bolt®, shown in Figure 6-9, is a high- strength, blind structural fastener that is used on difficult riveting jobs when access to one side of the work is impossible. The Jo-Bolt® consists of three factory-assembled parts: an aluminum alloy or alloy steel nut, a threaded alloy steel bolt, and a corrosion-resistant steel sleeve. The head styles available for Jo-bolts are the 100-degree flush head, the hexagon protruding head, and the 100-degree flush millable head. FASTENERS (THREADED) Although thousands of rivets are used in aircraft construction, many parts require frequent dismantling or replacement. For these parts, use some form of threaded fastener. Furthermore, some joints require greater strength and rigidity than can be provided by riveting. Manufacturers solve this problem by using various types of screws, bolts, nuts, washers, and fasteners. Bolts and screws are similar in that both have a head at one end and a screwthread at the other, but there are several differences between them. The threaded end of a bolt is always relatively blunt, while that of a screw may be either blunt or pointed. The threaded end of a bolt must be screwed into a nut, but the threaded end of the screw may fit into a nut or other female arrangement, or directly into the material being secured. A bolt has a fairly short threaded section and a comparatively long grip length (the unthreaded part); a screw may have a longer threaded section and no clearly defined grip length. A bolt assembly is generally tightened by turning its nuts. Its head may or may not be designed to be turned. A screw is always designed to be turned by its head. Another minor but frequent difference between a screw and a bolt is that a screw is usually made of lower strength materials. Threads on aircraft bolts and screws are of the American National Standard type. This standard contains two series of threads: national coarse (NC) and national fine (NF). Most aircraft threads are of the NF series. 6-6

Figure 6-10 — Bolt terms and dimensions. Figure 6-11 — Correct and incorrect grip lengths. Threads are also produced in right-hand and left-hand types. A right-hand thread advances into engagement when turned clockwise. A left-hand thread advances into engagement when turned counterclockwise. Threads are sized by both the diameter and the number of threads per inch. The diameter is designated by screw gauge number for sizes up to 1/4 inch, and by nominal size for those 1/4 inch and larger. Screw gauge numbers range from 0 to 12, except that numbers 7, 9, and 11 are omitted. Threads are designated by the diameter, number of threads per inch, thread series, and class in parts catalogs, on blueprints, and on repair diagrams. For example, No. 8-32NF-3 indicates a No. 8 size thread, 32 threads per inch, national fine series, and a class 3 thread. Also, 1/4-20NC-3 indicates a 1/4-inch thread, 20 threads per inch, national coarse series, and a class 3 thread. A left-hand thread is indicated by the letters LH following the class of thread. Bolts Many types of bolts are used on aircraft. Before discussion of some of these types, it might be helpful to view a list containing information about commonly used bolt terms. Important information about the names of bolt parts and bolt dimensions that must be considered in selecting a bolt is shown in Figure 6- 10. The three principal parts of a bolt are the head, thread, and grip. The head is the larger diameter of the bolt and may be one of many shapes or designs. The head keeps the bolt in place in one direction, and the nut used on the threads keeps it in place in the other direction. To choose the correct replacement, several bolt dimensions must be considered. One is the length of the bolt. Note in Figure 6-10 that the bolt length is the distance from the tip of the threaded end to the head of the bolt. Correct length selection is indicated when the chosen bolt extends through the nut at least two full threads. In the case of flat-end bolts or chamfered (rounded) end bolts, at least the full chamfer plus one full thread should extend through the nut. See Figure 6-10. If the bolt is too short, it may not extend out of the bolt hole far enough for the nut to be securely fastened. If it is too long, it may extend so far that it interferes with the movement of nearby parts. Unnecessarily long bolts can affect weight and balance and reduce the aircraft payload capacity. In addition, if a bolt is too long or too short, its grip is usually the wrong length. As shown in Figure 6- 11, grip length should be approximately the same as the thickness of the material to be fastened. If the grip is too short, the threads of the bolt will extend into the bolt hole and may act like a reamer when the material is vibrating. To prevent reaming , no more than two threads should extend into the bolt hole. Also, users should be certain that any threads that enter the bolt hole extend only into the thicker member that is being fastened. If the grip is too long, the nut will run out of threads before it can be tightened. In this event, a bolt with a shorter grip should be used, or if the bolt grip extends only a short distance through the hole, a washer may be used. 6-7

Figure 6-12 — Different types of bolts. A second bolt dimension that must be considered is diameter. Figure 6-11 shows that the diameter of the bolt is the thickness of its shaft. If this thickness is 1/4 of an inch or more, the bolt diameter is usually given in fractions of an inch (for example, 1/4, 5/16, 7/16, and 1/2). However, if the bolt is less than 1/4 of an inch thick, the diameter is usually expressed as a whole number. For instance, a bolt that is 0.190 inch in diameter is called a No. 10 bolt, while a bolt that is 0.164 inch in diameter is called a No. 8. The results of using a bolt of the wrong diameter should be obvious. If the bolt is too big, it cannot enter the bolt hole. If the diameter is too small, the bolt has too much play in the bolt hole, and it is likely not as strong as the correct bolt. The third and fourth bolt dimensions to consider when choosing a bolt replacement are head thickness and width. If the head is too thin or too narrow, it may not be strong enough to bear the load imposed on it. If the head is too thick or too wide, it may extend so far that it interferes with the movement of adjacent parts. BOLT HEADS — The most common type of head is the hex head. See Figure 6-12. This type of head may be thick for greater strength or relatively thin in order to fit in places having limited clearances. In addition, the head may be common or drilled to lockwire the bolt. A hex-head bolt may have a single hole drilled through it between two of the sides of the hexagon and still be classed as common. The drilled head-hex bolt has three holes drilled in the head, connecting opposite sides of the hex. Seven additional types of bolt heads are shown in Figure 6-12. View A shows an eyebolt, often used in flight control systems. View B shows a countersunk-head, close-tolerance bolt. View C shows an internal-wrenching bolt. Both the countersunk-head bolt and the internal-wrenching bolt have hexagonal recesses (six-sided holes) in their heads. They are tightened and loosened by use of appropriately sized Allen wrenches. View D shows a clevis bolt with its characteristic round head. This head may be slotted, as shown, to receive a common screwdriver or recessed to receive a Reed-and-Prince or a Phillips screwdriver. View E shows a torque-set wrenching recess that has four driving wings, each one offset from the one opposite it. There is no taper in the walls of the recess. This permits higher torque to be applied with less of a tendency for the driver to slip or cam out of the slots. View F shows an external-wrenching head that has a washer face under the head to provide an increased bearing surface. The 12-point head gives a greater wrench-gripping surface. View G shows a hi-torque style driving slot. This single slot is narrower at the center than at the outer portions. This design, and the center dimple, provides the slot with a bow tie appearance. The recess is also undercut in a taper from the center to the outer ends, producing an inverted keystone shape. These bolts must be installed with a special hi-torque driver adapter. They must also be driven with some type of torque-limiting or torque-measuring device. Each diameter of bolt requires the proper size of driver for that particular bolt. The bolts are available in standard and reduced 100-degree flush heads. The reduced head requires a driver one size smaller than the standard head. 6-8

Figure 6-13 — Bolt head markings. Figure 6-14 — AN bolt part number breakdown. BOLT THREADS — Another structural feature in which bolts may differ is threads. These usually come in one of two types: coarse and fine. The two are not interchangeable. For any given size of bolt there are a different number of coarse and fine threads per inch. For instance, consider the 1/4-inch bolts. Some are called 1/4-28 bolts because they have 28 fine threads per inch. Others have only 20 coarse threads per inch and are called 1/4-20 bolts. To force one size of threads into another size, even though both are 1/4 of an inch, can strip the finer threads of softer metal. The same result is true concerning the other sizes of bolts; therefore, it is important to be certain that selected bolts have the correct type of threads. BOLT MATERIALS — The type of metal used in an aircraft bolt helps to determine its strength and its resistance to corrosion. Therefore, it is important that material is considered in the selection of replacement bolts. Like solid shank rivets, bolts have distinctive head markings that help to identify the material from which they are manufactured. Figure 6-13 shows the tops of several hex-head bolts—each marked to indicate the type of bolt material. BOLT IDENTIFICATION — Unless current directives specify otherwise, every unserviceable bolt should be replaced with a bolt of the same type. Of course, substitute and interchangeable items are sometimes available, but the ideal fix is a bolt-for-bolt replacement. The part number of a needed bolt may be obtained by referring to the illustrated parts breakdown (IPB) for the aircraft concerned. Exactly what this part number means depends upon whether the bolt is AN, NAS, or MS. AN Part Number — There are several classes of AN bolts, and in some instances their part numbers reveal slightly different types of information. However, most AN numbers contain the same type of information. Figure 6-14 shows a breakdown of a typical AN bolt part number. Like the AN rivets discussed earlier, it starts with the letters AN. Next, a number follows the letters. This number usually consists of two digits. The first digit (or absence of it) shows the class of the bolt. For instance, in Figure 6-14, the series number has only one digit, and the absence of one digit shows that this part number represents a general-purpose hex-head bolt. However, the part numbers for some bolts of this class have two digits. In fact, general-purpose hex-head bolts include all part numbers from AN3 to AN20.Other series numbers and the classes of bolts they represent are as follows:  AN21 through AN36 —clevis bolts  AN42 through AN49 —eyebolts 6-9

Figure 6-15 — MS bolt part number breakdown.

Figure 6-16 — NAS bolt part number breakdown. The series number shows another type of information other than bolt class. With a few exceptions, it indicates bolt diameter in sixteenths of an inch. For instance, in Figure 6-14, the last digit of the series number is 4; therefore, this bolt is 4/16 of an inch (1/4 of an inch) in diameter. In the case of a series number ending in 0—for instance, AN30—the 0 stands for 10, and the bolt has a diameter of 10/16 of an inch (5/8 of an inch). Refer to Figure 6-14 again and observe that a dash follows the series number. When used in the part numbers for general-purpose AN bolts, clevis bolts, and eyebolts, this dash indicates that the bolt is made of carbon steel. With these types of bolts, the letter C, used in place of the dash, means corrosion-resistant steel. The letter D means 2017 aluminum alloy. The letters DD stand for 2024 aluminum alloy. For some bolts of this type, a letter H is used with these letters or with the dash. If it is used, the letter H shows that the bolt has been drilled for safetying. Next, observe the number 20 that follows the dash. This is called the dash number. It represents the bolt's grip (as taken from special tables). In this instance the number 20 stands for a bolt that is 2 1/32 inches long. The last character in the AN number shown in Figure 6-14 is the letter A. This signifies that the bolt is not drilled for cotter pin safetying. If no letter were used after the dash number, the bolt shank would be drilled for safetying. MS Part Number — MS is another series of bolts used in aircraft construction. In the part number shown in Figure 6-15, the MS indicates that the bolt is a Military Standard bolt. The series number (20004) indicates the bolt class and diameter in sixteenths of an inch (internal-wrenching, 1/4-inch diameter). The letter H before the dash number indicates that the bolt has a drilled head for safetying. The dash number (9) indicates the bolt grip in sixteenths of an inch. NAS Part Number — Another series of bolts used in aircraft construction is the NAS. See Figure 6-16. In considering the NAS144-25 bolt (special internal-wrenching type), the bolt identification code starts with the letters NAS. Next, the series has a three-digit number, 144. The first two digits (14) show the class of the bolt. The next number (4) indicates the bolt diameter in sixteenths of an inch. The dash number (25) indicates bolt grip in sixteenths of an inch. Nuts Aircraft nuts differ in design and material, just as bolts do, because they are designed to do a specific job with the bolt. For instance, some of the nuts are made of cadmium-plated carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, or aluminum alloy. The type of metal used is not identified by markings on the nuts themselves. Instead, the material must be recognized from the luster of the metal. Nuts also differ greatly in size and shape. In spite of these many and varied differences, they all fall under one of two general groups: self-locking and nonself-locking. Nuts are further divided into types 6-10

Figure 6-17—Nuts. Figure 6-18—Self-locking plate nuts. such as plain nuts, castle nuts, check nuts, plate nuts, channel nuts, barrel nuts, internal-wrenching nuts, external-wrenching nuts, shear nuts, sheet spring nuts, wing nuts, and Klincher locknuts. NONSELF-LOCKING NUTS — Nonself-locking nuts require the use of a separate locking device for security of installation. There are several types of these locking devices mentioned in the following paragraphs in connection with the nuts on which they are used. Since no single locking device can be used with all types of nonself-locking nuts, one must be selected that is suitable for the type of nut being used. SELF-LOCKING NUTS — Self-locking nuts provide tight connections that will not loosen under vibrations. Self-locking nuts approved for use on aircraft meet critical strength, corrosion-resistance, and temperature specifications. The two major types of self-locking nuts are prevailing torque and free spinning. The two general types of prevailing torque nuts ar e the all-metal nuts and the nonmetallic insert nuts. New self-locking nuts must be used each time components are installed in critical areas throughout the entire aircraft, including all flight, engine, and fuel control linkage and attachments. The flexloc nut is an example of the all- metal type. The elastic stop nut is an example of the nonmetallic insert type. All-metal self-locking nuts are constructed with the threads in the load-carrying portion of the nut out of phase with the threads in the locking portion, or with a saw cut top portion with a pinched-in thread. The locking action of these types depends upon the resiliency of the metal when the locking section and load-carrying section are forced into alignment when engaged by the bolt or screw threads. PLAIN HEX NUTS — These nuts are available in self-locking or nonself-locking styles. When the nonself-locking nuts are used, they should be locked with an auxiliary locking device such as a check nut or lock washer. See Figure 6-17. CASTLE NUTS — These nuts are used with drilled shank bolts, hex-head bolts, clevis bolts, eyebolts, and drilled-head studs. These nuts are designed to be secured with cotter pins or safety wire. CASTELLATED NUTS — Like the castle nuts, these nuts are castellated for safetying. They are not as strong or cut as deep as the castle nuts. CHECK NUTS — These nuts are used in locking devices for nonself-locking plain hex nuts, setscrews, and threaded rod ends. PLATE NUTS — These nuts are used for blind mounting in inaccessible locations and for easier maintenance. They are available in a wide range of sizes and shapes. One-lug, two-lug, and right- angle shapes are available to accommodate the specific physical requirements of nut locations. Floating nuts provide a controlled amount of nut movement to compensate for subassembly misalignment. They can be either self-locking or nonself-locking. See Figure 6-18. 6-11

Figure 6-19 — Sheet spring nut. Figure 6-20 — Typical installations of the Klincher locknut. CHANNEL NUTS — These nuts are used in applications requiring anchored nuts equally spaced around openings such as access and inspection doors and removable leading edges. Straight or curved channel nut strips offer a wide range of nut spacing and provide a multinut unit that has all the advantages of floating nuts. They are usually self-locking. BARREL NUTS — These nuts are installed in drilled holes. The round portion of the nut fits in the drilled hole and provides a self-wrenching effect. They are usually self-locking. INTERNAL-WRENCHING NUTS — These nuts are generally used where a nut with a high tensile strength is required or where space is limited and the use of external-wrenching nuts would not permit the use of conventional wrenches for installation and removal. This is usually where the bearing surface is counterbored. These nuts have a nonmetallic insert that provides the locking action. POINT WRENCHING NUTS — These nuts are generally used where a nut with a high tensile strength is required. These nuts are installed with a small socket wrench. They are usually self-locking. SHEAR NUTS — These nuts are designed for use with devices such as drilled clevis bolts and threaded taper pins that are normally subjected to shearing stress only. They are usually self-locking. SHEET SPRING NUTS — These nuts are used with standard and sheet metal self-tapping screws to support line clamps, conduit clamps, electrical equipment, and access doors. The most common types are the float, the two-lug anchor, and the one-lug anchor. The nuts have an arched spring lock that prevents the screw from working loose. They should be used only where originally used in the fabrication of the aircraft. See Figure 6-19. WING NUTS — These nuts are used where the desired tightness is obtained by the use of your fingers and where the assembly is frequently removed. KLINCHER LOCKNUTS — Klincher locknuts are used to ensure a permanent and vibration-proof, bolted connection that holds solidly and resists thread wear. It will withstand extremely high or low temperatures and exposure to lubricants, weather, and compounds without impairing the effectiveness of the locking element. The nut is installed with the end that looks like a double washer toward the metal being fastened. Notice in Figure 6-20 that the end that looks like a double hexagon is away from the metal being fastened. 6-12

Figure 6-21 — Structural screws. CAUTION

Self-tapping screws should never be used to replace standard screws, nuts, or rivets in the original structure. Over a time, vibration and stress will loosen this type of fastener, causing it to lose its holding ability.

Screws The most common threaded fastener used in aircraft construction is the screw. The three most used types are the structural screw, machine screw, and the self- tapping screw. STRUCTURAL SCREWS — Structural screws are used for assembling structural parts. They are made of alloy steel and are heat-treated. Structural screws have a definite grip length and the same shear and tensile strengths as the equivalent size bolt. They differ from structural bolts only in the type of head. These screws are available in round-head, countersunk-head, and brazier-head types, either slotted or recessed for the various types of screwdrivers. See Figure 6-21. MACHINE SCREWS — The commonly used machine screws are the flush-head, round-head, fillister-head, socket-head, pan-head, and truss-head types. Flush-Head — Flush-head machine screws are used in countersunk holes where a flush finish is desired. These screws are available in 82 and 100 degrees of head angle and have various types of recesses and slots for driving. Round -Head — Round-head machine screws are frequently used to assemble highly stressed aircraft components. Fillister-Head — Fillister-head machine screws are used as general-purpose screws. They may also be used as cap screws in light applications, such as the attachment of cast aluminum gearbox cover plates. Socket-Head — Socket-head machine screws are designed to be screwed into tapped holes by internal wrenching. They are used in applications that require high-strength precision products, compactness of the assembled parts, or sinking of the head into holes. Pan- and Truss-Head — Pan-head and truss-head screws are general-purpose screws used where head height is unimportant. These screws are available with cross-recessed heads only. SELF-TAPPING SCREWS — A self-tapping screw is one that cuts its own internal threads as it is turned into the hole. Self-tapping screws can be used only in comparatively soft metals and materials. Self-tapping screws may be further divided into two classes or groups: machine self-tapping screws and sheet metal self-tapping screws. Machine self-tapping screws are usually used for attaching removable parts, such as nameplates, to castings. The threads of the screw cut mating threads in the casting after the hole has been predrilled. Sheet metal self-tapping screws are used for such purposes as temporarily attaching sheet metal in place for riveting. They may also be used for permanent assembly of nonstructural parts, where it is necessary to insert screws in blind applications. 6-13

Figure 6-22 — Various types of special washers. Figure 6-23 — Camloc 4002 series fastener. Washers Washers such as ball socket and seat washers, taper pin washers, and washers for internal-wrenching nuts and bolts have been designed for special applications. See Figure 6-22. Ball socket and seat washers are used where a bolt is installed at an angle to the surface, or where perfect alignment with the surface is required at all times. These washers are used together. Taper pin washers are used in conjunction with threaded taper pins. They are installed under the nut to effect adjustment where a plain washer would distort. Washers for internal-wrenching nuts and bolts are used in conjunction with NAS internal-wrenching bolts. The washer used under the head is countersunk to seat the bolt head or shank radius. A plain washer is used under the nut.

Turnlock Fasteners Turnlock fasteners are used to secure panels that require frequent removal. These fasteners are available in several different styles and are usually referred to by the manufacturer's trade name. CAMLOC FASTENERS — The 4002 series Camloc fastener consists of four principal parts: the receptacle, the grommet, the retaining ring, and the stud assembly. See Figure 6-23. The receptacle is an aluminum alloy forging mounted in a stamped sheet metal base. The receptacle assembly is riveted to the access door frame, which is attached to the structure of the aircraft. The grommet is a sheet metal ring held in the access panel with the retaining ring. Grommets are furnished in two types: the flush type and the protruding type. Besides serving as a grommet for the hole in the access panel, it also holds the stud assembly. The stud assembly consists of a stud, a cross pin, a spring, and a spring cup. The assembly is designed so it can be quickly inserted into the grommet by compressing the spring. Once installed in the grommet, the stud assembly cannot be removed unless the spring is again compressed. The Camloc high-stress panel fastener, shown in Figure 6-24, is a high-strength, quick-release rotary fastener and may be used on flat or curved inside or outside panels. The fastener may have either a flush or a protruding stud. The studs are held in the panel with flat or cone-shaped washers— the latter being used with flush fasteners in dimpled holes. This fastener may be distinguished from screws by the deep No. 2 Phillips recess in the stud head and by the bushing in which the stud is installed. 6-14

Figure 6-24 — Camloc high-stress panel fastener. Figure 6-25 — Dzus fastener. A threaded insert in the receptacle provides an adjustable locking device. As the stud is inserted and turned counterclockwise one-half turn or more, it screws out the insert to permit the stud key to engage the insert cam when turned clockwise. Rotating the stud clockwise one-fourth turn engages the insert. Continued rotation screws the insert in and tightens the fastener. Turning the stud one-fourth turn counterclockwise will release the stud, but will not screw the insert out far enough to permit re-engagement. The stud should be turned at least one-half turn counterclockwise to reset the insert. DZUS FASTENERS — Dzus fasteners are available in two types. A light-duty type is used on box covers, access hole covers, and lightweight fairings. The heavy- duty type is used on cowling and heavy fairings. The main difference between the two Dzus fasteners is a grommet, which is used only on the heavy-duty fasteners. Otherwise, their construction features are about the same. Figure 6-25 shows the parts of a light-duty Dzus fastener. Notice that they include a spring and a stud. The spring is made of cadmium-plated steel music wire and is usually riveted to an aircraft structural member. The stud comes in a number of designs (as shown in Views A, B, and C) and mounts in a dimpled hole in the cover assembly. When the panel is being positioned on an aircraft, the spring riveted to the structural member enters the hollow center of the stud. Then, when the stud is turned about one-fourth turn, the curved jaws of the stud slip over the spring and compress it. The resulting tension locks the stud in place and secures the panel. Miscellaneous Fasteners Some fasteners cannot be classified as rivets, turnlocks, or threaded fasteners. Included in this category are connectors, couplings, clamps, taper and flat-head pins, snap rings, studs, and heli-coil inserts. FLEXIBLE CONNECTORS AND COUPLINGS — A variety of clamping devices are used to connect ducting sections to each other or to various components. Whenever lines, components, or ducting are disconnected or removed for any reason, suitable plugs, caps, or coverings should be installed on the openings to prevent the entry of foreign materials. Various parts should also be tagged to ensure correct reinstallation. Care should be exercised during handling and installation to ensure that flanges are not scratched, distorted, or deformed. Flange surfaces should be free of dirt, grease, and corrosion. The protective flange caps should be left on the ends of the ducting until the installation progresses to the point that removal is necessary. 6-15

Figure 6-26 — Flexible line connectors. Figure 6-27 — Flexible line coupling. In most cases it is mandatory to discard and replace seals and gaskets. It is important to ensure that seals and gaskets are properly s eated and that mating and alignment of flanges are fitted. This will prevent the excessive torque required to close the joint, which imposes structural loads on the clamping devices. Adjacent support clamps and brackets should remain loose until installation of the coupling has been completed. Some of the most commonly used plain-band couplings are shown in Figure 6-26. When a hose is installed between two duct sections, the gap between the duct ends should be a minimum of 1/8 of an inch and a maximum of 3/4 of an inch. When the clamps are installed on the connection, the clamps should be 1/4 of an inch from the end of the connector. Misalignment between the ducting ends should not exceed 1/8 of an inch. Marman clamps are commonly used in ducting systems and should be tightened to the torque value indicated on the coupling. Tighten all couplings in the manner and to the torque value specified on the clamp or in the applicable maintenance instruction manual (MIM). When flexible couplings are installed— such as the one shown in Figure 6-27—the following steps are recommended to assure proper security: 1. Fold back half of the sleeve seal and slip it onto the sleeve. 2. Slide the sleeve (with the sleeve seal partially installed) onto the line. 3. Position the split sleeves over the line beads. 4. Slide the sleeve over the split sleeves and fold over the sleeve seal so it covers the entire sleeve. 5. Install the coupling over the sleeve seal and torque to correct value. RIGID COUPLINGS — The rigid line coupling shown in Figure 6-28 is referred to as a V-band coupling. When installed in restricted areas, some of the stiffness of the coupling can be overcome by tightening the coupling over a spare set of flanges and a gasket to the recommended torque value of the joint. Before the coupling is removed, it should be tapped a few times with a plastic mallet. When rigid couplings are installed, the steps below should be followed: 1. Slip the V-band coupling over the flanged tube. 6-16

2. Place a gasket into one flange. One quick rotary motion assures positive seating of the gasket. 3. Hold the gasket in place with one hand while the mating flanged tube is assembled into the gasket with a series of vertical and horizontal motions to assure the seating of the mating flange to the gasket.

4. While holding the joint firmly with one hand, install the V-band coupling over the two flanges. 5. Press the coupling tightly around the flanges with one hand while engaging the latch. 6. Tighten the coupling firmly with a ratchet wrench. Tap the outer periphery of the coupling with a plastic mallet to assure proper alignment of the flanges in the coupling. This will seat the sealing edges of the flanges in the gasket. Tighten again, making sure the recommended torque is not exceeded. 7. Check the torque of the coupling with a torque wrench and tighten until the specified torque is obtained. 8. Safety wire the V-band coupling, as shown in Figure 6-29, as an extra measure of security in the event of T-bolt failur e. The safety wire will be installed through the band loops that retain the T-bolt and the trunnion or quick coupler. A minimum of two turns of the wire is required. Most V-band connectors will use a T-bold with some type of self-locking nut.

NOTE View B of Figure 6-28 shows the proper fitting and connecting of a rigid coupling using a metal gasket between the ducting flanges.

6-17

Figure 6-28 — Installation of rigid line couplings. Figure 6-29 — Safetying a V-band coupling. 6-18

Figure 6-30 — Types of aircraft pins. Figure 6-31 — Heli-coil insert. TAPER PINS — Taper pins are used in joints that carry shear loads and where the absence of clearance is essential. See Figure 6-30. The threaded taper pin is used with a taper pin washer and a shear nut if the taper pin is drilled, or with a self-locking nut if undrilled. When a shear nut is used with the threaded taper pin and washer, the nut is secured with a cotter pin. FLAT-HEAD PINS — The flat-head pin is used with tie rod terminals or secondary controls that do not operate continuously. The flat-head pin s hould be secured with a cotter pin. The pin is normally installed with the head up. See Figure 6-30. This precaution is taken to maintain the flat-head pin in the installed position in case of cotter pin failure. SNAP RINGS — A snap ring is a ring of metal, either round or flat in cross section, that is tempered to have springlike action. This springlike action will hold the snap ring firmly seated in a groove. The external types are designed to fit in a groove around the outside of a shaft or cylinder. The internal types fit in a groove inside a cylinder. Special pliers are designed to install each type of snap ring. Snap rings can be reused as long as they retain their shape and springlike action. External snap rings may be safety wired, but internal types are never safetied. STUDS — There are four types of studs used in aircraft structural applications. They are the coarse thread, fine thread, stepped, and lockring studs. Studs may be drilled or undrilled on the nut end. Coarse (NAS183) and fine (NAS184) thread studs are manufactured from alloy steel and are heat-treated. They have identical threads on both ends. The stepped stud has a different thread on each end of the stud. The lockring stud may be substituted for undersize or oversize studs. The lockring on this stud prevents it from backing out due to vibration, stress, or temperature variations. Refer to the Structural Hardware Manual, NAVAIR 01-1A-8, for more detailed information on studs. HELI-COIL INSERTS — Heli-coil thread inserts are primarily designed to be used in materials that are not suitable for threading because of their softness. The inserts are made of a diamond cross- sectioned stainless steel wire that is helically coiled and, in its finished form, is similar to a small, fully compressed spring. There are two types of heli-coil inserts. See Figure 6-31. One is the plain insert, 6-19

Figure 6-32 — Cable cross section. made with a tang that forms a portion of the bottom coil offset and is used to drive the insert. This tang is left on the insert after installation, except when its removal is necessary to provide clearance for the end of the bolt. The tang is notched to break off from the body of the insert, thereby providing full penetration for the fastener. The second type of insert used is the self-locking, mid-grip insert, which has a specially formed grip coil midway on the insert. This produces a gripping effect on the engaging screw. For quick identification, the self-locking, mid-grip inserts are dyed red. CABLES A cable is a group of wires or a group of strands of wires twisted together into a strong wire rope. The wires or strands may be twisted in various ways. The relationship of the direction of twist of each strand to each other and to the cable as a whole is called the lay. The lay of the cable is an important factor in its strength. If the strands are twisted in a direction opposite to the twist of the strands around the center strand or core, the cable will not stretch (or set) as much as one in which they are all twisted in the same direction. This direction of twist (in opposite direction) is most commonly adopted, and it is called a regular or an ordinary lay. Cables may have a right regular lay or a left regular lay. If the strands are twisted in the direction of twist around the center strand or core, the lay is called a lang lay. There is a right and left lang lay. The only other twist arrangement—twisting the strands alternately right and left, and then twisting them all either to the right or to the left about the core— is called a reverse lay. Most aircraft cables have a right regular lay. When aircraft cables are manufactured, each strand is first formed to the spiral or helical shape to fit the position it is to occupy in the finished cable. The process of such forming is called preforming, and cables made by such a process are said to be preformed. The process of preforming is adopted to ensure flexibility in the finished cable and to relieve bending and twisting stresses in the strands as they are woven into the cable. It also keeps the strands from spreading when the cable is cut. All aircraft cables are internally lubricated during construction. Aircraft control cables are fabricated either from flexible, preformed carbon steel wire or from flexible, preformed, corrosion-resistant steel wire. The small corrosion-resistant steel cables are made of steel containing not less than 17 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel, while the larger ones (those of the 5/16-, 3/8-, and 7/16-inch diameters) are made of steel that, in addition to the amounts of chromium and nickel just mentioned, also contains not less than 1.75 percent molybdenum. Cables may be designated 7 × 7, 7 × 19, or 6 × 19 according to their construction. A 7 × 7 cable consists of six strands of seven wires each, laid around a center strand of seven wires. A 7 × 19 cable consists of six strands of 19 wires, laid around a 19-wire central strand. A 6 × 19 IWRC cable consists of six strands of 19 wires each, laid around an independent wire rope center. The size of cable is given in terms of diameter measurement. A 1/8-inch cable or a 5/16-inch cable means that the cable measures 1/8 inch or 5/16 inch in diameter, as shown in Figure 6-32. Note that the cable diameter is that of the smallest circle that would enclose the entire cross section of the cable. Aircraft control cables vary in diameters, ranging from 1/16 of an inch to 3/8 of an inch. 6-20

Figure 6-35 — Typical turnbuckle assembly. Figure 6-33 — Types of cable terminal fittings. Figure 6-34 — Thimble, bushing, and shackle fittings. Fittings Cable ends may be equipped with several different types of fittings such as terminals, thimbles, bushings, and shackles. Terminal fittings are generally of the swaged type. Terminal fittings are available with threaded ends, fork ends, eye ends, and single-shank and double-shank ball ends. Threaded-end, fork-end, and eye-end terminals are used to connect the cable to turnbuckles, bell cranks, and other linkage in the system. The ball terminals are used for attaching cable to quadrants and special connections where space is limited. The single-shank ball end is usually used on the ends of cables, and the double- shank ball end may be used either at the ends or in the center of a cable run. Figure 6-33 shows the various types of terminal fittings. Thimble, bushing, and shackle fittings may be used in place of some types of terminal fittings when facilities and supplies are limited and immediate replacement of the cable is necessary. Figure 6-34 shows these fittings. Turnbuckles A turnbuckle is a mechanical screw device that consists of two threaded terminals and a threaded barrel. Figure 6-35 shows a typical turnbuckle assembly. Turnbuckles are fitted in the cable assembly to make minor adjustments in cable length and to adjust cable tension. One of the terminals has right-hand threads and the other has left-hand threads. The barrel has matching right- and left-hand threads internally. The end of the barrel, with left-hand threads inside, can usually be identified by either a groove or knurl around the end of the barrel. Barrels and terminals are available in both long and short lengths. When you install a turnbuckle in a control system, it is necessary to screw both of the terminals an equal number of turns into the turnbuckle barrel. It is also essential that all turnbuckle terminals be screwed into the barrel, at least, until not more than three threads are 6-21

Figure 6-36 — Turnbuckle thread tolerances. Figure 6-37 — Typical cable guides. exposed. On initial installation, the turnbuckle terminals should not be screwed inside the turnbuckle barrel more than four threads. Figure 6- 36 shows turnbuckle thread tolerances. After a turnbuckle is properly adjusted, it must be safetied. There are several methods of safetying turnbuckles. However, only two methods have been adopted as standard procedures by the services: the clip-locking (preferred) method and the wire- wrapping method. Adjustable Connector Links An adjustable connector link consists of two or three metal strips with holes arranged that they may be matched and secured with a clevis bolt to adjust the length of the connector. They are installed in cable assemblies to make major adjustments in cable length and to compensate for cable stretch. Adjustable connector links are usually used in very long cable assemblies. GUIDES Fairleads (rubstrips), grommets, pressure seals, and pulleys are all types of cable guides. They are used to protect control cables by preventing the cables from rubbing against nearby metal parts. They are also used as supports to reduce cable vibration in long stretches (runs) of cable. Figure 6-37 shows some typical cable guides. Fairleads Fairleads may be made of a solid piece of material to completely encircle cables when they pass through holes in bulkheads or other metal parts. Fairleads may be used to 6-22

Figure 6-38 — Control system components. reduce cable whipping and vibration in long runs of cable. Split fairleads are made for easy installation around single cables to protect them from rubbing on the edges of holes. Grommets Grommets are made of rubber, and they are used on small openings where single cables pass through the walls of unpressurized compartments. Pressure Seals Pressure seals are used on cables or rods that must move through pressurized bulkheads. They fit tightly enough to prevent air pressure loss, but not so tightly as to hinder movement of the unit. Pulleys Pulleys (or sheaves) are grooved wheels used to change cable direction and to allow the cable to move with a minimum of friction. Most pulleys used on aircraft are made from layers of cloth impregnated with phenolic resin and fused together under high temperatures and pressures. Aircraft pulleys are extremely strong and durable and cause minimum wear on the cable passing over them. Pulleys are provided with grease-sealed bearings and usually do not require further lubrication. However, pulley bearings may be pressed out, cleaned, and relubricated with special equipment. This is usually done by depot-level maintenance activities. Pulley brackets made of sheet or cast aluminum are required with each pulley installed in the aircraft. See Figure 6-38. Besides holding the pulley in the correct position and at the correct angle, the brackets prevent the cable from slipping out of the groove on the pulley wheel. SECTORS AND QUADRANTS These units are generally constructed in the form of an arc or in a complete circular form. They are grooved around the outer circumference to receive the cable, as shown in Figure 6-38. The terms sector and quadrant are used interchangeably. Sectors and quadrants are s imilar to bell cranks and walking beams, which are used for the same purpose in rigid control systems. AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL HARDWARE An important part of aircraft electrical maintenance is determining the correct type of electrical hardware for a given job. These maintenance functions normally require a joint effort on the part of the AM and the Aviation Electrician/Aviation Electronics Technician (AE/AT) personnel. It is important to become familiar with wire and cable, connectors, terminals, and bonding and bonding devices. 6-23

Figure 6-39 — Connector assembly. Figure 6-40 — Basic types of solderless terminals. WIRE AND CABLE For purposes of electrical installations, a wire is defined as a stranded conductor covered with an insulating material. The term cable, as used in aircraft electrical installations, includes the following:  Two or more insulated conductors contained in the same jacket (multiconductor cable)  Two or more insulated conductors twisted together (twisted pair)  One or more insulated conductors covered with a metallic braided shield (shielded cable)  A single insulated conductor with a metallic braided outer conductor (RF cable) For wire replacement work, the aircraft MIM should be consulted first. The manual should list the wire used in a given aircraft. CONNECTORS Connectors are devices attached to the ends of cables and sets of wires to make them easier to connect and disconnect. Each connector consists of a plug assembly and a receptacle assembly. The two assemblies are coupled by means of a coupling nut. Each consists of an aluminum shell containing an insulating insert that holds the current-carrying contacts. The plug is usually attached to the cable end and is the part of the connector on which the coupling nut is mounted. The receptacle is the half of the connector to which the plug is connected. It is usually mounted on a part of the equipment. One type of connector assembly commonly used in aircraft electrical systems is shown in Figure 6-39. TERMINALS Since most aircraft wires are stranded, it is necessary to use terminal lugs to hold the strands together. This allows a means of fastening the wires to terminal studs. The terminals used in electrical wiring are either of the soldered or crimped type. Terminals used in repair work must be of the size and type specified in the applicable MIM. The solderless crimped-type terminals are generally recommended for use on naval aircraft. Soldered-type terminals are usually used in emergencies only. The basic types of solderless terminals are shown in Figure 6-40. They are the straight, right angle, flag, and splice types. There are variations of these types. 6-24

Figure 6-41 — Typical bonding link installation. Figure 6-42 — Typical static dischargers. BONDING An aircraft can become highly charged with static electricity while in flight. If the aircraft is improperly bonded, not all metal parts have the same amount of static charge. A difference of potential exists between the various metal surfaces. If the resistance between insulated metal surfaces is great enough, charges can accumulate. The potential difference could become high enough to cause a spark. This constitutes a fire hazard and also causes radio interference. If lighting strikes an aircraft, a good conducting path for heavy current is necessary to minimize severe arcing and sparks. When all metal parts of an aircraft are connected to complete an electrical unit, the result is called bonding. Bonding connections are made of screws, nuts, washers, clamps, and bonding jumpers. Figure 6-41 shows a typical bonding link installation. Bonding also provides the necessary low -resistance return path for single-wire electrical systems. This low-resistance path provides a means of bringing the entire aircraft to the earth's potential when it is grounded. When an inspection is performed, both bonding connections and safetying devices must be inspected with great care. STATIC DISCHARGERS Static dischargers are commonly known as static wicks or static discharge wicks. They are used on aircraft to allow the continuous satisfactory operation of onboard navigation and radio communication systems. During adverse charging conditions, they limit the potential static buildup on the aircraft and control interference generated by static charge. Static dischargers are not lighting arrestors and do not reduce or increase the likelihood of an aircraft being struck by lightning. Static dischargers are subject to damage or significant changes in resistance characteristics as a result of lightning strike to the aircraft, and they should be inspected after a lightning strike to ensure proper static discharge operation. Static dischargers are fabricated with a wick of wire or a conductive element on one end, which provides a high-resistance discharge path between the aircraft and the air. See Figure 6- 42. They are attached on some aircraft to the 6-25

ailerons, elevators, rudder, wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer tips, etc. Refer to your aircraft's MIM for maintenance procedures. TORQUING OF FASTENERS Fastener fatigue failure accounts for the majority of all fastener problems. Fatigue breaks are caused by insufficient tightening and the lack of proper preload or clamping force. This results in movement between the parts of the assembly and the bending back and forth or cyclic stressing of the fastener. Eventually, cracks will progress to the point that the fastener can no longer support its designed load. At this point the fastener fails with varying consequences. TYPES OF TORQUE WRENCHES The two most commonly used torque wrenches are the dial indicating type and the setting or click type. Dial Indicating Type This torque wrench measures change in applied torque through a deflecting member. A dial or digital

readout is located below the handle to permit convenient and accurate reading. Indicating torque wrenches operate in clockwise and counterclockwise directions. Setting or Click Type This type of wrench compares the applied load to a self-contained standard. Reset is automatic upon release of applied load. TORQUING PROCEDURES For the nut to properly load the bolt and prevent premature failure, a designated amount of torque must be applied. Proper torque reduces the possibility of the fastener loosening while in service. The correct torque to apply when you are tightening an assembly is based on many variables. The fastener is subjected to two stresses when it is tightened. These stresses are tension and torsion. Tension is the desired stress, while torsion is the undesirable stress caused by friction. A large percentage of applied torque is used to overcome this friction, so that only tension remains after tightening. Proper tension reduces the possibility of fluid leaks. The recommended torque values provided in Table 6-2 have been established for average dry, cadmium-plated nuts for both the fine and coarse thread series. Thread surface variations such as paint, lubrication, hardening, plating, and thread distortion may alter these values considerably. The torque values must be followed unless the MIM or structural repair manual for the specific aircraft requires a specific torque for a given nut. Torque values vary slightly among manufacturers. When the torque values are included in a technical manual, these values take precedence over the standard torque values provided in the Structural Hardware Technical Manual, NAVAIR 01-1A-8. Separate torque tables and torquing considerations are provided in NAVAIR 01-1A-8 for the large variety of nuts, bolts, and screws used in aircraft construction. This manual should be used when specific torque values are not provided as a part of the removal/replacement instructions. To obtain values in foot-pounds, inch-pound values should be divided by 12. Nuts or bolts should not be lubricated except for corrosion-resistant steel parts or where specifically instructed to do so. If possible, it should always be tightened by rotating the nut first. When space considerations make it necessary to tighten the fastener by rotating the bolt head, the high side of the indicated torque range should be approached without exceeding the maximum allowable torque value. Maximum torque 6-26

Figure 6-43 — Torque wrenches. ranges should be used only when materials and surfaces being joined are of sufficient thickness, area, and strength to resist breaking, warping, or other damage. For corrosion-resistant steel nuts, the torque values given for shear-type nuts should be used. The use of any type of drive-end extension on a torque wrench changes the dial reading required to obtain the actual values indicated in the torque range tables. See Figure 6-43. 6-27

Table 6-2 — Recommended Torque Values (Inch-Pounds)

CAUTION THE FOLLOWING TORQUE VALUES ARE DERIVED FROM OIL-FREE CADMIUM-PLATED THREADS.

TORQUE LIMITS RECOMMENDED FOR INSTALLATION (BOLTS LOADED PRIMARILY IN SHEAR) | MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TIGHTENING TORQUE LIMITS

Tap Size | Tension-type nuts MS20365 and AN310 (40,000 psi in bolts) | Shear-type nuts MS20364 and AN320 (24,000 psi in bolts) | Nuts MS20365 and AN310 (90,000 psi in bolts) | Nuts MS20364 and AN320 (54,000 psi in bolts)

FINE THREAD SERIES 8-36 | 12-15 | 7-9 | 20 | 12 10-32 | 20-25 | 12-15 | 40 | 25 1/4-28 | 50-70 | 30-40 | 100 | 60 5/16-24 | 100-140 | 60-85 | 225 | 140 3/8-24 | 160-190 | 95-110 | 390 | 240 7/16-20 | 450-500 | 270-300 | 840 | 500 1/2-20 | 480-690 | 290-410 | 1,100 | 660 9/16-18 | 800-1000 | 480-600 | 1,600 | 960 5/8-18 | 1,100-1,300 | 600-780 | 2,400 | 1,400 3/4-16 | 2,300-2,500 | 1,300-1,500 | 5,000 | 3,000 7/8-14 | 2,500-3,000 | 1,500-1,800 | 7,000 | 4,200 1-14 | 3,700-5,500 | 2,200-3,300* | 10,000 | 6,000 1 1/8-12 | 5,000-7,000 | 3,000-4,200* | 15,000 | 9,000 1 1/4-12 | 9,000-11,000 | 5,400-6,600* | 25,000 | 15,000

COARSE THREAD SERIES 8-32 | 12-15 | 7-9 | 20 | 12 10-24 | 20-25 | 12-15 | 35 | 21 1/4-20 | 40-50 | 25-30 | 75 | 45 5/16-18 | 80-90 | 48-55 | 160 | 100 3/8-16 | 160-185 | 95-100 | 275 | 170 7/16-14 | 235-255 | 140-155 | 475 | 280 1/2-13 | 400-480 | 240-290 | 880 | 520 9/16-12 | 500-700 | 300-420 | 1,100 | 650 5/8-11 | 700-900 | 420-540 | 1,500 | 900 3/4-10 | 1,150-1600 | 700-950 | 2,500 | 1,500 7/8-9 | 2,200-3000 | 1,300-1,800 | 4,600 | 2,700

The above torque values may be used for all cadmium-plated steel nuts of the fine or coarse thread series, which have approximately equal number of threads and equal face bearing areas.

*Estimated corresponding values.

6-28

Figure 6-46 — Types of cotter pins. Figure 6-45 — Sample calculation. poundsinch66.7S      18 1200 612 12100 S S EL LTS aa a

TORQUING COMPUTATION When using a drive-end extension, you must compute the torque wrench reading using the formula in Figure 6-44:

Figure 6-44 — Drive-end extension formula.

Where:

S = handle setting or reading

T = torque applied at end of adapter

La = length of handle in inches

Ea = length of extension in inches

To exert 100 inch-pounds at the end of the wrench and extension, when La equals 12 inches and Ea equals 6 inches, it is possible to determine the handle setting by making the calculation shown in Figure 6-45.

Whenever possible, attach the extension in line with the torque wrench. When it is necessary to attach the extension at an angle to the torque wrench, the effective length of the assembly will be La + Ea, as shown in Figure 6-43. In this instance, length Eb must be substituted for length Ea in the formula. AIRCRAFT SAFETYING METHODS There are many different types of safetying materials used to stop rotation and other movement of fasteners. They are used to secure other equipment that may come loose due to vibration in the aircraft. COTTER PINS Cotter pins are used to secure bolts, screws, nuts, and pins. Some cotter pins are made of low-carbon steel, while others consist of stainless steel and are more resistant to corrosion. Also, stainless steel cotter pins may be used in locations where nonmagnetic material is required. Regardless of shape or material, all cotter pins are used for the same general purpose— safetying. Figure 6-46 shows three types of cotter pins and how their size is determined.

aa a EL LTS  

6-29

Figure 6-47 — Safety wiring methods.

SAFETY WIRE Safety wire comes in many types and sizes. First, the correct type and size of wire for the job must be selected. Annealed corrosion- resistant wire is used in high-temperature, electrical equipment and aircraft instrument applications. All nuts—except the self-locking types—must be safetied; the method used depends upon the particular installation. Figure 6-47 shows various methods commonly used to safety wire nuts, bolts, and screws. Examples 1, 2, and 5 in Figure 6-47 show the proper method of safety wiring bolts, screws, square head plugs, and similar parts when wired in pairs. Examples 6 and 7 show a single-threaded component wired to a housing or lug. Example 3 shows several components wired in series. Example 4 shows the proper method of wiring castellated nuts and studs. Note that there is no loop around the nut. Example 8 shows several components in a closely spaced, closed geometrical pattern, using the single-wire method. The following general rules apply to safety wiring: 1. All safety wires must be tight after installation, but not under so much tension that normal handling or vibration will break the wire. 2. The wire must be applied so that all pull exerted by the wire tends to tighten the nut. 3. Twists should be tight and even, and the wire between nuts as taut as possible without over twisting. Wire between nuts should be twisted with the hands. The use of pliers will damage the wire. Pliers may be used only for final end twist before cutting excess wire. Annealed copper safety wire is used for sealing first aid kits, portable fire extinguishers, oxygen regular emergency valves, and other valves and levers used for emergency operation of aircraft equipment. This wire can be broken by hand in case of an emergency. TURNBUCKLE SAFETYING When adjustments and rigging on the cables are completed, the turnbuckles should be safetied as necessary. Only two methods of safetying turnbuckles have been adopted as standard procedures by the armed services: the clip-locking method (preferred) and the wire-wrapping method (Figure 6-48). Lock clips must be examined after assembly for proper engagement of the hook lip in the turnbuckle barrel hole by the application of slight pressure in the disengaging direction. Lock clips must not be reused, as removal of the clips from the installed position will severely damage them. NOTE Whenever uneven prong cotter pins are used, the length measurement is to the end of the shortest prong. 6-30

Figure 6-48 — Safetying turnbuckles: (A) Clip- locking method (preferred); (B) wire-wrapping method. Clip-Locking Turnbuckles The clip-locking method of safetying uses a NAS lock clip. To safety the turnbuckle, the slot in the barrel must be aligned with the slot in the cable terminal by holding the lock clip between the thumb and forefinger at the end loop. The straight end of the clip should be inserted into the aperture formed by the aligned slots by bringing the hook end of the lock clip over the hole in the center of the turnbuckle barrel and seating the hook loop into the hole. Application of pressure to the hook shoulder at the hole will engage the hook lip in the turnbuckle barrel and complete the safety locking of one end. The above steps are then repeated on the opposite end of the turnbuckle barrel. Both locking clips may be inserted in the same turnbuckle barrel hole, or they may be inserted in opposite holes. Wire-Wrapping Turnbuckles First, two safety wires are passed through the hole in the center of the turnbuckle barrel. The ends of the wires are bent 90 degrees toward the ends of the turnbuckle, as shown in Figure 6-48. Next, the ends of the wires are passed through the holes in the turnbuckle eye or between the jaws of the turnbuckle fork, as applicable. The wires are then bent toward the center of the turnbuckle, and each one wrapped four times around the shank. This secures the wires in place. When a swaged turnbuckle terminal is being safetied, one wire must be passed through the hole provided for this purpose in the terminal. It is then looped over the free end of the other wire, and both ends wrapped around the shank. 6-31

End of Chapter 6 Aircraft Hardware Review Questions 6-1. Solid rivets are classified according to what three factors?

A. Alloy, length, shape B. Corrosion resistance, strength, alloy C. Material, head style, diameter D. Size, material, and head shape

6-2. A rivet with the code number MS20426 has what type of rivet head?

A. Countersunk B. Flat C. Round D. Universal

6-3. What code identifies a rivet with a plain head marking?

A. 1100-F B. 2017- T4 C. 2024- T4 D. 5056-H32

6-4. What manual should you first consult when replacing an aircraft wire?

A. General aircraft wire manual B. Maintenance instruction manual (MIM) C. NAVAIR- 01-1A-8 D. Structural Repair Manual (SRM)

6-5. What type of terminal is generally recommended for use on naval aircraft?

A. Crimped B. Splice C. Soldered D. Solderless crimped

6-6. What device is used on naval aircraft to allow the continuous satisfactory operation of onboard electrical equipment?

A. Bonding wire B. Lighting arrestor C. Static discharger D. Static wick

6-32

6-7. What are the two most commonly used types of torque wrenches?

A. Beam and dial B. Deflecting beam and c lick C. Dial indicating and setting or click D. Electronic and no-hub

6-8. Which of the following manuals provides torquing information for a large variety of nuts, bolts, and screws used in aircraft construction?

A. NAVAIR 01-1A-8 B. Maintenance instruction manual (MIM) C. Structural Repair Manual (SRM) D. COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2

6-9. What is the purpose of a cotter pin?

A. To secure bolts, nuts, screws, and pins B. Only used on bolts larger the 3/8 in diameter C. To replace the need for safety wire D. To secure safe for flight bolts only

6-10. How many different methods are used to secure a turnbuckle?

A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Six

6-11. How many pieces of safety wire are used to secure a turnbuckle using the wire-wrapping method?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four 6-33

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6-34

CHAPTER 7 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS

All naval aircraft are engine driven. The early engines were all reciprocating engines. Today, almost all are jet propulsion engines. Therefore, this chapter covers only jet propulsion engines. The jet propulsion principle is the basic concept for the gas turbine engine. This principle is not a new concept. Sea creatures use jet propulsion to propel themselves through the water. The Egyptians built the first reaction engine around 250 BC. Between 1700 and 1930, technical achievements in engineering, manufacturing, and metallurgy made the reaction principle applicable to the development of the gas turbine engine for jet propulsion. In 1939, the Germans flew the first aircraft powered by a gas turbine engine, followed by the British in 1941, and the Americans in 1942. During World War II, Germany was the only nation to fly a gas turbine-propelled aircraft in actual combat. There are two types of jet propulsion engines: the rocket, and the gas turbine engine. Of these, the gas turbine engine powers almost all naval aircraft. There are four types of gas turbine engines: the turbojet, the turbofan, the turboprop, and the turboshaft. The turbojet and turbofan engines use thrust directly. The turboprop and turboshaft engines use thrust to deliver torque (turning power) to an airplane propeller or a helicopter rotor. Regardless of the type, the purpose of an engine is to develop thrust. This chapter will give you basic information on jet propulsion engines. LEARNING OBJECTIVE When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Explain the basic operating principles of jet propulsion engines, and identify the components and functions of each type of engine. 2. Define the Brayton cycle and its application to gas turbine and jet engines. 3. Identify the two engine designation systems to include symbols, numbers, indicators, and special designators. 4. State power plant safety precautions that apply to the intake ducts, exhaust area, and engine noise. JET PROPULSION ENGINES A jet propulsion engine projects a column of air to the rear at extremely high speeds. The resulting thrust pushes the aircraft in the opposite (or forward) direction. Jet propulsion engines are grouped into two main types: 1. Rocket. These are jet propulsion systems that do not use atmospheric air. 2. Gas turbine. The gas turbine engine operates as a continuous turbine-compressor unit.

7-1

Figure 7-1 — Combustion in a closed container. Figure 7-2 — Principle of jet propulsion. Rocket Engines The rocket uses a form of jet propulsion that differs in basic ways from thermal gas turbine systems. The rocket does not draw air from the outside to fuel the combustion process. It carries with it both the fuel and the oxidizer for combustion. This design is a disadvantage for atmospheric flight, but it is the only way at present to fuel flight outside the earth's atmosphere. The rocket is a true jet reaction unit. A brief examination of its functions clarifies the reaction principle by which all thermal jet units operate. If you burn a hydrocarbon (compound containing only hydrogen and carbon) in a closed container, the heat of the burning fuel is released, causing the trapped gases to expand rapidly (see Figure 7-1). Because the container has a closed volume, the temperature and pressure rises and is uniformly distributed (balanced) in all directions. Since the force of the rising pressure cannot be released and is balanced, the container does not move. When you burn fuel in a container that has an opening (or nozzle) at one end, expanding gases rush out of the nozzle at a high velocity, as shown in Figure 7-2. Releasing internal pressure at the nozzle end of the container leaves an unbalanced pressure at the other end. The released pressure moves the container in the direction opposite to that of the escaping gases. This is the basic operating principle for all jet engines. Obviously, propulsion depends solely on internal conditions. The container does not "push against" external air. In fact, a complete vacuum would produce even greater force. The jet propulsion engine operates like a toy balloon. Newton's third law of motion explains this operation. This law states, "For every acting force there is an equal and opposite reacting force." Inflate a balloon. The air pressure inside the balloon, which is stretching the skin, is greater than the pressure outside the balloon. If the stem is tied closed, the inside air

pushes in all directions and the balloon will not move. Place the balloon in a vacuum and release the stem. The escaping air has nothing to push against, but the balloon will move in a direction away from the stem, just as it does in a normal atmosphere. Releasing the stem removes a section of skin on the side of the balloon against which the air has been pushing. On the side directly opposite the stem, however, the air continues to push on an equal area of skin. The continued push of air on this area causes the balloon to move in the direction away from the stem. 7-2

Figure 7-3 — Balloon as a jet engine. Figure 7-4 — Five major components of the turbojet. The acting force that Newton's third law refers to is the acceleration of the escaping air from the rear of the balloon. The reaction to this acceleration is a force in the opposite direction. In addition, the amount of force acting on the balloon is the product of the mass of air being accelerated times the acceleration of that air. Since the forces always occur in pairs, we can say that if a certain force is needed to accelerate a mass rearward, the reaction to this force is thrust in the opposite direction; force = thrust, as shown in Figure 7-3. Gas Turbine Engines As stated earlier, there are three types of gas turbine engines: turbojet, turboprop, and turboshaft. Each of these engines is briefly discussed in the following paragraphs. Turbojet Engines There are different Navy models of the turbojet engine. The F/A-18 is an example of an aircraft that uses this direct thrust engine. The turbojet engine consists of five major components: an inlet duct, a compressor, a combustion chamber (or chambers), a turbine (or turbines), and an exhaust cone assembly, as shown in Figure 7-4. Inlet Duct The inlet duct is an opening in the front of the aircraft that allows outside (ambient) air to enter the engine. The compressor compresses the incoming air and delivers it to the combustion (or burner) section. In the combustion chamber, fuel is sprayed into and mixed with the compressed air. An igniter then ignites the fuel-air mixture. The burning mixture continues to burn in the presence of the proper fuel -air mixture. The fuel-air mixture burns at a relatively constant pressure. Only about 25 percent of the air is used in the combustion process. The rest of the air (75 percent) is mixed with the combustion products (exhaust) for cooling before the gases enter the turbine section. 7-3

Figure 7-5 — Stator and rotor components of an axial-flow compressor. Figure 7-6 — Five-stage compressor. Figure 7-7 — Dual rotor turbine for split spool compressor. The turbine section extracts and uses a major portion of the energy in the gas stream to turn the compressor and accessories. After leaving the turbine, the remaining pressure forces the hot gases through the engine exhaust duct at very high speeds. The air that entered the inlet is now expelled at a much higher speed than when it entered. This occurrence causes the engine to thrust. Compressor The axial-flow compressor is made up of a series of rotating blades and a row of stationary stator vanes, as shown in Figure 7-5. A row of rotating blades and stator vanes is called a stage. The entire compressor is made up of a series of alternating rotor blade and stator vane stages. Recall that the compressor provides high-pressure air to the combustion chamber (or chambers). The compressor delivers outside (ambient) air to the inlet section and passes this air through the inlet guide vanes. In turn, the inlet guide vanes deflect the air in the direction of compressor rotation. The rotating blades arrest the airflow and pass it to a set of stationary stator vanes. The air is again deflected and picked up by another set of rotating blades, and so on through the compressor. The pressure of the air increases each time it passes through a set of rotors and stators because the areas of the rotors and stators get smaller, as shown in Figure 7-6. One development in the axial-flow engine is the split spool compressor. This compressor (Figure 7-7) uses two rotors of nine and seven stages, respectively. An assigned wheel drives each rotor of the 7-4

axial three-stage turbine assembly. This configuration makes possible high compressor pressure ratios, which are necessary for efficient high-altitude operations. Another development was necessary to eliminate compressor stall in turbojet engines. The axial compressor, especially with fixed blading, was subject to stalling. Compressor stall was normally caused by a breakdown of the airflow through a few stages of the compressor. Compressor stall could progress until the complete unit stalled. There are two methods to eliminate compressor stall: the compressor bleed-air system and the variable vane system. The compressor bleed-air system bleeds off approximately 10 percent of the front compressor discharge air. It reduces the amount of air available to the rear compressor. This design provides a surge-free operation throughout the critical speeds of the engine. The variable vane system changes the position of the inlet guide vanes and the stator vanes to avoid compressor stall. This action maintains the velocity of the air (and the angle at which it strikes the blades) within acceptable limits for low airflow conditions. It also permits high airflow with a minimum of restriction. Combustion Chamber The efficiency and performance of a turbine power unit depend on the type of combustion system used. The basic requirements for a satisfactory system are a high rate of burning, minimum pressure drop, small bulk, and light weight. The system must be consistent in operation over a wide range of loads and altitudes, with no tendency to flood with fuel or suffer combustion blowout. Combustion blowout is a flame failure, and it is primarily a problem in high-altitude operation. Starting must be easy and positive, both on the ground and in the air. Combustion must be complete to avoid formation of carbon deposits. Fuel enters the front of the burner as an atomized spray or in a prevaporized form. Air flows in around the fuel nozzle and through the first row of combustion air holes in the liner. Air near the burner nozzle stays close to the front liner wall for cooling and cleaning purposes. Air entering through opposing liner holes mixes rapidly with the fuel to form a combustible mixture. Air entering the forward section of the liner recirculates and moves upstream against the fuel spray. During combustion, this action permits rapid mixing and prevents flame blowout by forming a low-velocity stabilization zone. This zone acts as a continuous pilot for the rest of the burner. Air entering the downstream part of the liner provides the correct mixture for combustion. This air also creates the intense turbulence necessary for mixing the fuel and air and for transferring energy from the burned to the unburned gases. Since an engine usually has two igniter plugs, cross ignition tubes are necessary in the can and can- annular types of burners. These tubes allow burning to start in the other cans or inner liners. Axial- flow engines use either an annular or the can-annular (Figure 7-8) type of combustion chamber. The igniter plug is usually located in the upstream reverse flow region of the burner. After ignition, the flame quickly spreads to the primary (combustion) zone. This zone contains the correct proportion of air to completely burn the fuel. If all the air flowing through the engine were mixed with the fuel at this point, the mixture would be outside the combustion limits for the fuel normally used. Therefore, only about one-third to one-half of the air is allowed to enter the combustion zone of the burner. About 25 percent of the air actually takes part in the combustion process. 7-5

Figure 7-8 — Can-annular combustion chamber components. Figure 7-9 — Airflow through a can-annular chamber. Gases that result from the combustion process have temperatures of approximately 3,500 °F (1,900 °C). Before entering the turbine, these gases must be cooled to about half this value. The design of the turbine and the materials used in its makeup determine the temperature to which the gases must be cooled. Secondary air, which enters through a set of relatively large holes located toward the rear of the liner, dilutes and cools the hot gases. The liner must also be protected from the high temperatures of combustion. This protection is usually provided by cool air introduced at several different places along the liner. The cool air forms an insulating blanket between the hot gases and the metal walls, as shown in Figure 7-9. Turbine The turbine assembly drives the compressor and accessories by extracting some of the energy and pressure from the combustion gases. In a typical jet engine, about 75 percent of the power produced internally is used to drive the compressor. The remaining 25 percent produces the necessary thrust. 7-6

Figure 7-10 —Turbine rotor and nozzle. Figure 7-11 — Typical exhaust cone assembly. The turbine consists of a nozzle assembly and a rotating blade assembly. The hot gases from the combustion chamber flow through the turbine nozzle assembly and are directed against the rotating turbine disk blades. The rotating blade assembly (turbine rotor) is made up of a steel shaft and disk. High-temperature alloy blades are locked into grooves cut in the periphery of the disk. The entire turbine rotor is statically and dynamically balanced. In some units, the turbine compressor rotors are mounted on the same shaft. In other units, they are mounted on separate shafts that are connected during assembly. The nozzle assembly consists of the nozzle guide vanes and the stator ring/shroud ring, as shown in Figure 7-10. The guide vanes are made up of high-temperature alloy. They are fitted into or welded to the stator ring/shroud. Exhaust Cone Assembly The exhaust cone (Figure 7-11), which is attached to the rear of the turbine assembly, is a tapered, cylinder-shaped outlet for the gases. The cone eliminates turbulence in the emerging jet, thereby giving maximum velocity. The inner cone is usually attached to the outer cone by streamlined vanes called brace assemblies. The exhaust cone itself is usually made of stainless steel sheets, reinforced at each end with stainless steel flanges. As much heat energy as possible is kept within the exhaust cone. A covering of layers of aluminum foil or other material acts as insulation for the cone. Turboprop Engines There are numerous models of the turboprop engine. The P-3, C- 2, and E-2 aircraft are examples of aircraft that use turboprop engines. The turboprop engine was developed to provide the power requirements for aircraft of greater size, carrying capacity, range, and speed. The turboprop engine is capable of developing 2 1/2 horsepower per pound of weight. The turboprop converts most of its gas-energy into mechanical power to drive the compressor, accessories, and a propeller. The additional turbine stages needed to drive the extra load of a propeller create the low-pressure, low-velocity gas stream. A small amount of jet thrust is obtained from this gas stream. 7-7

Figure 7-12 — T56 turboprop engine. Figure 7-13 — Propeller assembly and associated parts. The turboprop engine (Figure 7-12) consists of three major assemblies: the power section, the torquemeter assembly, and the reduction gear assembly. The propeller assembly mounts on the reduction gear assembly to provide aircraft thrust. Power Section The power section consists of an axial-flow compressor, a combustion chamber, a multi-stage turbine, and an exhaust section. The last two stages of the turbine are used to drive the propeller using the torquemeter assembly and the reduction gear assembly. Torquemeter Assembly The torquemeter assembly electronically measures the torsional deflection (twist). Torsional deflection occurs in the power transmitting shaft that connects the power section to the reduction gear assembly. This torsional deflection is recorded as horsepower. Reduction Gear Assembly The reduction gear assembly reduces the engine rpm within the range of efficient propeller rpm. The ratio on some installations is as high as 12 or 13 to 1. This large reduction ratio is necessary because the gas turbine must operate at a very high rpm to produce power efficiently. The turboprop engine operates at a constant rpm. The propeller blade angle changes for an increase or decrease in power while the engine rpm remains the same. The typical propeller assembly for a turboprop engine (Figure 7-13) consists of a front and rear spinner assembly, a hub- mounted bulkhead assembly, the dome assembly, four 7-8

Figure 7-14 — typical turboshaft engine blades, an afterbody fairing assembly, and a propeller control assembly. The propeller assembly converts the power developed by the engine into thrust as efficiently as possible under all operating conditions. Turboshaft Engines There are many different models of this type of engine. The H-60 and H-53 helicopters are examples of aircraft that use this engine. Turboshaft engines have a high power-to- weight ratio and are widely used in helicopters. Figure 7-14 shows a typical turboshaft engine. The turboshaft engine is an axial- flow engine that incorporates the free turbine principle. It is composed of a compressor, combustor, gas generator turbine, and power turbine. The engine is equipped with a control system that modulates fuel flow to maintain constant power turbine output speed for a given speed selector setting in the governed range. This system maintains the selected speed by automatically changing the fuel flow to increase or decrease gas generator speed. The pilot determines the speed by positioning the power lever. The control system provides automatic protection against compressor stall, turbine overtemperature, overspeed of both turbine assemblies, and combustion flameout. An emergency throttle system is provided for use in case of fuel control failure. A starter, mounted at the nose of the engine, drives the gas generator rotor and engine accessories for engine starting. The engine is installed with its nose facing forward and supported by engine mounts bolted to the aircraft fuselage. Air is supplied to the engine through the inlet air duct, located inside the right-hand side door of the center nacelle. An alternate air door is attached to the duct by a hinge. Air is supplied through the alternate air door when an insufficient amount of air comes into the engine through the main air duct. The engine is installed so that, with the nacelle removed, all accessories and components can be easily reached and maintained. 7-9

Gas Turbine Engine Component Controls, Systems, and Sections In addition to the five major components discussed as part of the turbojet engine, there are numerous controls, systems, and sections that are common to all four types of gas turbine engines. Among the more important of these are the fuel control, lubrication system, ignition system, and accessory section. Fuel Control Depending upon the type of engine and the performance expected of it, fuel controls may vary in complexity. They may range from simple valves to automatic computing controls containing hundreds of intricate, highly machined parts. The pilot of a gas turbine-powered aircraft does not directly control the engine. The pilot's relation to the power plant corresponds to that of the bridge officer on a ship. The bridge officer obtains engine response by relaying orders to an engineer below deck, who, in turn, actually moves the throttle of the engine. Modern fuel controls are divided into two basic groups, hydromechanical and electronic. The controls sense some or all of the following engine operating variables: 1. Pilot's demands (throttle position) 2. Compressor inlet temperature 3. Compressor discharge pressure 4. Burner pressure 5. Compressor inlet pressure 6. Engine rpm 7. Turbine temperature The more sophisticated fuel controls sense even more operating variables. The fuel control is the heart of the gas turbine engine fuel system. This complex device schedules fuel flow to the engine combustion chamber. It automatically provides fuel flow as dictated by the operating conditions of the engine (temperature, pressures, altitude, throttle position, etc.). The fuel control combines the inputs of throttle position, compressor discharge pressure, compressor inlet temperature, and engine speed to produce the fuel flow to operate the engine. The fuel control governs the engine speed by controlling fuel flow. Fuel flow variations are limited to ensure fast stall- free acceleration and deceleration. During throttle bursts, the fuel control also postpones the initiation of the afterburner operation (if installed) to achieve the fastest possible acceleration. Lubrication System The oil lubrication systems of modern gas turbine engines vary in design and plumbing. However, most systems have units that perform similar functions. In a majority of cases, a pressure pump or system furnishes oil to lubricate and cool several parts of the engine. A scavenging system returns the oil to the tank for reuse. Overheating is a problem in gas turbine engines. Overheating is more severe after the engine stops than while it is running. Oil flow, which normally cools the bearings, stops. The heat stored in the turbine wheel now raises the temperature of the bearings much higher than when the engine was running. The oil moves heat away from these bearings to prevent overheating. Most systems include a heat exchanger to cool the oil. Many systems have pressurized sumps and a pressurized oil tank. This equipment ensures a constant head pressure to the pressure lubrication pump to prevent pump cavitation at high altitudes. 7-10

Figure 7-15 — Dry sump oil system. Oil consumption is relatively low in a gas turbine engine compared to a piston-type engine. Oil consumption in the turbine engine primarily depends upon the efficiency of the seals. However, oil can be lost through internal leakage, and, in some engines, by malfunctioning of the pressurizing or venting system. Oil sealing is very important in a jet engine. Any wetting of the blades or vanes by oil vapor causes accumulation of dust or dirt. Since oil consumption is so low, oil tanks are made small to decrease weight and storage problems. The main parts of the turbine requiring lubrication and cooling are the main bearings and accessory drive gears. Therefore, lubrication of the gas turbine engine is simple. In some engines the oil operates the servomechanism of fuel controls and controls the position of the variable-area exhaust nozzle vanes.

Because each engine bearing gets its oil from a metered or calibrated opening, the lubrication system is known as the calibrated type. With few exceptions, the lubricating system is of the dry sump design. This design carries the bulk of the oil in an airframe or engine-supplied separate tank. In the wet sump system, the oil is carried in the engine itself. All gas turbine engine lubrication systems normally use synthetic oil. Figure 7-15 shows components that usually make up the dry sump oil system of a gas turbine engine. Ignition System Modern gas turbine engines use high voltage and a spark of high heat intensity. The high- energy, capacitor- discharge type of ignition WARNING

Because of the high power in these ignition systems, you must be careful to prevent a lethal electrical shock from capacitors. Always avoid contact with leads, connections, and components until the capacitors have been grounded and are fully discharged. 7-11

Figure 7-16 — Spark igniter. Figure 7-17 — A comparison of turbojet and reciprocating engine cycles. system provides both high voltage and an exceptionally hot spark. This system assures ignition of the fuel-air mixture at high altitudes. There are two types of capacitor discharge ignition systems: the high-voltage and the low-voltage systems with dc or ac input. The high-voltage system produces a double spark. The double spark is a high-voltage component. This component ionizes (makes conductive) the gap between the igniter plug electrodes so that the high-energy, low-voltage component may follow. In the low-voltage system, the spark is similar to the high-voltage system, but uses a self-ionizing igniter plug. Figure 7-16 shows a typical spark igniter. Accessory Section The accessory section of the gas turbine engine is usually mounted beneath the compressor section. This section contains an accessory drive gearbox, a housing (case), and provisions for mounting the engine-driven accessories (constant speed drive transmission, fuel and oil pumps, electrical tachometer generators, etc.). In gas turbine engines with air turbine starters, the starter is mounted on the forward face of the accessory gearbox. The accessory gearbox also includes many of the gas turbine engine's internal lubrication system components. THE BRAYTON CYCLE A cycle is a process that begins with certain conditions and ends with those same conditions. The Brayton c ycle is illustrated in Figure 7-17. Note that in the gas turbine engine, each cycle is not only performed continuously, but also by a separate component designed for its particular function. Since all of the events are going on continuously, we can say that all gas turbine engines work on an open cycl e. Figure 7- 17 compares the cycles of operation of a piston-type (reciprocating) engine and a gas turbine 7-12

engine. The piston-type engine produces power by intermittent combustion. The gas turbine engine produces power continuously. ENGINE IDENTIFICATION Table 7-1 — Aircraft Letter Symbols and Engine Types SYMBOL ENGINE TYPE J Aviation gas turbine (turbojet engine) T Aviation gas turbine (turboprop and turboshaft engines) Presently, two engine designation systems identify aircraft power plants. One system is described in Air Force-Navy Aeronautical (ANA) Bulletin No. 306M. The other system, MIL-STD-1812 designation system, includes all newly developed (Air Force, Army, and Navy) gas turbine engines. These designation systems use standard symbols to represent the types and models of engines now used in military aircraft. ANA Bulletin No. 306m Designation System The following paragraphs describe the ANA Bulletin No. 306M designation system. This system has no provisions for Army designation. T56-A-14 is an example of this system’s designation number. Type Symbols The first part of the designation system is a letter (or letters) that indicates each basic engine type. Table 7-1 shows the letter symbols that identify engine types. A number follows the first letter symbol. The armed service using the engine assigns this number. The Navy uses even numbers; the Air Force uses odd numbers:  The number 30 for the Navy. The Navy has even numbers.  The number 31 for the Air Force. The Air Force has odd numbers. The designation of odd or even numbers does not restrict the use of the engine to the sponsoring service. Aircraft engines, regardless of type designation, are used by various services, depending on their applicability for a particular aircraft. In some instances, engines are made interchangeable for a particular airframe. Manufacturer's Symbol The second part of the designation is a dash and a letter symbol that indicates the engine manufacturer. Some of the manufacturers are listed in Table 7-2. Table 7-2 — Engine Manufacturers MANUFACTURER SYMBOL MANUFACTURER AD Allison Division, General Motors Corp. BA Bell Aircraft Company CA Continental Aviation and Engineering Corp. CP United Aircraft of Canada Ltd. 7-13

MANUFACTURER SYMBOL MANUFACTURER GA AiResearch Division, Garrett Corp. GE General Electric Company LA Lockheed Aircraft Company LD Lycoming Division, Avco Corp. MD McDonald-Douglas, Aircraft Company PW Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Division, United Aircraft Corp. RR Rolls Royce, Ltd. WA Curtis-Wright Corp. WE Westinghouse Electric Company Special manufacturer's symbols may be assigned when two manufacturers are jointly producing an engine. In these instances, the manufacturer's symbol is one letter from each of the manufacturers' symbols. Model Numbers The third part of the designation is a dash and a number indicating the model number.  Navy numbers begin with 2, and they continue with consecutive even numbers. All even model numbers are assigned to engines approved by the Naval Air Systems Command.  Air Force numbers begin with 1 and continue with consecutive odd numbers. Each engine design has only one type and model designation for both the Air Force and Navy. For example, the Navy may wish to use an engine that has Air Force-approved type and model numbers. The Navy may use those numbers without change, provided there are no engine changes. If the Air Force wants to use a Navy-approved type engine, but requires minor engine production changes, the Air Force must use the Navy type designation. It tells which service made the last production change to the engine for a particular aircraft application. The Air Force then assigns its own model designation (which begins with the number 1 and progresses with consecutive odd numbers) to the modified engine, regardless of the Navy model number. This model number is actually a modification number. Special Designations The letter X or Y preceding the basic designation signifies a special designation. The prefix letter X is a basic engine designation signifying the experimental and service test of a particular engine. This prefix letter is removed after tests prove the engine can perform as it should under all operating conditions. The prefix letter Y indicates a Restricted Service designation. It indicates that the engine will not, or is not expected to, perform satisfactorily under all operating conditions. It is applied to an engine that has a specific function or that has completed a 150-hour qualification test only. Upon satisfactorily completing the qualification testing, the Y designation is dropped. The engine is then approved for installation in a production aircraft. 7-14

The following is an example of a complete ANA Bulletin No. 306M engine designation number: T56-A-14  T —Turboprop  56—Navy developed  A —Allison  14—Navy model The ANA Bulletin No. 306M designation system is effective until each engine manufactured before the introduction of MIL-STD-1812 is modified or deleted from service. MIL-STD-1812 Designation System This engine designation system is made up of three-digit numerals and model numbers. It is used on all newly developed gas turbine engines. Existing engines receive a new three-digit model number whenever there are major changes in engine configuration or design. In most instances the old two- digit indicator will be retained. The MIL-STD-1812 engine designation system applies to all the armed services: Air Force, Navy, and the Army. The complete designation system has three parts: the type indicator, the manufacturer's indicator, and the model indicator. Special designations in this system are the same as those discussed under the ANA Bulletin No. 306M system (X or Y preceding the basic designation). Type Indicator The first part is the type indicator. It consists of the type letter symbol and the type numeral. Letter type symbols are shown in Table 7-3. Table 7-3 — Engine Type Indicator INDICATOR ENGINE TYPE J Turbojet T Turboprop/Turboshaft

The second part is type numerals and type letter symbol are assigned consecutively by each of the services. The numerals begin as follows:  100—Air Force  400—Navy  700—Army NOTE If one service uses other services' designated engines, the designation remains the same unless a model change is required. However, in this case, the model indicator will change to indicate the engine is modified. 7-15

Model Indicator The third part is the model indicator. It is a dash and a model number, or a dash and a model number with a suffix letter. Each configuration of the engine has an assigned model number. Each of the services assigns a block of numbers that are used consecutively.  100—Air Force  400—Navy  700—Army F401-PW-400 is an example of a MIL-STD-1812 engine designation.  401—Second Navy turbofan in designation system  PW—Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Division, United Aircraft Corporation  400—First Navy model of this particular engine POWER PLANT SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Operational readiness of a maximum number of aircraft power plants is necessary if naval aviation is to perform its mission successfully. Keeping aircraft and power plants in top operating condition is the principal function of naval aviation maintenance personnel. This maintenance work must be performed without injury to personnel. Every person connected with power plant maintenance is responsible for discovering and eliminating unsafe work practices. In the following section, we will discuss a few standard safety precautions. You must follow these precautions to prevent injury to yourself or others working on or near aircraft jet engines. Intake Ducts The air intake ducts of operating jet engines are an extreme hazard to personnel working near the aircraft. Ducts are also a hazard to the engine itself if the area around the front of the aircraft is not kept clear of debris. The air intake duct develops enough suction to pull an individual, or hats, eyeglasses, etc., into the intake. The hazard is obviously greatest during maximum power settings. Protective screens for the ducts are part of the aircraft's ground-handling equipment. These screens must be installed prior to all maintenance turnups. Exhaust Area Jet engine exhausts create many hazards to personnel. The two most serious hazards are the high temperature and the high velocity of the exhaust gases from the tailpipe. High temperatures are present several hundred feet from the tailpipe. The closer you get to the aircraft, the higher the exhaust temperatures and the greater the danger. When a jet engine is starting, sometimes excess fuel will accumulate in the tailpipe. When this fuel ignites, long flames shoot out of the tailpipe at very high velocity. You will want to stay clear of this danger at all times. Engine Noise Jet engine noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. Hearing loss occurs when your unprotected ear is exposed to high sound intensities for excessive periods of time. The higher the 7-16

sound level, the less time it takes to damage your hearing. Without ear protection, persons exposed to sound intensities above 140 decibels (dB) for any length of time may suffer serious hearing damage. You must wear proper ear protection at all times. You should wear double hearing protection when working around turning aircraft. As an Airman, you must be familiar with all aircraft general safety precautions as well as those peculiar to your squadron. The life you save may be your own.

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End of Chapter 7 Aircraft Power Plants Review Questions 7-1. What engine does NOT draw air from the outside to fuel the combustion process?

A. Gas turbine B. Rocket C. Turboprop D. Turboshaft

7-2. How many major components make up a turbojet engine?

A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7

7-3. What component is an opening in the front of the aircraft that allows outside air to enter the engine?

A. Inlet duct B. Compressor

C. Combustion chamber D. Turbine

7-4. What component is attached to the rear of the turbine assembly, and is a tapered, cylinder- shaped outlet for the gases?

A. Inlet duct B. Compressor

C. Combustion chamber D. Exhaust cone

7-5. What engine was developed to provide the power requirements for aircraft of greater size, carrying capacity, range, and speed?

A. Rocket B. Turboprop C. Turborotor D. Turboshaft

7-6. How many major sections make up a turboprop engine?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 7-18

7-7. What section of a turboprop engine consists of an axial-flow compressor, a combustion chamber, a multi-stage turbine, and an exhaust?

A. Power B. Reduction C. Torquemeter D. Tail

7-8. What type of engine has a high power- to-weight ratio and is widely used in helicopters?

A. Rocket B. Turbojet C. Turboprop D. Turboshaft

7-9. What component on a gas turbine engine is the heart of the gas fuel system?

A. Accessory section B. Ignition system

C. Fuel control D. Exhaust cone

7-10. How many different types of ignition systems are used on gas turbine engines?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

7-11. What section on a gas turbine engine is usually mounted beneath the compressor?

A. Fuel control B. Accessory C. Ignition D. Lubrication

7-12. What cycle is used to describe the gas turbine engine’s cycle?

A. Amber B. Braxton C. Brayton D. Camber

7-19

7-13. What symbol is used for an aviation gas turbine engine type?

A. A B. J C. K D. T

7-14. How many designation systems are used to identify aircraft power plants?

A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8

7-15. What is the engine manufacturer symbol for United Aircraft of Canada Ltd.?

A. AD B. BA C. CA D. CP

7-16. What is the engine manufacturer symbol for AiResearch Division, Garrett Corp.?

A. BA B. GA C. LD D. MD

7-17. Without ear protection, persons exposed to sound intensities above what dB may suffer hearing damage?

A. 110 B. 120 C. 130 D. 140

7-18. What area on an aircraft produces the two most serious hazards, the high temperature and the high velocity of the tailpipe?

A. Exhaust B. Intake C. Landing gear D. Main rotor

7-20

7-19. What area on an aircraft develops enough suction to pull in an individual?

A. Exhaust B. Intake C. Landing gear D. Main rotor

7-20. Keeping aircraft and power plants in top operating condition is the principal function of what type of personnel?

A. Admin B. Maintenance C. Medical D. Security

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7-22

Figure 8-1 — Typical aircraft lead- acid storage battery. CHAPTER 8 AIRCRAFT AVIONICS Modern naval aircraft have a wide variety of missions. The electronic equipment these aircraft carry enables them to perform these missions. We refer to this equipment as aviation electronics (avionics). The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize you with the most widely used avionics in the Navy. Aircraft have two primary sources of electrical energy. The first is the generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The second is the battery, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. The generator is the main source, and the battery is the auxiliary source. The Aviation Electrician's Mate (AE) rating maintains aircraft electrical systems. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. State the basic operating principles and safety precautions for working around aircraft batteries. 2. Define the basic purpose and operating principles for aircraft alternating current ( ac) electrical systems. 3. Identify and recognize the purpose of aircraft instrument systems to include pitot-static , gyroscopes, and navigational instruments. 4. Explain the general characteristics and uses of communications and navigation equipment. 5. Describe the operating principles, types, and uses of radar. 6. State the purpose and uses of antisubmarine warfare equipment to include sonobuoys and magnetic anomaly detection equipment. AIRCRAFT BATTERIES Aircraft storage batteries provide an emergency source of electrical power for operating electrical systems of an aircraft. The ac generator and transformer-rectifier combination supply electrical energy and maintain the battery in a charged state during normal aircraft operation. The battery supplies power to the aircraft only when the generating systems are unable to supply power. Figure 8-1 shows an aircraft storage battery with a quick disconnect. The battery is the emergency power source for the aircraft. As such, you should maintain the battery in perfect condition at all times. Never use the battery for starting engines or servicing equipment if another power source is available. Doing so shortens the battery’s life. The service life of the aircraft battery depends upon the frequency and quality of care it receives. Lead-Acid Battery Fundamentally, there is no difference between the lead-acid aircraft battery and the lead-acid automobile battery. Both have lead plates in a solution of sulfuric acid and water (electrolyte). Both 8-1

operate on the same basic principles. The lead-acid battery consists of cells connected in series. Each cell contains positive plates of lead peroxide and negative plates of spongy lead. Nickel-Cadmium Battery The nickel-cadmium battery gets its name from the composition of its plates: nickel oxide on the positive plate and metallic cadmium on the negative plates. The electrolyte consists of potassium hydroxide and water. The fundamental unit of the nickel-cadmium aircraft storage battery is the cell. The sintered-plate nickel-cadmium cells used in the battery consist of two basic types— vented and sealed cells. Most naval aircraft nickel-cadmium storage batteries employ rectangular vented-type cells. Sealed cells have limited applications and come in both the rectangular and cylindrical types. Safety Precautions The principal hazard in working with lead-acid batteries is acid burns when you are refilling or handling them. You can prevent getting burned by wearing eye shields, rubber gloves, rubber aprons, and rubber boots with nonslip soles. Rubber boots and aprons are only needed when you are refilling batteries. You should wear eye shields whenever you are working around batteries. Eye shields will prevent acid burns to your eyes. Wood slat floorboards, in good condition, will help prevent slips and falls. Additionally, electric shock from the high-voltage side of charging equipment is reduced. Another hazard of working with batteries is the chance of an explosion. Hydrogen gas, a high explosive, collects while batteries are charging and can cause an explosion during battery charging. This is especially true when using the accelerated charging method. The charging rate should be held to a point that prevents the rapid release of hydrogen gas. Follow the manufacturers' recommendations for the charging rates. Be careful to prevent short circuits while batteries are being charged, tested, or handled. A spark from a shorted circuit could easily ignite the explosive gases. This danger is also true for personnel performing aircraft maintenance near batteries. Open flames or smoking are not permitted in the battery charging room. Use a shop exhaust system to remove the gases. Use extreme caution when you are installing or removing an aircraft battery. Batteries are heavy for their size and awkward to handle. These characteristics require the use of proper safety precautions. Aircraft batteries may overheat because of internal shorting or thermal runaway. In either case, an overheated battery causes a hazardous condition. When an overheated battery is detected, crash crew personnel should open the battery compartment and check for the following conditions:

 Flame — if present, use CO2 extinguisher.  No flame — if smoke, fumes, or electrolyte is coming from the battery or vent tubes, spray the battery with low-velocity water fog. This will lower the battery temperature.

WARNING CO2 is a good fire-extinguishing agent once a fire has started. Never spray CO2 from a portable fire extinguisher into a battery compartment for cooling or to displace explosive gases. The static electricity generated by the discharge of the extinguisher could explode the gases trapped in the battery compartment. 8-2

Following a visual check, allow crash crew personnel to remove the battery. If additional battery cooling is required, use low-velocity water fog. You may use the above procedures on all types of aircraft batteries installed in all types of aircraft. AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS Alternating Current (AC) As you just learned, energy for operating most electrical equipment in an aircraft depends primarily on energy supplied by a generator. A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generators that produce ac are called ac generators or alternators. Most naval aircraft use ac elect rical systems as the primary source of power. Most equipment aboard is ac powered. The few requirements that remain for direct current (dc) are normally supplied by a system of rectifiers. A rectifier converts ac power to dc power. Auxiliary power units (APUs), discussed later in this chapter, provide ground service and emergency power. Emergency Electrical Power For many years, the storage battery was the only source of emergency electrical power. Recent advancements in avionics equipment have caused emergency electrical loads to exceed the capability of storage batteries. Also, the aircraft storage battery with its highly corrosive electrolyte damages precision equipment and precious metals used in today's aircraft. For these reasons, there are new methods of providing emergency electrical power. Emergency Power Generators Many jet aircraft have emergency generators. These generators provide emergency electrical power in the event of main electrical power failure. In some aircraft, a power package positioned outside the aircraft provides emergency electrical power. When required, the pilot operates a lever that causes the package to stick out into the airflow. The ram-air effect of the airflow provides the turning power for a turbine. The turbine, in turn, rotates the generator's armature (Figure 8-2) that produces the electrical power. CAUTION If acid or electrolyte from a lead-acid battery touches your skin or eyes, flush the affected area with large quantities of fresh water. Report immediately for medical examination and treatment. CAUTION If the electrolyte from a nickel-cadmium (NICAD) battery touches your skin or eyes, flush the affected area thoroughly with large quantities of fresh water. Neutralize with vinegar or a weak solution (3%) of boric acid. Report immediately for medical examination and treatment. 8-3

Figure 8-3 — Gas turbine power plant unit. Airborne Auxiliary Power Units (APU) Larger aircraft use APUs. These power units furnish electrical power when engine-driven generators are not operating or when external power is not available. The power output from the APU supplies a constant voltage at a constant frequency. The APU does not depend on engine revolutions per minute (rpm). Most units use a gas turbine (Figure 8-3) to drive the generator. The gas turbine provides compressed air for air-conditioning and pneumatic engine starting. This makes the aircraft independent of the need for ground power units to carry out its mission.

Figure 8-2 — Emergency generator, (A) side view; (B) view looking left. 8-4

Figure 8-4 —Typical deck-edge electrical installations. (A) Hangar deck; (B) catwalk; (C) flush deck. Carrier Aircraft Electrical Power Servicing System The deck-edge electrical power system on aircraft carriers provides servicing power to aircraft. Twenty-eight-volt dc power is supplied by rectified ac or by motor-generators. Ac ge nerators usually supply the 400-hertz, three-phase, ac- servicing voltage. Figure 8-4 shows an electrical power service system found on modern carriers. Power is supplied by service outlets located at the edge of the flight deck or from recesses in the flight deck. Additionally, receptacles are located throughout the hangar bay. All systems have standard remote-control switches, service outlet boxes, and power cables. The dc service cable is oval-shaped and contains three female pins that mate to male pins on the aircraft. The ac service cable is rectangular-shaped and contains six female pins that mate to male pins on the aircraft. Use the following safety precautions when you work with deck-edge electrical power systems:  Use care when you are connecting the heavy cables to the aircraft. Damage to the aircraft power receptacles may result if too little slack is left in the cables.  Be sure that the remote switches are turned off prior to connecting or disconnecting service cables to the aircraft.  The flush deck outlets often get water in them because of rain or heavy seas. Do not use these outlets if water is present. You will get shocked. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS Pitot-Static System The AE rating maintains the pitot-static system and most aircraft instruments. The pitot-static system in an aircraft includes some of the instruments that operate on the principle of the barometer. It consists of a pitot-static tube and three indicators all connected with tubing that carries air. The three indicators are the altimeter, the airspeed and Mach number indicator, and the rate-of-climb indicator. The airspeed indicator displays the speed of the aircraft. The altimeter displays the altitude of the aircraft. The rate-of-climb indicator s hows how fast the aircraft is climbing or descending. Each instrument operates on air taken from outside the aircraft during flight. The relationship between the pitot-static tube, the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and the rate-of-climb indicator is shown in Figure 8-5. The pitot tube is mounted on the outside of the aircraft at a point where the air is least likely to be turbulent. It points in a forward direction parallel to the aircraft's line of flight. One general type of airspeed tube mounts on a mast extending below the nose of the fuselage. Another is on a boom 8-5

Figure 8-5 — Pressure measuring instruments. Figure 8-6 — Counter/pointer altimeter. extending forward of the leading edge of the wing. Although there is a slight difference in their construction, their operation is the same. Static means stationary or not changing. The s tatic port introduces outside air, at its normal outside atmospheric pressure, as though the aircraft were standing still in the air. The static line applies this outside air to the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and the rate-of-climb indicator. The tube or line from the pitot tube to the airspeed indicator applies the pressure of the outside air to the indicator. The indicator is calibrated so that various air pressures cause different readings on the dial. The indicator interprets air pressure from the pitot tube and reflects airspeed in knots. When working on or around the pitot tube or static ports, do not obstruct the openings. Obstructed openings restrict the supply of air to the indicators and cause false readings.

Altimeter The altimeter (Figure 8-6) shows the height of the aircraft above sea level. The face of the instrument is calibrated so the counter/pointer displays the correct altitude of the aircraft. Airspeed and Mach Number Indicator The airspeed and Mach number indicator (Figure 8-7) displays the speed of the aircraft in relation to the air in which it is flying. In some instances, the speed of an aircraft is shown in Mach numbers. The Mach number of any moving body is its speed compared to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium (local speed). For example, if an aircraft is flying at a speed equal to one-half the local speed of sound, it is flying at Mach 0.5. If it moves at twice the local speed of sound, its speed is at Mach 2. CAUTION Severe burns may result from touching a pitot tube with the pitot tube heaters on. Be sure the pitot tube heaters are off before installing protective covers. 8-6

Figure 8-7 — Airspeed and Mach number indicator. Figure 8-9 — Oil pressure indicator.

Rate-of-Climb Indicator The rate-of-climb indicator (Figure 8-8) shows the rate at which an aircraft is climbing or descending. The case of a climb indicator is airtight except for a small connection through a restricted passage to the static line. Changes in atmospheric pressure move the operating mechanism that displays the rate of change. This change occurs only when the aircraft is ascending or descending. When the aircraft ceases to climb or dive, the airflow through the metering units equalizes and the pointer returns to zero. Pressure Indicating Gauges Electrical signals from a pressure transmitter activate a variety of aircraft instrument systems. Electrically activated instruments are usually in the form of small voltmeters with calibrated dials. These dials are calibrated to display a variety of conditions such as oil pressure, fuel pressure, and hydraulic pressure. Oil Pressure Indicator Oil pressure instruments (Figure 8-9) shows the pressure of the oil. Drops in oil ressure (below normal conditions) signal possible engine failure caused by lack of oil. Fuel Pressure Indicator The fuel pressure indicator provides a check on the operation of the fuel system. It shows if fuel is being supplied steadily under the correct operating pressure. Hydraulic Pressure Indicator The pressures of hydraulic systems vary for different models of aircraft. In most pressure systems, the gauges register from 0 to 3,000 psi. Figure 8-10 shows the hydraulic pressure indicator of a late model naval aircraft. The indicator provides a continuous pressure reading on the number 1 and Figure 8-8 — Rate-of-climb indicator. 8-7

Figure 8-10 — Hydraulic pressure indicator. Figure 8-11 — Turbine inlet temperature indicator. Figure 8-12 — Exhaust gas temperature indicating system. number 2 flight control systems. The pressure indicator contains two synchros mechanically attached to two separate pointers. The pointers show the pressure in each system. ENGINE INSTRUMENTS To properly operate an aircraft, the pilot must monitor many engine instruments. Among these are temperature indicators, the tachometer, the fuel quantity indicator, and the vertical scale indicator. Turbine Inlet Temperature Indicator A turbine inlet temperature indicator (Figure 8-11) provides a visual display of the temperature of gases entering the turbine. Dual-unit thermocouples installed in the inlet casing measure the temperature of each inlet. The indicator scale is calibrated in degrees Celsius (°C) from 0 to 12 (times 100). The digital indicator reads from 0 to 1,200°C in 2-degree increments.

Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator The exhaust gas temperature indicator provides a visual display of the engine's exhaust gases as they leave the turbine unit. A typical exhaust gas temperature indicating system for a modern naval jet aircraft is shown in Figure 8-12.

8-8

Figure 8-13 — Tachometer, jet engine type. Figure 8-14 — Fuel quantity indicator. Tachometer The tachometer (Figure 8-13) is an instrument for showing the speed of the power section of a gas turbine engine. A small alternator or generator attached to the engine's accessory section produces a voltage proportional to the speed of the power section. This voltage powers the pointer on the tachometer and registers the percent of rpm being developed. A dual tachometer is used in turbojet and multiengine aircraft. Fuel Quantity Indicator The fuel quantity indicator (Figure 8-14) is a capacitor-type gauge system. An electronic fuel-measuring device displays fuel quantity in pounds. The dial of the indicator is calibrated from 0 to 50 (times 1,000) with line increments every 100 pounds.

8-9

Figure 8-15 — Vertical scale indicators. (A) Fuel flow indicator; (B) tachometer rpm indicator; (C) turbine inlet temperature indicator; (D) angle-of-attack indicator; (E) gas generator speed indicator; (F) interturbine temperature indicator; (G) fan speed indicator. Vertical Scale Indicator On most new model naval aircraft, radial dial indicators have been replaced by vertical scale indicators. The vertical scale indicator is used to show engine performance data, fuel flow, engine speed, exhaust gas temperatures, and accelerometer readings. Vertical scale indicators are compact, lightweight, and easily read. Figure 8-15 shows a few examples of the vertical scale indicators now in use.

8-10

Figure 8-16 — Roll and pitch indications Gyroscopes If not for using the properties of a spinning wheel, precise navigation and instrument flying would be very difficult. Two very important instruments that use the properties of a gyroscope are the attitude indicator and the turn and bank indicator. Attitude Indicator A pilot determines aircraft attitude by referring to the horizon. Often, the horizon is not visible. When it is dark, overcast, smoky, or dusty, you cannot see to use the earth's horizon as a reference. When one or more of these conditions exists, the pilot refers to the attitude indicator. The attitude indicator is also known as a vertical gyro indicator (VGI), artificial horizon, or gyro horizon. Attitude indicators show the pilot the relative position of the aircraft compared to the earth's horizon. Attitude indicators may be different in size and appearance, but they all have the same components and present the same basic information. As shown in Figure 8-16, a miniature aircraft represents the nose (pitch) and wing (bank) attitude of the aircraft with respect to the earth's horizon. A band on the face of the indicator shows the degree of bank. The sphere is shaded light on the upper half and dark on the lower half to show the difference between sky and ground. The calibration marks on the sphere show degrees of pitch. Each indicator has a pitch trim adjustment so the pilot can center the horizon as necessary. 8-11

Figure 8-17 —Turn and bank indicator. Figure 8-18 — Magnetic (standby) compass. Figure 8-19 — Horizontal situation indicator. Turn and Bank Indicator The turn and bank indicator (Figure 8-17) shows the correct execution of a turn and bank. It also shows the lateral attitude of the aircraft in straight flight. A turn and bank indicator is really two instruments mounted as a single unit. The turn indicator is a gyro mounted in a frame that is pivoted to turn on a longitudinal axis. The direction of a turn is shown on the dial by a pointer. The distance the pointer moves to the right or left is proportional to the rate of the turn. The other half of the instrument, the bank indicator, is not a gyro instrument. It consists of a glass ball that moves in a curved glass tube filled with a liquid, consisting of 50 percent alcohol and 50 percent glycerin. The tube is mounted horizontally below the center of the dial, as shown in Figure 8-17. When the pilot is executing a properly banked turn, the ball stas in the center position. If the ball moves from the center position, it shows the aircraft is slipping to the inside or the outside of the turn. Centrifugal force and gravity determine the position in which the ball rests. Navigational Instruments The following navigational instruments direct, plot, and control the course or position of aircraft. Magnetic (Standby) Compass A direct-reading magnetic compass (Figure 8-18) is mounted on the instrument panel. The face of the compass is read like the dial of a gauge. Gyro Compass The gyro compass is used in many naval aircraft. The system provides an accurate indication of aircraft headings through 360° of azimuth. Horizontal Situation Indicator The newest naval aircraft use the horizontal situation indicator (Figure 8-19). It shows the pilot the navigational situation of the aircraft.

8-12

COMMUNICATIONS AND NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT This section presents information on airborne uses of radio communications and navigation. Radio equipment does not require interconnecting wires between the sending and receiving stations. It is the only practical means of communicating with moving vehicles, such as ships or aircraft. Also, radio communication can span great distances in any or all directions. It is the most practical system to use for sending information to many points, as in broadcasting to large numbers of ships or aircraft. Modern aircraft use radio equipment as navigational aids. Navigational aids consist of many types and are of varying complexity. They range from simple radio direction finders to complex navigational systems. Some systems use computers and other advanced electronic equipment to solve navigational problems automatically. The Aviation Electronics Technician (AT) rating normally maintains communications and navigational equipment. Airborne Communications Equipment Several means of radio communications are in use today. Some of these radio communications methods are:  Radiotelegraphy: The transmission of intelligible coded radio-frequency waves as Morse code.  Radiotelephony: The transmission of sound intelligence (voice, music, or tones) by continuous radio-frequency waves.  Radiofacsimile: The transmission of still images (weather maps, photographs, sketches, and so forth) over a radio-frequency channel.  Radioteletype: The transmission of typewritten messages over a radio-frequency channel.  Radiotelevision : The transmission of a rapid succession of images (still or moving) over a radio-frequency channel. Airborne communications equipment usually consists of equipment that can use either or both radiotelegraphy or radiotelephony. Radiotelegraphy and radiotelephony are called Morse code and continuous wave (CW) voice communications, respectively. Long-range Communications Airborne long-range communications sets normally operate in a band of frequencies from about 3 MHz to 30 MHz. Frequencies within this band are called the high-frequency (HF) band. Radio frequencies within this band have characteristics that make them highly useful. The radiated waves transmitted along the surface of the earth bend around objects in its path. In addition, radio wave that is transmitted skyward bounce off the ionosphere and return to earth at extreme distances from the transmitting station. This allows the waves to travel extremely long distances. Most long-range communications sets are designed for both voice and CW (Morse code) operation. It is often necessary to have a long antenna for long-range communications. A weighted antenna wire (trailing wire antenna) is installed in some large aircraft. The wire is reeled out to provide an antenna of the desired length. Short-range Communications Short-range airborne communications sets operate in the frequency range from about 30 MHz to 3 GHz. The lower portion of this band is the very-high-frequency (VHF) band; the higher portion is the ultra-high-frequency (UHF) band. The VHF/UHF frequency bands have transmission characteristics that differ from those frequencies in the HF band. Radio waves transmitted at these frequencies travel in a straight line. This limits the transmission to line-of-sight. VHF/UHF communications sets are called line-of-sight communications sets. Radio waves at these frequencies normally do not return to earth. Therefore, VHF/UHF transceivers are mainly used for air-to-air and air-to-ground contact in 8-13

Figure 8-20 – GPS. close-range operations. Landings and takeoffs are typical situations using air-to-ground VHF/UHF transmissions. Special situations exist where VHF/UHF equipment is involved in long-distance communications. An example of this is the network of remote-controlled transceivers installed along the airways system in the United States. Pilots of aircraft traveling the airways can talk directly to controllers in distant aviation activities. A system of telephone lines and relay stations connect the remote transceiver sites. The radio part of the transmission takes place over a relatively short distance. Navigational Equipment Modern naval aircraft use a lot of navigational equipment. Radio receivers and transmitters are used to handle signals that determine bearing and/or distance. The tactical air navigation (TACAN) system, Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigation computer systems are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) System TACAN is a radio navigational set that provides slant range and relative bearing to a transmitting ground (surface) station. It has Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) that provides continuous slant range information. The Bearing Distance Heading Indicator (BDHI) provides a visual indication of the navigational situation for that aircraft. Global Positioning System (GPS) GPS (Figure 8-20) is a space-based radio position and navigation system designed to provide highly accurate three-dimensional position, velocity, and time data to suitably equipped aircraft anywhere on or near the earth. The Satellite Vehicle (SV) consists of 24 operational satellites in six circular orbits 8-14

(10,900 nautical miles) above the earth at an inclination angle of 55° with a 12-hour period. The satellites are spaced in orbit so that at any given time a minimum of four satellites will be in view to users anywhere in the world. The GPS Navigation Set receives and processes SV signals, combines them with air data information, and then calculates and displays the aircraft position for navigation. The information includes present aircraft position, course information, distance and time to waypoint and desired track, along with other navigation information. GPS consists of three independent segments— the satellite segment, ground segment, and the user segment. Navigation Computers A new and complex group of electronic navigational equipment is now in use in naval aviation. This equipment does not use a radio receiver as the basic component. Included in this group are navigational computers, Doppler navigation equipment, and inertial navigation equipment. Navigational Computers— One of the navigational aids now in use is a latitude and longitude type of airborne computer system. This system can make the following computations during flight:  The latitude and longitude of the present position of the aircraft. This information is continually displayed on the pilot's console.  The aircraft ground track angle, relative to true heading.  The distance from the present position of the aircraft to a preset target or base, as selected on the control panel.  The bearing of the preset target or base, as selected, relative to true heading. The computer is an analog-type computer. It includes a group of servomechanisms that receive navigational information and, by solving trigonometric equations, produces output information. Data input consists of the following:  Compass heading  True airspeed  Magnetic variation  Windspeed  Base position latitude and longitude (usually the starting position)  Target position latitude and longitude  Aircraft's latitude and longitude (if not identical to base) The magnetic compass and the true airspeed transmitter automatically furnish compass heading and true airspeed. The remaining inputs are set manually by control knobs on the counter-control panel. The computer sections continuously reposition the POSITIONLATITUDE and LONGITUDE counters to show the aircraft's present position and/or the intended target's position. Doppler Navigation Equipment Doppler navigation is based on a radar wave transmission beamed toward the earth behind the aircraft. This radar does not sense range and bearing (direction) as ordinary search radar does. Instead it uses a CW transmission to measure the ground-speed and drift angle of the aircraft. The Doppler navigation system operates anywhere. It is relatively unaffected by weather conditions and is independent of ground-based navigation aids. This permits an aircraft crew to compute an aircraft's track. The track is projected on the ground from any known position (usually the position of takeoff) to any position desired. Therefore, long-distance navigation is possible. Inertial Navigation Equipment An inertial navigation system (INS) is an automatic aid to navigation that is independent of outside references. An INS is a portion of the overall tactical system that provides accurate velocity, attitude, 8-15

Figure 8-21 — Reflection of sound and radio waves. and heading data to a digital data processing system. This overall system permits accurate weapons delivery. To function properly, the system must be aligned with reference to initial conditions of altitude, latitude, and longitude. The aircraft gyros, accelerometers, synchros, servos, and computers continually monitor aircraft heading, attitude, and horizontal and vertical velocities. Any change in the aircraft's latitude, longitude, or altitude involves a change in its speed or direction of motion. The inertia of extremely sensitive accelerometers resists these changes. This resistance is measured and recorded by the synchros, servos, and computers. The computers continually recalculate the movement of the aircraft based on the latest changes recorded by the accelerometers. The computers use these calculations to provide a constantly updated readout of the aircraft's geographical position. When used with Doppler radar, an INS greatly improves overall system accuracy. RADAR The acronym radar means RAdio Detection And Ranging. Radar is a radio device used to detect objects at distances much greater than is visually possible. Detectable objects include aircraft, ships, land areas, clouds, and storms. In addition to detecting these objects, the radar shows their range and relative position. Radar was shrouded in secrecy all through World War II. It was one of our most important offensive and defensive weapons systems. Today, radar is used in most types of aircraft, and plays a major role in the mission of naval aviation. Modern developments have led to many specialized types of radar; however, the basic principle upon which it functions is simply echo waves. Echo Principles Radar works on the echo principle, as shown in Figure 8- 21. If a person shouts toward a cliff, in a few seconds the voice returns as an echo. If a radio wave is sent towards a cliff from a radio transmitter through an antenna, it would echo and return to be picked up through the antenna and sent to the radio receiver. Sound waves travel about 1,100 feet per second, while radio waves travel at the speed of light (about 186,000 miles per second). By knowing the speeds of these waves and the time it takes them to return as an echo, you can measure distance. Voice echo has been used to measure distance across canyons and the distance of icebergs from ships, as shown in Figure 8-22. If it requires 6 seconds for a sound wave to reach an iceberg and return, the total distance traveled by the wave is 6,600 feet. The actual distance to the iceberg is only 3,300 feet. It requires only one-half the time, or 3 seconds, for the sound to reach the iceberg. Therefore, the iceberg is 1,100 × 3 or 3,300 feet away. Mathematically, the distance to the object is one-half the product of the velocity multiplied by the time in seconds. In this case, the velocity (1,100) 8-16

Figure 8-22 — Using voice echo to measure distance. Figure 8-23 — Radar pulse detection. is multiplied by the time in seconds (6). This divided by 2 equals 3,300 feet—the distance to the object. Radar measures the distance to an object in much the same manner as the echo. See Figure 8-23. However, radiowaves travel much faster than soundwaves. Radio waves travel about 330 yards in a millionth of a second. Therefore, the times involved in radar ranging are much shorter tha n for sound ranging. Applications Of Radar Radar was originally devised as an instrument to detect approaching ships or aircraft. Practice and experience in reading the scope soon showed that radar could do much more. By plotting successive positions of enemy ships and aircraft, you could determine their course and speed. Further experience made it possible to determine whether the target was a battleship, destroyer, aircraft, or a group of targets. Also, an aircraft's altitude could be determined. 8-17

Figure 8-24 — Typical surface radar PPI composite display showing several IFF responses. Use in Tactical Air Control Both airborne and shipboard radar is a major link in an operational system. It directs fighter aircraft to a favorable position for intercepting enemy aircraft. The air control officer can determine the number of fighters so they can successfully attack and destroy the enemy. Airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft, equipped with high-powered radars, are used in tactical air control. These aircraft extend the range of air control radar by operating in areas outside the range of the shipboard or land-based radar. The AT rating maintains AEW equipment. Use in Fire Control The highly directional characteristics of radar make it suited for directing fire control systems. Focusing the radar energy into a narrow beam enables it to display target position with a high degree of accuracy. At the same time, it also displays target range. The primary purpose of fire control radar is to determine the correct position and attitude the aircraft should be in to hit the specified target. Radar, in its early stages of development, was useful as an aid to the human eye under poor visibility conditions. It also provided a more accurate and faster means of range measurement. Presently, it provides a faster and more accurate method of directing fire control than is humanly possible. This feature is extremely important considering the high speeds of today's aircraft and missiles. The time available to launch an intercept weapon effectively is measured in fractions of a second. Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) The problem of distinguishing friend from foe in warfare has increased because of the increased speed of aircraft and ships. Radar can detect both sea and air targets at long range. However, it displays both friend and enemy similarly on the scope. It is not practical to wait until the target has been visually identified to begin preparing for battle. A met hod other than visual recognition must be used for early identification of the target. IFF is an electronic system that allows a friendly craft to identify itself automatically before approaching near enough to threaten the security of other naval units. A transponder in the friendly aircraft receives a radio-wave challenge (interrogation). The transponder transmits a response to a proper challenge, as shown in Figure 8-24. Upon receiving the proper challenge, the transponder automatically transmits a coded reply, which tells the challenger that a friend has been challenged. The transponder stays in a standby condition and transmits only when the proper challenge is received. The challenger's receiver accepts the reply of the challenged target and presents the replies on an indicator. All operational aircraft and ships of the armed forces carry transponders to give their identity when challenged. For operations involving only friendly aircraft, it is important for air traffic control to know not only their location but their identity. 8-18

The Selective Identification Feature (SIF) was developed to expand the IFF system. This increases its flexibility through a multiple-code transponder reply. By such means, selective and individual identification of aircraft is possible, with the following results:  Ground control of friendly aircraft  Operational flexibility in the identification process  A measure of additional security in Identification Electronic Countermeasures A basic rule of warfare is that for each weapon used by one side, a counter-weapon will be developed by the other side. This rule is clearly seen in the development and use of electronic countermeasures (ECM). The objective of ECM is to gather intelligence from the enemy's electronic devices and make the devices ineffective. Electronic countermeasures consist of two general types of actions— passive and active. Passive Passive ECM operations are those that cannot be directly detected by the enemy. These include search operations where enemy radar transmitters are detected, located, and as many of the signal characteristics as possible are determined. For example, ECM can detect a radar pulse transmission at 1 1/2 times the distance the radar returns can detect a target. The signal characteristics determine if the radar is used for search, navigation, or fire control. Passive countermeasures also include evasive tactics taken to avoid detection and methods of controlling the radiations from friendly equipment. Such measures prevent the enemy from using the signals for homing, direction finding, or any other purpose. Active Active ECM operations are actions that the enemy can detect. Active operations prevent effective use of the enemy's equipment. Electronic jamming interferes with enemy radar and communications. Active radar nonelectronic jamming is done by releasing strips of metallic foil (chaff or window) from aircraft. The falling strips cause many false targets or cause the enemy scope to cover with clutter that can mask targets from search and fire control radars. ANTISUBMARINE WARFARE EQUIPMENT (ASW) Sonobuoys The sonobuoy is an expendable electronic listening device dropped into water from carrier-based and land-based patrol aircraft. The sonobuoy detects underwater sounds and transmits these sounds to aircraft. A surfaced or snorkeling submarine is not likely to be detected by an aircraft's radar. The reason is the submarine's ECM detects the aircraft's radar at a greater distance than the aircraft can detect the submarine. The sonobuoy helps solve the submarine detection problem. The sonobuoy, housed in a cylindrically shaped tube, is designed to float upright in the water. Upon being dropped from an aircraft, the sonobuoy, stabilized by small blades, enters the water in an upright position. Upon striking the water, the stabilizing blades eject and a small transmitting antenna erects itself. The impact also causes the release of a hydrophone (underwater microphone). This underwater listening device connects to the end of a cable that permits it to sink to a predetermined depth. The hydrophone receives underwater sounds and transmits them to the monitoring receiver in the aircraft. By dropping sonobuoys in a pattern over a large ocean area, the airborne sonobuoy receiver operator can determine the approximate location of a submarine. Often its course and speed can also be determined. These methods of detection are passive, and therefore give the aircraft an advantage. 8-19

Figure 8-25 — Simplified comparison of natural field density and submarine anomaly. Other passive and active tactics use sonobuoys to localize the submarine to a point where attack by airborne weapons is possible. The sonobuoy continues to float and gather information until a seawater soluble plug dissolves and lets the sonobuoy flood and sink. This action removes an obstruction in the water and permits the frequency of that sonobuoy to be used by another. Magnetic Anomaly Detection (MAD) Another method of localizing a submerged submarine is by using MAD equipment. This equipment uses the principle that a metallic submarine disturbs the magnetic lines of force of the earth. Light, radar, or sound energy cannot pass from air into water and return to the air in any degree that is usable for airborne detection. However, lines of force in a magnetic field can make this change. Therefore, a submarine lying beneath the ocean's surface causes a distortion (anomaly) in the earth's magnetic field. The distortion can be detected from a position in the air above the submarine. Detection of this anomaly is the function of MAD equipment. Figure 8-25, view A, shows the angular direction at which natural lines of magnetic force enter and leave the surface of the earth. View B represents an area of undisturbed natural magnetic strength. In views C and D, the submarine's magnetic field distorts the natural field. The density of the natural field is decreased in view C and increased in view D. The MAD equipment in the aircraft allows the operator to search selected areas of ocean immediately and accurately. Upon detecting and evaluating a possible enemy, the operator relays the information to surface and airborne forces. Aviation Antisubmarine Warfare Operator (AW) ratings operate ASW equipment.

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End of Chapter 8 Aircraft Avionics Review Questions 8-1. What maintains the battery in a charged state?

A. APU B. Alternator C. Electrolyte D. Generator

8-2. What are batteries usually enclosed in?

A. Grounded metal housing B. Ungrounded metal housing C. Grounded plastic housing D. Ungrounded plastic housing

8-3. What is the principal hazard in working with lead-acid batteries?

A. Burns B. Explosion C. Heat D. inhalation

8-4. What converts ac power to dc power?

A. Alternator B. APU C. Rectifier D. Ge nerator

8-5. What amount of power is provided by the aircraft carrier electrical servicing system?

A. 200 Hz B. 400 Hz C. 600 Hz D. 800 Hz

8-6. What converts mechanical energy into electrical energy?

A. Battery B. Carrier servicing system C. Generator D. Rectifier

8-21

8-7. The pitot-static system consists of a pitot-static tube and how many indicators?

A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7

8-8. What indicator shows the height of the aircraft above sea level?

A. Airspeed B. Altimeter C. Rate- of-climb D. Tachometer

8-9. What instrument shows the speed of the power section of a gas turbine engine?

A. Airspeed B. Altimeter C. Rate- of-climb D. Tachometer

8-10. What indicator shows the pilot the relative position of the aircraft compared to the earth's horizon?

A. Altimeter B. A ngle of attack C. Attitude D. Airspeed

8-11. What range of frequencies are airborne long-range communications sets normally operated in?

A. 3 MHz to 30 MHz B. 30 MHz to 3 GHz C. 6 MHz to 40 MHz D. 40 MHz to 6 GHz

8-12. What radio navigational set provides slant range and relative bearing to a transmitting ground (surface) station?

A. Doppler B. GPS C. TACAN D. UPS

8-13. What is an automatic aid to navigation that is independent of outside references?

A. Doppler B. INS C. TACAN D. UPS

8-22

8-14. What system works on the echo principle?

A. RADAR B. S onobuoys C. TACAN D. WC

8-15. The highly directional characteristics of what system make it suited for directing fire control?

A. ECHO B. IFF C. RADAR D. T ACAN

8-16. What method other than visual recognition must be used for early identification of the target?

A. ECHO B. IFF C. RADAR D. T ACAN

8-17. What is an expendable electronic listening device dropped into water from carrier-based and land-based patrol aircraft?

A. Gyroscopes B. IFF C. M AD D. Sonobuoys

8-18. What equipment uses the principle that a metallic submarine disturbs the magnetic lines of force of the earth?

A. Gyroscopes B. IFF C. M AD D. Sonobuoys

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8-24

CHAPTER 9 AIRCRAFT ORDNANCE As an Airman, you might be assigned to the armament branch of an aircraft squadron, the weapons department of a naval air station, or an aircraft carrier. Regardless of where you are assigned, you will work around aircraft armament systems and various associated weapons. Aviation Ordnancemen (AOs) handle aircraft ordnance. They work with aircraft guns and pyrotechnics. They also maintain bombs, rockets, missiles, mines, and torpedoes. They maintain the aircraft weapons releasing and launching equipment necessary for disbursing such items. AOs are familiar with the safety precautions for working with such material. Personnel directly involved in ordnance handling must be qualified and/or certified according to the Navy's current qualification/certification program. You may not be assigned in an area that requires direct contact with ordnance. You must still be familiar with the basic characteristics of ordnance and hazards peculiar to aircraft ordnance. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Describe common terms and definitions associated with aircraft ordnance. 2. State the method for identification and marking of ammunition. 3. Explain the purpose and types of aircraft bombs. 4. Identify the types, uses, and basic characteristics of a ir-launched guided missiles and guided missile launchers. 5. Identify the components of the M61A1 and M61A2 automatic gun and recognize the operating principles. 6. Define the purpose and use of hand-manipulated signaling devices. 7. Describe the types, uses, and basic characteristics of cartridges and cartridge-activated devices. 8. Identify the purpose and use of bomb racks. TERMINOLOGY AOs use special terminology on the job. To understand this chapter, you should know these terms. A few of the more common terms and definitions are as follows: Ordnance Military material (such as combat weapons of all kinds) with ammunition and equipment required for its use. Ordnance includes everything that makes up a ships or aircraft's armament. This includes guns, ammunition, and all equipment needed to control, operate, and support the weapons. Propellant The material that provides the energy for propelling a projectile, specifically an explosive charge for propelling a bullet, shell, or the like. It may also be a fuel, either solid or liquid, for propelling a rocket or missile. 9-1

Pyrotechnics Ammunition containing compositions that produce illumination. Examples are colored lights or smoke for marking or signaling, or incendiary effects for smoke screens. Ammunition A device charged with explosives, propellants, pyrotechnics, initiating composition, or chemical materials. Bomb-Type Ammunition Bomb-type ammunition is characterized by a large high-explosive charge-to-weight ratio. Examples are aircraft bombs, mines, and warheads used in guided missiles and rockets. This ammunition has destructive blast effect at or near the target. Cartridge-Activated Device (CAD) Explosive loaded devices designed to provide the means of releasing or harnessing potential cartridge energy to initiate a function or a special-purpose action. Aircraft equipment, such as ejection seats, canopy ejection systems, aircraft bomb racks, and launchers, use CADs. Chemical Ammunition Chemical ammunition consists of a variety of items that depend upon a chemical filling for effect rather than upon explosives or shrapnel. An explosive or ignition element must activate this ammunition. Inert Ordnance Actual size ammunition items with working mechanisms used for training exercises but having no explosive materials. Guided Missile An unmanned vehicle designed as a weapon that travels above the surface of the earth. This vehicle follows a course or trajectory that is guided by an automatic or remotely controlled mechanism within the vehicle. Incendiary A chemical used to ignite combustible substances. Practice/Training Ammunition An ammunition item that looks and acts just like the service item. It may be a modification of a service (tactical) item or something designed specifically for practice. Used in training associated with all types of ordnance. Practice ammunition may either be expendable or recoverable, depending upon the device involved. Service Ammunition Ammunition for combat use. This ammunition is approved for service use. It contains explosives, pyrotechnics, or chemical agent filler. The propellant, if required, is of service or reduced charge weight. Service ammunition is also called tactical ammunition. 9-2

Warhead The part of ammunition containing the materials intended to inflict damage. The explosives in warheads are called the payload. Airborne Stores Items that are NOT normally separated from the aircraft in flight. A partial list of these items includes tanks, pods, and non-expendable training weapons. Targets, racks, launchers, adapters, and detachable pylons are also included. High and Low Explosives There are two general classes of military explosives— high explosives and low explosives. Each is classified according to its rate of decomposition. High and low explosives may be further classified by their reaction, composition, or service use. However, only the two general classes, high and low, are covered in this chapter. High Explosives High explosives are usually products of organic substance nitration. They may contain nitrogen and inorganic substances or mixtures of both. A high explosive may be a pure compound or a mixture of several compounds. Additives, such as powdered metals, plasticizing oils, or waxes, provide desired stability and performance characteristics. A high explosive is characterized by extremely fast decomposition called detonation. A high explosive detonates almost instantaneously. The detonation is similar to a very rapid combustion or a rupture and rearrangement of the molecules themselves. In either case, gaseous and solid products are produced. The disruptive effect of the reaction makes some explosives valuable as a bursting charge. This bursting effect prevents its use in ammunition and gun systems because the gas pressures formed could burst the barrel of a weapon. Low Explosives Low explosives are mostly solid combustible materials that decompose rapidly but do not normally explode. This action is called deflagration. Upon ignition and decomposition, gas pressures develop to propel something in a definite direction. Ammunition, gun systems, and some missiles use this type of explosive. The rate of burning is an important characteristic, which depends on such factors as combustion gas pressure, grain size and form, and composition. Under certain conditions, low explosives may react in the same manner as high explosives and explode. AMMUNITION IDENTIFICATION Ammunition identification is an important part of ordnance handling and administration. Ammunition identification identifies the type of ammunition, class of explosive contained in the round, mark (Mk) and modification (Mod) numbers, lot numbers, and color codes representing the explosive hazards. Ammunition items are most readily identified by size, shape, and weight. Specific characteristics of these items are further identified by painting, marking, lettering, or combinations of these methods. Service Ammunition Ammunition intended for operational use is classified as service ammunition. The warhead contains explosives, pyrotechnics, or chemical agent filler. If required, the propellant is of service or reduced charge weight. Aircraft service ammunition is identified as either armament (kill stores) or ordnance (search stores). 9-3

Non-Service Ammunition Ammunition used for training personnel in all aspects of a familiarization program is classified as non- service ammunition. This ammunition may be of service quality or may be specifically modified or loaded for practice ammunition inert training, inert dummy/drill, or exercise/recoverable ammunition. Practice Ammunition This is ammunition specifically designed or modified for use in exercises, practice, or operational training. Practice ammunition may be either expendable or recoverable. Practice ammunition is not inert and may contain all the explosive material normally contained in service ammunition. Practice ammunition may contain additional explosive material such as pyrotechnics, spotting charges, or flotation devices to assure destruction, location, or recovery. Inert Ammunition This is ammunition and components that contain no explosive material. Inert ammunition and components include:  Ammunition and components with all explosive material removed and replaced with inert material  Empty ammunition or components  Ammunition or components that were manufactured with inert material in place of all explosive material Drill Ammunition This is inert ammunition which may have working mechanisms or cut–away sections and is used for training. Painting Painting (Table 9-1) is the application of the final body coating to ammunition, ammunition components, or ammunition containers by authorized activities. Usually, paint color identifies the use or explosive hazards of the ammunition; however, sometimes it has no meaning.

9-4

Table 9-1 — Ammunition Color Codes COLOR INTERPRETATION Yellow (1) Identifies high explosives (2) Indicates the presence of high explosives Brown (1) Identifies rocket motors and JATOs (2) Identifies low explosive items or components, or indicates the presence of a low explosive *Gray Identifies ammunition that contains irritant or toxic agents when used as an overall body color, except in underwater ordnance Gray with Dark Red Band Indicates the ammunition contains an irritant (riot control) agent Gray with Dark Green Band Identifies the ammunition contains a toxic agent other than binary agents *Black Identifies armor-defeating ammunition, except on underwater ordnance, dummy hand grenades, and when used for lettering or marking Silver/Aluminum Identifies countermeasure ammunition Light Green Identifies screening or marking smoke ammunition Light Red Identifies incendiary ammunition or indicates the presence of highly flammable material for producing damage by fire *White Identifies illuminating ammunition or ammunition producing a colored light; exceptions are underwater ordnance, guided missiles, dispensers, and rocket launchers, and when used for lettering or marking Light Blue Identifies ammunition used for practice *Orange Identifies ammunition used for tracking or recovery such as underwater mines and torpedoes Bronze, Gold, and Brass Identifies dummy/drill/inert ammunition not for firing, but only used for handling, loading, assembly and testing, training, and display; some dummy hand grenades may be painted black Nonsignificant Colors Olive Drab All ammunition items Black For lettering White (1) For lettering (2) For guide missiles, dispensers, and rocket launchers *NOTE: The following colors, or when applied as stated, have NO identification color coding significance: 1. The colors gray, black, white, or green on underwater ordnance, such as mines and torpedoes, and the color white on guided missiles, dispensers, or rocket launchers 2. The colors black and white when used for lettering or special marking 3. Unpainted or natural color 4. Colors specifically applied to identify the color produced by smoke ammunition or pyrotechnics Marking Marking is the application of colored spots, bands, or symbols on ammunition, ammunition components, or ammunition containers. Markings, by their color or shape, identify ammunition fillers or the presence of specific ammunition components. 9-5

AIRCRAFT BOMBS Bombs must be manufactured to withstand reasonable heat and be insensitive to the shock of ordinary handling. They must also be capable of being dropped from an aircraft in a safe condition when in-flight emergencies occur. Bomb detonation is controlled by the action of a fuze. A fuze is a device that causes the detonation of an explosive charge at the proper time after certain conditions are met. A bomb fuze is a mechanical or an electrical device. It has the sensitive explosive elements (the primer and detonator) and the necessary mechanical/electrical action to detonate the main burster charge. A mechanical action or an electrical impulse, which causes the detonator to explode, fires the primer. The primer-detonator explosion is relayed to the main charge by a booster charge. This completes the explosive train. Aircraft Bomb Ammunition and Associated Components Aircraft bombs are released over enemy targets to reduce and neutralize the enemy's war potential. This is done by destructive explosion, fire, nuclear reaction, and war gases. Aircraft bomb ammunition is used strategically to destroy installations, armament, and personnel; and tactically in direct support of land, sea, and air forces engaged in offensive or defensive operations. For safety reasons, some bomb ammunition is shipped and stowed without the fuzes or arming assemblies and associated components installed. This ammunition must be assembled before use. Other types, such as cluster bomb units (CBUs), are shipped and stowed as complete assemblies, with fuzes or arming assemblies and associated components installed. Bombs are designed to be carried either in the bomb bay of aircraft or externally under the wings or fuselage. The general characteristics and basic principles of operation of bomb ammunition and its associated components are described in this chapter. Bomb assembly procedures are discussed in Chapter 13 of this manual. General-Purpose Bombs and Fin Assemblies General-purpose (GP) bombs are used in most bombing operations. GP bombs have a slender body made of steel with a well in the nose section for a nose fuze, adapter booster, proximity sensor, or penetrator plug (ogive or MXU-735); a well in the aft section for a tail fuze; and wells centrally located on the top of the bomb body—two for suspension lugs and one for an arming safety switch Mk 122. Their cases (bomb bodies) are aerodynamically designed and relatively light, and approximately 45 percent of their weight is made of explosives. The GP bombs are compatible with proximity sensors, and mechanical and electronic fuzes. These GP bombs use either a conical or retarding fin, laser/GPS guidance airfoil kits, or underwater mine kits. The GP bombs are olive drab or gray with stenciling on the side for identification. The size and weight of each bomb and other unique information is provided in the following paragraphs. Some of the bomb bodies have a thermal protective coat applied to the surface to extend the cook-off time (see Table 9-2). The nomenclature of the high-explosive filler in the bombs is stenciled on the bomb body, stamped on the base plug, and further identified by a yellow band around the nose. Thermally- protected bombs are identified by two yellow bands and the words THERMALLY PROTECTED in the identification legend. The lot number is stenciled on the forward end. 9-6

Table 9-2 — MK 80/BLU 100 Series Cook-Off Times ITEM ORDNANCE FUZE/ ADAPTER BOOSTER AVERAGE REACTION TIME (Min. & Sec.) SHORTEST REACTION TIME BOMB INITIATED REACTION FUZE INITIATED REACTION (NOTE 1) Bomb H6 and PBXN 109 Filled

Mk 82, 83, 84 unprotected

All 3 + 30 2 + 30 Deflagration to explosion Deflagration to detonation (after 5 minutes) Mk 82 Mods (NOTE 2)/BLU- 111 A/B BLU- 126/B thermally protected FMU-139 10 + 00 8 + 30 Deflagration Deflagration to detonation (after12 minutes) No fuze 3 + 04 - - - - - - Deflagration to detonation (denotation may occur after 5 minutes) Mk 83 Mods/ BLU-110 thermally protected FMU-139 10 + 00 8 + 49 Deflagration Deflagration to detonation (after 12 minutes) Mk 84 Mods/ BLU-117 thermally protected FMU-139 10 + 00 8 + 45 Deflagration Deflagration to detonation (after 12 minutes) BLU-109 A/B thermally protected PBXN-109 FMU-143 12 + 18 12 + 00 Deflagration Deflagration BLU-116A/B PBXN-109 FMU-143 14 + 15 11 + 58 Deflagration Deflagration NOTES 1. Fuze initiated reaction. Frequency of detonation reaction is small. 2. Chips in exterior coating and/or groove for retarding fin cut to bare steel do not change cook -off time.

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Figure 9-1 — Specifications for GP bombs. The GP bombs currently in use are the GP Mk 80/BLU 100 (series). The specifications for the individual bombs are listed in Figure 9-1. The basic difference between the bombs listed is their size and weight. The following description of the Mk 80/BLU 100 (series) bomb is applicable to all bombs within the Mk 80/BLU 100 (series) unless otherwise noted.

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Figure 9-2 — Bomb Mk 80/BLU 100 (series) exploded view (shipping configuration). Shipping Configuration The bomb body (Figure 9-2) is shipped with a plastic plug installed in the nose and tail fuze well to prevent damage to the internal threads and keep out moisture. The aft end of the bomb body has a metal shipping cap installed. Plastic lug caps are installed in the suspension lug wells, and a plastic plug is installed in the fuze-charging receptacle well. Some bombs contain a hoisting lug packaged in the tail fuze well.

Bombs are shipped on metal pallets. The number of bombs loaded on each pallet depends on the bomb size. For example, six Mk 82/BLU 111 bombs can be shipped on a pallet, three Mk 83/BLU 110 bombs can be shipped on a pallet, and two Mk 84/BLU 117 bombs can be shipped on a pallet. Refer to Airborne Weapons Packaging/Handling/Stowage, NAVAIR 11-120A-1.1 or appropriate MIL- STD/WR for more information on shipping configurations.

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Figure 9-3 — Typical bomb conical fin assemblies. Fin Assemblies Fin assemblies, used with the Mk 80/BLU 100 (series) GP bombs, provide stability to the bomb. They cause the bomb to fall in a smooth, definite curve to the target, instead of tumbling through the air. Two types of fins are described in this chapter—conical and retard/nonretard. The conical fin is used for the unretarded mode of delivery, and the retard/nonretard fin assembly can be used for either the unretarded or retarded mode of delivery. Conical Fin The typical BSU-33/conical fin assembly (Figure 9-3) is steel, conical in shape, and has four fins to provide stability. Access covers, attached by quick-release screws, are located on the sides of the fin body, providing access for dearming and inspections. There is a drilled or punched hole at the top and bottom of the forward end of the fin body. This hole is used to install an arming wire when the bomb is being configured for electric tail fuzing. The fin is attached to the aft end of the bomb, and is secured in place by tightening the fin setscrews into the V-groove of the bomb.

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Figure 9-4 — Typical BSU-85/B air-inflatable retardable fin with high- and low-drag configurations. Principles of Operation There are three modes of delivery available for the fin assembly. They are retarded, unretarded, and in-flight selection (pilot option) of either mode. Retarded Mode In the retarded mode of delivery, the fins open to retard or slow the weapon. Since the aircraft and the weapon are traveling at the same speed when the weapon is released, the weapon and the aircraft arrive at the target at the same time. During low-level bombing, the aircraft could be damaged by the blast; therefore, the retarded mode of delivery is used during low-level bombing to ensure the aircraft is clear. Unretarded Mode In the unretarded mode of delivery, the weapon is released from the aircraft and the fins remain in the closed position. The weapon free-falls to the target. In the unretarded mode of delivery (without pilot option), the cotter/safety pin installed in the fin release band is not removed or replaced with an arming wire. However, the safety tag that reads REMOVE BEFORE FLIGHT is removed. BSU-85/B Air Inflatable Retarder The BSU-85/B bomb fin attaches to the Mk 83/BLU 110 GP bomb. It is an air- inflatable retarder designed for very low altitudes. It can be dropped in either high-drag (retarded) or low-drag (unretarded) mode. (Figure 9-4.) The BSU-85/B fin attaches to the bomb body by eight setscrews. It is a self-contained unit that consists of a stabilizer assembly (canister housing) with four fixed fins (X-shaped) and a lanyard assembly (Figure 9-5, Views A and B). The four 9-11

Figure 9-5 — BSU-85/B air-inflatable retardable fin (top and rear view). fixed fins provide low-drag aerodynamic stability. The wedges installed on the trailing edges provide stabilizing spin during both low-drag and high-drag release. When stored in its original shipping/storage container, the bomb fin shelf life is 20 years.

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Figure 9-6 — BSU-86/B fin with Mk 82 or BLU 111 bomb. BSU-86/B Bomb Fin The BSU-86/B bomb fin is used with GP bombs, Mk 82 Mods/BLU 111 (series), or the practice bomb BDU-45/B (Figure 9-6). The fin provides a retarded (high-drag) or unretarded (low-drag) bomb delivery capability for the aircraft. The BSU-86/B fin is attached to the Mk 82/BLU 111 or BDU-45/B bomb by eight setscrews. A 25-degree wedge is located at the tips of each fin to impart spin. The air stream drives the fin open rapidly, when the MAU-199/B spring arming wire (SAW) is activated. The spring load under each fin blade initiates fin opening. 9-13

Figure 9-7 — Typical GBU configuration. Guided Bomb Units (GBU) GBU-10/12/16 GBU GBU-10/12/16 GBUs (Figure 9-7) are Mk 80/BLU-110/111/117 (series) GP bombs modified to detect a target illuminated by a laser beam. The modification consists of a MAU-169 (series) MAU-209 (series) Computer Control Group (CCG) or WCU-10 (series) Control Section (CS) and MXU-650, - 651, or -667 (series) Air Foil Group (AFG). The CCG and guidance fins are mounted on a forward adapter assembly and provide target detection and guidance. The wing assembly is mounted aft. The GBU-12F/B is a dual-mode weapon that incorporates Global Positioning System (GPS) guidance using the WGU-53/B vice the MAU-169, MAU-209 or WCU-10. Each AFG contains identical items; although they are different in physical size, they perform identical functions. A typical AFG is composed of a folding wing assembly, forward adapter assembly, guidance fins, and hardware required for assembly of laser-guided weapons. 9-14

Figure 9-8 — GBU-24. The CCG mounts on the nose of the bomb body (this precludes the use of nose fuzing). The CCG detects a laser-illuminated target and provides weapon guidance signals to the moveable guidance fins (canards). The canards attach to the CCG and the forward adapter assembly. The canards react to the signals received from the CCG to direct the weapon to the target. The wing assembly is mounted on the aft end of the bomb body. It adds necessary aerodynamic stability and lift for in-flight maneuvering. An electric tail fuze is installed in the tail of the bomb. Except for the glass nose of the CCG, all components are painted olive drab and the bomb body has standard GP markings. GBU-51/B and GBU-52/B Guided Bomb Units GBU-51/B and GBU-52/B GBUs are BLU-126/B LOCO bombs modified to detect a target illuminated by a laser beam. The GBU-51/B modification consists of a MAU-169 (series), MAU-209 (series) CCG or WCU-190 (series) Control Section and MXU-650 (series) AFG. The CCG and guidance fins are mounted on a forward adapter assembly and provide target detection and guidance. The wing assembly is mounted aft. The GBU-52/B is a dual-mode weapon that incorporates GPS guidance using the WGU-53/B vice the MAU-169, MAU-209 or WCU-10. GBU-24 (Series) Paveway III The GBU-24 (series) Paveway III (Figure 9-8) is a converted BLU-109A/B or BLU-116A/B 2000- pound-class bomb designated as a hard target penetrator (HTP). The associated components required for conversion are fuze, AFG, FZU generator, adapter group, and guidance control unit. The heavy-walled case of the bomb provides the capability to penetrate 4 to 6 feet of reinforced concrete. The BLU-109A/B has a thermal protective coating applied to the surface to extend the cook-off time. The BLU-109A/B must not be missing more than 20 square inches of thermal coating in a single area or more than 40 square inches total.

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Figure 9-9 — JDAM/LJDAM . Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM)/Laser JDAM (LJDAM) Series JDAM GBUs (Figure 9-9) are Mk 82/83/84, BLU-109, or BLU-110/111/117/126 bombs modified with GP S guidance sets. The guidance sets for these weapons are functionally the same but not interchangeable because of the guidance software and physical interface with the warhead. Guidance set control fin actuators contains either electrically released motor “friction” brakes (designated KMU- XXX/B) or a fin lock device (designated KMU-XXXA/B) which unlock the tail control fins in flight. New production variants of the fin lock device guidance sets will be equipped with either Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) (designated KMU-XXXB/B) to provide capability of decoding new GPS cryptography. LJDAM adds a laser detector, DSU-38/B, to the GBU-38 (series) 500-pound weapons. When equipped with the DSU-38/B, the weapons are redesignated GBU-54 (series). 9-16

Figure 9-10 — Typical Mk 62 mine configurations. Mines The Mk 62 mine is a 500-pound weapon (Figure 9-10) and the Mk 63 mine is a 1000-pound weapon. Mk 62 and 63 mines are aircraft laid and can be utilized as land mines or may be laid in shallow to deep water as bottom mines. The component interchangeability feature of the mine permits defective components to be quickly and easily replaced without greatly affecting the operational readiness of the weapon. This concept also allows the Mk 62 and Mk 63 mines to be identical to their bomb counterpart in appearance, external configuration, weight, CG, ballisti cs, handling, and loading. The Mk 62 mine consist of bomb body MK 82 or BLU 111, and the MK 63 mine consist of bomb body MK 83 or BLU110. A bomb/mine conversion kit, Mk 130 Mod 1, contains the Mk 32 arming device, Mk 59 booster, and the Mk 57 target detecting device (TDD) which requires an Mk 130 battery to be installed into the Mk 57 TDD. The bomb/mine conversion kit also has the necessary hardware (less battery and fin assembly) to convert a GP bomb to an air-laid mine.

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Figure 9-11 — Mk 65 mine. The Mk 65 Mods mine (Figure 9-11) is a 2000-pound, aircraft-laid, all modular, influence-actuated bottom mine used against submarines and surface targets. PBXN-103 is used as the explosive payload. Through use of specific components, mine Mk 65 Mod 0, Mod 1, and Mod 3 can each be assembled in two Operational Assemblies (OAs). The Mk 65 mine consists of a Mk 65 mine case, a Mk 45 safety device arming group with an Mk 2 arming device, a Mk 57 target detecting device, and a Mk 7 tail assembly. Cluster Bomb Units (CBU) Cluster Bomb Units (CBUs) are weapons that dispense smaller weapons over a large area. The method of dispensing provides for release of the entire CBU which separates, by fuzing action, at a prescribed altitude. The smaller weapons are scattered when the CBU separates.

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Figure 9-12 — CBU-99B/B antitank bomb cluster. CBU-99B/B Antitank Bomb Cluster (Rockeye) and Dispenser Bomb SUU-76C/B The antitank bomb cluster (Figure 9-12) is a free-fall, folding fin, airburst weapon. The bomb consists of an Mk 7 Mod 3 bomb dispenser loaded with Mk 118 Mod 0 antitank bombs and an Mk 339 mechanical time fuze or retrofitted with the FMU-140/B Dispenser Proximity Fuze (DPF) (Figure 9- 17). The bomb cluster is delivered to operating activities completely assembled with 14-inch suspension lugs, arming wires, extractors, fuze, and a removable fuze protective cover installed. Fins are held in the folded position with a fin retaining band secured by an arming wire and a ground handling safety pin. When the ground handling safety pin and arming wire are removed, the spring- loaded fins open to a 34.2-inch span. The Mk 20 Mod 6/7/11 weapons have a thermal protective coating to improve cook-off protection in the event of a fire. The Mk 20 Mod 7/11/12 weapons use a tether device to retain the nose fuze and fin release bands upon release.

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Figure 9-13 — SUU-76C/B (PDU-5/B) dispenser bomb. CBU-99/B and CBU-100/B weapons retrofitted with AWC 422 will be redesignated CBU-99B/B and CBU-100B/B respectively. The dispenser bomb, SUU-76C/B, is configured as a CBU-100/B that has had the Mk 118 bomblets removed and has a payload sleeve and spacers installed. When the payload sleeve is filled with leaflets and inserted into the dispenser, the All-Up-Round (AUR) is redesignated PDU-5/B. Information on decanning, preparation for use, and recanning procedures are found in Airborne Weapons Assembly Manual Cluster Bombs Units, NAVAIR 11-140-9. SUU-76C/B (PDU-5/B) Dispenser Bomb The SUU-76C/B (PDU-5/B) dispenser bomb (Figure 9-13) is a free-fall, folding-fin, airburst, cluster- type dispenser. The dispenser consists of a SUU-76 bomb dispenser loaded with leaflet material and an Mk 339 mechanical time fuze. The SUU-76C/B (PDU-5/B) is delivered to operating activities completely assembled with 14-inch suspension lugs, arming wires, extractors, fuze, and a removable fuze protective cover. Fins are held in the folded position with a fin retaining band secured by an arming wire and a ground handling safety pin. When the ground handling safety pin and arming wire are removed, the spring loaded fins open to a 34.2 inch span. The leaflet dispenser contains an in- flight fuze option that requires the use of an option time wire and extractor, and has a fuze observation window for verifying settings and safety. The dispenser has fin and fuze tethers incorporated to retain release bands when the dispenser is released. 9-20

Figure 9-14 — Antitank bomblets MK118 Mod 0/Mod 1. Figure 9-15 — CBU-78C/B bomb cluster (GATOR).

Mk 118 Mods 0 and 1 Antitank Bomb When the Mk 118 bomb (Figure 9-14) separates from the dispenser case, the base fuze-arming vane rotates and the fuze is armed. If the bomb strikes a hard target, such as concrete or armor, the electric detonator ignites the shaped-charge warhead immediately. If the bomb strikes a soft target, such as earth or a sandbag, the bomb penetrates the target until deceleration lets the inertia firing pin strike and initiate the stab detonator, causing warhead denotation. CBU-78C/B Bomb Cluster (GATOR) The CBU-78C/B bomb cluster (Figure 9-15) is an antipersonnel/antitank, free fall, folding fin, airburst weapon. The weapon consists of an SUU-58/B dispenser loaded with BLU-91/B and BLU-92/B mines, kit modification unit BRU-42/B, and a FMU-140A/B fuze. The weapon is delivered to operating activities completely assembled with 14-inch suspension lugs, arming wire extractors, and a 9-21

Figure 9-16 — Mk 76 Mod 5 practice bomb. removable fuze cover installed. Fins are held in the folded position with a fin retaining band secured by an arming wire and a ground handling safety pin. SUU-58/B Subsonic Free-Fall Dispenser The SUU-58/B consists of a cargo section with a nose fairing assembly attached, a tail cone assembly, and fuze arming wires with extractors. There are two observation windows—one for viewing the safe/arm indicator and the other to observe the fuze time-setting dials. The cargo section houses the BLU-91/B and BLU-92/B mines. The tactical weapons have two yellow bands around the nose cone fairing. BLU-91/B and BLU-92/B Mines The target sensors are the primary difference between the two mines. The BLU-91/B uses an armor- piercing warhead and a magnetometer type of sensor; the BLU-92/B has a fragment type of warhead with trip wires as the primary target sensor. Practice Bombs Practice bombs are used to simulate the same ballistic properties of service bombs. Practice bombs are manufactured as either solid or cast-metal bodies. Since practice bombs contain no explosive filler, a practice bomb signal cartridge (smoke) can be used for visual observation of weapon-target impact. The primary purpose of practice bombs is safety when training new or inexperienced pilots and ground-handling crews. Other advantages of practice bombs include their low cost and an increase in available target locations. Althoug h not classified as practice bombs, the Mk 80 (series) inert-filled GP bombs are used for full- scale practice bombing. These bombs are physically the same as the Mk 80 (series) GP service bombs, but they do not contain explosive filler and are painted blue. These bombs provide full-scale training for assembly and loading crews and pilots. The two general types of practice bombs are subcaliber or full-scale practice bombs. Subcaliber means that the practice bomb is much smaller in size and weight than the service bomb it simulates. Full-scale practice bombs are representative of service bombs in their size and weight. Subcaliber Practice Bombs There are two types of subcaliber practice bombs— the Mk 76 Mod 5 and BDU-48/B. The two types are used for practice and are quite different in design and appearance from each other. Mk 76 Mod 5 The Mk 76 Mod 5 is a 25-pound, solid, metal-cast practice bomb (Figure 9-16). Its body is teardrop shaped and centrally bored to permit the insertion of a practice bomb signal cartridge. The after body, which covers the tail tube, is crimped to the bomb body and has welded-on tail fins. The bomb is designed with single-lug suspension, using the Mk 14 suspension lug.

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Figure 9-17 — BDU-48/B practice bomb. Figure 9-18 — BDU-45/B practice bomb. The Mk 76 Mod 5 practice bomb is designed for impact firing only. It uses the Mk 1 firing pin assembly to initiate the practice bomb signal cartridge. The bomb signal and the firing pin assembly are held in the bomb by means of a cotter pin. The bomb is painted blue and the identification nomenclature is stenciled in white letters on the bomb body. BDU-48/B The BDU-48/B is a 10-pound practice bomb (Figure 9-17). It is a thin-cased cylindrical bomb used to simulate retarded weapon delivery. The bomb is composed of the bomb body, a retractable suspension lug, a firing assembly, and box-type conical fins. The firing device Full-Scale Practice Bombs Full-scale practice bombs have the same dimensions, weight factor, and configuration abilities as the service bombs they simulate. The bombs are filled with inert material to obtain the proper weight. The full-scale practice bombs (Figure 9-18) currently in use are the Mk 80 (series) inert bombs and practice bomb BDU-45 (series). They include the Mk 82 inert, Mk 83 inert, and Mk 84 inert GP bombs. They can be configured with the same bomb components (fuzes, fins, lugs, and so forth) that are used to configure service bombs. However, if the use of fuzes is not desired, a Mk 89 Mod 0 bomb- 9-23

Figure 9-19 — Laser guided training round (LGTR). Figure 9-19 — Laser guided training round (LGTR) (Continued). spotting charge adapter can be installed in the tail fuze well of the practice bomb to provide visual observation of weapon/target impact. The Mk 80 (series) inert GP bombs are painted blue. The new Mk 80 (series) inert GP bombs have an olive-drab colored exterior and are thermally protected, but they can be distinguished from service bombs by a blue band around the nose and by the 1-inch letters INERT stenciled on the outside of the bomb body. Laser Guided Training Round (LGTR) The LGTR (Figure 9-19) provides a low cost training device permitting aircrews to realistically practice the employment of Paveway II LGTRs. The BDU- 59 (series) duplicates the release envelope, terminal guidance, and closely matches the time of flight characteristics of the GBU-10/12/16. The AUR LGTR has an aero- stabilized seeker to align the seeker to the LGTR velocity vector. The seeker can detect laser energy transmitted on one of twelve laser frequencies. A screwdriver-operated switch is provided to select one of the four to twelve prebriefed laser code settings. The LGTR is 4 inches in diameter and 75 inches long. The BDU-59 (series) has a weight of 89 pounds. The AUR shall not be disassembled for any maintenance inspection. The guidance and control system uses pursuit navigation logic to null out the line-of-sight errors observed by the detector. Steering commands are provided to a pneumatic actuator driven by stored, compressed gas to deflect the canards. The LGTR's single Mk 14 suspension lug interfaces with the multiple-carriage bomb rack ejector unit's aft hook. Two LGTR adapter brackets, PN 1784AS0827, must be used to secure the LGTR to the ejector unit. The LGTR adapter brackets are attached to the multiple-carriage bomb rack 9-24

ejector units forward and aft sway brace assemblies. The adapter brackets are sway-braced to secure the LGTR to the ejector unit. AIR-LAUNCHED GUIDED MISSILES AND GUIDED MISSILE LAUNCHERS Guided missiles are self-propelled objects. After launching, they automatically alter their direction of flight in response to signals received from outside sources. They usually carry high-explosive charges and are equipped with a means to explode them at or near a target. The majority of guided missiles used in the Navy are essentially rockets that are maneuvered while in flight. Air-Launched Guided Missiles The purpose of a guided missile is to reach and destroy or damage its target. The type of target involved influences the characteristics of the missile In general, a typical guided missile has a long, cylindrical shape, with an oval or a hemispherical shaped nose. It is fitted with a series of stabilizing or maneuvering fins, wings, or canards around its outer surface. Missile Classification Guided missiles are classified according to their range, speed, launch environment, mission, and vehicle type. Range Long-range guided missiles are usually capable of traveling a distance of at least 100 miles. Short- range guided missiles often do not exceed the range capabilities of long-range guns. The Navy has air-launched guided missiles that function within these ranges; they are medium-range or extended- range missiles. Speed The speed capability of guided missiles is expressed in Mach numbers. A Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an object to the speed of sound in the medium through which the object is moving. Under standard atmospheric conditions, sonic speed is about 766 miles per hour (Mach 1.0). Guided missiles are classified according to their speed as shown below:  Subsonic —Up to Mach 0.8  Transonic —Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2  Supersonic —Mach 1.2 to Mach 5.0  Hypersonic —Above Mach 5.0 When considering the speed of an air-launched guided missile, the speed of the launching aircraft is added to the speed of the missile. For example, if a missile's speed is Mach 2.5 and the aircraft's speed, at the time of missile launch, is Mach 2.0, the missile's speed is Mach 4.5. Types of Guided Missiles Guided missiles are divided into two types— service missiles and nonservice missiles. Service Missiles These missiles are generally referred to as tactical missiles. Service missiles are fully operational and fully explosive loaded rounds, designed for service use in combat. 9-25

Nonservice Missiles These include all types of missiles other than service or tactical. They are subdivided as captive air training missiles (CATMs), dummy air training missiles (DATMs), special air training missiles (NATMs), practice guided weapons (PGWs), and load drill trainer (LDT) missile. Some practice and training missiles are used for actual launching. They contain live propulsion and guidance systems with inert loaded warheads. They are fitted with pyrotechnic fuze indicator signals and/or tracking flares that give a visual indication of missile/target impact. These missiles can also be fitted with a telemetry-type warhead, which transmits electronic signals to a monitoring station. The monitoring station displays the missile's in-flight performance and missile/target hit. Some types of exercise missiles contain explosive-destruct charges so the missiles destroy themselves in flight. These explosive-destruct charges, when installed, are used as a safety measure so the missile does not travel beyond the established target range. Missile Designation— The Department of Defense established a missile and rocket designation sequence. The basic designations (Table 9-3) of every guided missile are letters, which are in sequence. The sequence indicates the following: 1. The environment from which the vehicle is launched 2. The primary mission of the missile 3. The type of vehicle Examples of guided missile designators common to the Aviation Ordnanceman (AO) are as follows: Designator Meaning AGM Air-launched, surface-attack, guided missile AIM Air-launched, intercept-aerial, guided missile ATM Air-launched, training guided missile RIM Ship-launched, intercept-aerial, guided missile A design number follows the basic designator. In turn, the number may be followed by consecutive letters, which show a modification. For example, the designation of AGM-88C means the missile is an air-launched (A), surface-attack (G), missile (M), eighty-eighty missile design (88), third modification (C). In addition, most guided missiles are given popular names, such as Sparrow, Sidewinder, and Harpoon. These names are retained regardless of subsequent modifications to the original missile.

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Table 9-3 —Guided Missile and Rocket Designations FIRST LETTER DESIGNATING LAUNCH ENVIRONMENT DESCRIPTION A Air Air launched B Multiple Capable of being launched from more than one environment C Coffin

Stored horizontally or at less than a 45-degree angle in a protective enclosure and launched from the ground F Individual Carried and launched by one man M Mobile Launched from a ground vehicle or movable platform P Soft Pad Partially- or non-protected in storage and launched from the ground U Underwater Launched from a submarine or other underwater device R Ship Launched from a surface vessel, such as a ship or barge SECOND LETTER DESIGNATING MISSION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION D Decoy

Vehicles designed or modified to confuse, deceive, or divert enemy defenses by simulating an attack vehicle E Special Electronic

Vehicles designed or modified with electronics equipment or communications, countermeasures, and electronic relay missions G Surface Attack Vehicles designed to destroy enemy land or sea targets I Intercept-Aerial Vehicles designed to intercept aerial targets in defensive roles Q Drone Vehicles designed for target reconnaissance or surveillance T Training Vehicles designed to be modified for training purposes U Underwater Attack

Vehicles designed to destroy enemy submarines or other underwater targets or to detonate underwater W Weather Vehicles designed to observe, record, or relay data pertaining to meteorological phenomena THIRD LETTER DESIGNATING VEHICLE TYPE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION M Guided Missile

An unmanned, self-propelled vehicle with remote or internal trajectory guidance R Rocket

A self-propelled vehicle whose flight trajectory cannot be altered after launch N Probe A non-orbital instrumented vehicle to monitor and transmit environmental information

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Figure 9-20 —Typical air-to-air guided missile.

Missile Identification The external surfaces of all Navy guided missiles, except radome and antenna surfaces, are painted white or gray. The color white or gray has no identification color-coding significance when used on guided missiles. There are three significant color codes used on guided missiles and their components— yellow, brown, and blue. These color codes indicate the explosive hazard in the missile component. If components are painted blue on a practice missile and have a yellow or brown band painted on them, the component has an explosive component that does not have a comparable part in a service missile. Each component of the missile, besides being color coded, is identifiable by lettering stenciled on the exterior surface of the component. The lettering on a component gives information such as the mark and mod, type and weight of explosive filler, loading activity symbol and date of loading, temperature range restrictions, and unit serial number. Missile Components Guided missiles are made up of a series of subassemblies (Figure 9-20 and Figure 9-21). The various subassemblies form one of the major sections used to operate a missile system, such as guidance, control, armament (warhead and fuzing), and propulsion. The major sections are carefully joined and connected to each other. They form the complete missile assembly. The arrangement of major sections in the missile assembly varies, depending on the missile type. NOTE The designations listed in the above table cover all the guided missiles and rockets used within the Department of Defense. Therefore, the Navy may not use all designations listed. 9-28

Figure 9-21 — Typical air-to-surface guided missile. Figure 9-22 — Active homing system. The guidance section is the brain of the missile. It directs its maneuvers and causes the maneuvers to be executed by the control section. The armament section carries the explosive charge of the missile, and the fuzing and firing system by which the charge is exploded. The propulsion section provides the force that propels the missile. Guidance and Control Section The complete missile guidance system includes the electronic sensing systems that initiate the guidance orders and the control system that carries them out. The elements for missile guidance and missile control can be housed in the same section of the missile, or they can be in separate sections. There are a number of basic guidance systems used in guided missiles. Homing-type, air-launched, guided missiles are currently used. They use radar or infrared homing systems. A homing guidance system is one in which the missile seeks out the target, guided by some physical indication from the target itself. Radar reflections or thermal characteristics of targets are possible physical influences on which homing systems are based. Homing systems are classified as active, semiactive, and passive. Active In the active homing system, target illumination is supplied by a component carried in the missile, such as a radar transmitter. The radar signals (Figure 9-22) transmitted from the missile are reflected off the target back to the 9-29

Figure 9-23 — Semiactive homing system. Figure 9-24 — Passive homing system. receiver in the missile. These reflected signals give the missile information such as the target's distance and speed. This information lets the guidance section compute the correct angle of attack to intercept the target. The control section that receives electronic commands from the guidance section controls the missile’s angle of attack. Mechanically manipulated wings, fins, or canard control surfaces are mounted externally on the body of the weapon. They are actuated by hydraulic, electric, or gas generator power, or combinations of these, to alter the missile's course. Semiactive In the semiactive homing system (Figure 9-23), the missile gets its target illumination from an external source, such as a transmitter carried in the launching aircraft. The receiver in the missile receives the signals reflected off the target, computes the information, and sends electronic commands to the control section. The control section functions in the same manner as previously discussed. Passive In the passive homing system (Figure 9-24), the directing intelligence is received from the target. Examples of passive homing include homing on a source of infrared rays (such as the hot exhaust of jet aircraft) or radar signals (such as those transmitted by ground radar installations). Like active homing, passive homing is completely independent of the launching aircraft. The missile receiver receives signals generated by the target and then the missile control section functions in the same manner as previously discussed. Armament Section The armament system contains the payload (explosives), fuzing, safety and arming (S&A) devices, and target-detecting devices (TDDs). Payload The payload is the element or part of the missile that does what a particular missile is launched to do. The payload is usually the explosive charge, and is carried in the warhead of the missile. High- explosive warheads used in air-to-air guided missiles contain a rather small explosive charge, generally 10 to 18 pounds of H-6, HBX, or PBX high explosives. The payload contained in high- explosive warheads used in air-to-surface guided missiles varies widely, even within specific missile 9-30

types, depending on the specific mission. Large payloads, ranging up to 450 pounds, are common. Comp B and H-6 are typical explosives used in a payload. Most exercise warheads used with guided missiles are pyrotechnic signaling devices. They signal fuze functioning by a brilliant flash, by smoke, or both. Exercise warheads frequently contain high explosives, which vary from live fuzes and boosters to self-destruct charges that can contain as much as 5 pounds of high explosive. Fuzing

The fuzing and firing system is normally located in or next to the missile's warhead section. It includes those devices and arrangements that cause the missile's payload to function in proper relation to the target. The system consists of a fuze, S&A device, a TDD, or a combination of these devices. There are two general types of fuzes used in guided missiles—proximity fuzes and contact fuzes. Acceleration forces upon missile launch arm both fuzes. Arming is usually delayed until the fuze is subjected to a given level of accelerating force for a specified amount of time. In the contact fuze, the force of impact closes a firing switch within the fuze to complete the firing circuit, detonating the warhead. Where proximity fuzing is used, the firing action is very similar to the action of proximity fuzes used with bombs and rockets. S&A Devices S&A devices are electromechanical explosive-control devices. They maintain the explosive train of a fuzing system in a safe (unaligned) condition until certain requirements of acceleration are met after the missile is fired. TDD TDDs are electronic detecting devices similar to the detecting systems in fuzes. They detect the presence of a target and determine the moment of firing. When subjected to the proper target influence as to both magnitude and change rate, the device sends an electrical impulse to trigger the firing systems. The firing systems then act to fire an associated S&A device to initiate detonation of the warhead. Air-to-air guided missiles are normally fuzed for a proximity burst by using a TDD with an S&A device. In some cases, a contact fuze may be used as a backup. Air-to-surface guided missile fuzing consists of influence (proximity) and/or contact fuzes. Multifuzing is common in these missiles. Propulsion Section Guided missiles use some form of jet power for propulsion. There are two basic types of jet propulsion power plants used in missile propulsion systems— the atmospheric (air-breathing) jet and the thermal jet propulsion systems. The basic difference between the two systems is that the atmospheric jet engine depends on the atmosphere to supply the oxygen necessary to start and sustain burning of the fuel. The thermal jet engine operates independently of the atmosphere by starting and sustaining combustion with its own supply of oxygen contained within the missile. Atmospheric Jet Propulsion System There are three types of atmospheric jet propulsion systems— the turbojet, pulsejet, and ramjet engines. Of tese three systems, only the turbojet engine is currently being used in Navy air-launched missiles. A typical turbojet engine includes an air intake, a mechanical compressor driven by a turbine, a combustion chamber, and an exhaust nozzle. The engine does not require boosting and can begin operation at zero acceleration. 9-31

Figure 9-25 — AIM-7M/P Sparrow missile. Thermal Jet Propulsion System Thermal jets include solid propellant, liquid propellant, and combined propellant systems. The majority of air-launched guided missiles used by the Navy use the solid propellant rocket motor. They include the double base and multibase smokeless powder propellants as well as the composite mixtures. Grain configurations vary with the different missiles. Power characteristics and temperature limitations of the individual rocket motors also vary. In some guided missiles, different thrust requirements exist during the boost phase as compared to those of the sustaining phase. The dual thrust rocket motor (DTRM) is a combined system that contains both of these elements in one motor. The DTRM contains a single propellant grain made of two types of solid propellant— boost and sustaining. The grain is configured so the propellant meeting the requirements for the boost phase burns at a faster rate than the propellant for the sustaining phase. After the boost phase propellant burns itself out, the sustaining propellant sustains the motor in flight over the designed burning time (range of the missile). Service Guided Missiles Missiles have been operational for several years. Still, research on missiles c ontinuously produces changes in the missile field. The missiles discussed in this manual are presently operational. Sparrow III Guided Missile The AIM-7M/P missile (Figure 9-25) is a supersonic, air-to-air DTRM guided missile. It is designed to be rail- or ejection-launched from an interceptor aircraft. The missile's tactical mission is to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft in all-weather environments. It is designed to be launched from the F/A-18 aircraft.

The AIM-7M/P missile is a semiactive missile. Missile guidance depends on radio frequency (RF) energy radiated by the launching aircraft and reflected by the target. Excluding the radome, the missile body has four sectional tubular shells that house the major functional components. The four major functional components are the target seeker, flight control, warhead, and rocket motor. The overall length of the missile is approximately 142 inches, and the diameter 8 inches. It weighs 9-32

approximately 502-510 pounds. The missile is issued to the fleet as an AUR. The only assembly required at fleet level is the installation of the wing and fin assemblies, which are shipped in separate shipping containers. The radome is ceramic and forms the nosepiece of the missile. It does not obstruct RF energy. It covers the RF head assembly of the target seeker and provides protection against environmental damage. The target seeker receives and interprets the radar energy reflected from the target. Then it produces signals that are sent to the flight control section to direct the missile to intercept the target or come within lethal range of it. The flight control consists of the autopilot and the hydraulic group. These function to provide control signals and mechanical energy to move the external control surfaces that guide the missile toward the point of intercept, and to stabilize the missile in pitch, yaw, and roll. The warhead is located between the target seeker and flight control section. The warhead is explosive-loaded, and it contains the fuze, fuze booster charge, and the S&A device. It is a continuous-rod or blast-fragment type of warhead. With a continuous-rod warhead, target kill is accomplished by collision of the continuous ring with the target. For a blast fragment-type warhead, thousands of fragments are propelled through the air, thereby killing the target. Detonation is triggered either by a fuze pulse from the target seeker at the nearest point of intercept or a fuze pulse from the flight control upon impact with the target. The DTRM attaches to the aft end of the missile flight control section. It is equipped with a SAFE/ARM igniter assembly that is manually locked in either the SAFE or ARMED position. This switch can only be repositioned with an arming key. When in the SAFE position, the arming key cannot be removed. This switch prevents accidental firing of the motor. It should not be moved to the ARMED position until immediately before aircraft launch. The control surfaces consist of four delta-shaped wing and fin assemblies. The wings and fins are designed for quick attachment and release without the use of tools. The wing assemblies attach to the flight control section, which controls their rotary motion to produce the desired pitch, yaw, and roll. The tail fin assemblies attach to fittings on the rear of the rocket motor and provide stability to the missile. Another series of the Sparrow III guided missile is the RIM-7M and RIM-7P. These missiles are surface-to-air guided missiles. They are used in some ships in the NATO Sea Sparrow Missile System (NSSMS). As an AO, responsibility for these missiles is in the area of handling and stowage only. Harpoon/Standoff Land Attack Missile-Expanded Response (SLAM-ER) Guided Missile The Harpoon surface attack guided missile, AGM-84 series (AGM-84D Tactical) air-launched missile (Figure 9-26), is an all-weather antiship attack weapon. The Standoff Land Attack Missile-Expanded Response (SLAM-ER) ( Figure 9-26), AGM-84H/K, is a standoff land attack missile. The Harpoon can be delivered from the F/A-18 and P-3 aircraft. The SLAM-ER can be delivered from the F/A 18 aircraft. Both missiles are AURs and require no assembly other than installation of the wing and control fin assemblies. The Harpoon missile consists of the guidance section, warhead section, sustainer section, control section, wings, and control fins. The missile is approximately 151 inches in length and weighs approximately 1,160 pounds. The Harpoon missile has a low-level cruise trajectory with over-the-horizon range that makes it less susceptible to radar detection. It uses active guidance and has counter-countermeasure capability. 9-33

Figure 9-26 — AGM-84 series Harpoon/SLAM guided missile.

The guidance section contains the seeker, radar altimeter, midcourse guidance unit, and power supply. A radome on the front of the guidance section provides the required aerodynamic shield to protect the internal components of the seeker. During ground handling, a radome protector cap protects the radome. The warhead section contains a penetration blast-type of explosive, the guided missile fuze, fuze booster, and the pressure probe assembly. It also provides internal routing of the interconnecting cable from the guidance section to other parts of the missile. The sustainer section contains the fuel tank and fuel supply system, missile battery, pyrotechnic relay panel, and the turbojet engine. Three BSU-42/B missile wings and one BSU-43/B missile wing are attached to the sustainer section by quick-attach clevis-type fittings. These wings are attached to the missile at the organizational level. They provide the aerodynamic lift required to sustain missile flight. They are made of a framed aluminum honeycomb construction and are nonfolding. 9-34

Figure 9-27 — AIM-9M series Sidewinder guided missile.

The control section contains four control actuators, which control the control fins. Four identical nonfolding missile control fins (BSU-44/B) provide directional control of the missile's airframe proportional to the input signal received from the guidance section. The control fins are one-piece aluminum castings, and are attached to the control fin actuators by means of an integral torque- limiting, screw-type device. The AGM-84 H/K SLAM-ER, an evolutionary upgrade to the combat-proven SLAM, is an air- launched, day/night, adverse weather, over-the-horizon, precision strike missile. The SLAM-ER provides an effective, long range, precision-strike option for both preplanned and Target of Opportunity attack missions against land and maneuvering ship targets. SLAM-ER characteristics include: a highly accurate, Global Positioning System (GPS)-aided guidance system; an imaging infrared seeker and two-way data link with the AWW-13 Advanced Data Link pod for Man-In-The-Loop (MITL) control; improved missile aerodynamics performance characteristics that allow both long range and flexible terminal attack profiles; an ordnance section with good penetrating power and lethality; a user-friendly interface for both MITL control and mission planning. The missile is approximately 172 inches in length and weighs approximately 1,478 pounds. SLAM-ER has two wing fairings and four fin assemblies and is contained in the CNU-595/E container. Sidewinder Guided Missile The Sidewinder guided missiles, AIM-9M (series) (Figure 9-27), are supersonic, air-to-air weapons with passive infrared target detection, proportional navigation guidance, and torque-balance control systems. They are capable of being launched from the F/A-18 aircraft. The AIM-9M series missiles are issued to the fleet as AURs. The components of the ATM-9 (series) are identical to the AIM-9M (series) except that a training warhead is substituted for the tactical warhead. The AIM-9M (series) missile is used strictly for tactical purposes. The ATM-9 (series) missile is used for pilot training in target acquisition and missile firing.

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Figure 9-28 — AIM-9M (series) Sidewinder guided missile (exploded view). The Sidewinder guided missile is approximately 113 inches in length, 5 inches in diameter, weighs approximately 190 pounds, and consists of five major components. These components are the guidance and control section, the target detector (TD) section, the S&A device, the warhead section, and the rocket motor section (Figure 9-28). The guidance and control section consists of the following three major assemblies: 1. An infrared seeker assembly, which is used for detecting the target 2. An electronic assembly, which is used for converting detected target information to tracking and guidance command signals 3. A gas servo assembly (which consists of a gas generator, manifold, pistons, rocker arms, electrical solenoids, and thermal battery), where the electrical guidance commands are converted to mechanical movement of the control fins Four BSU-32/B control fins are mounted on the guidance and control section to provide aerodynamic lift and course alterations to the missile during free flight. They are movable surfaces that are electrically controlled and pneumatically operated by the gas servo assembly. The missile’s umbilical cable is also attached to the guidance and control section. A shorting cap/dust cover must be installed on the umbilical connector at all times when the missile is not electrically connected to the LAU -7 launcher. The umbilical cable provides the necessary path for the exchange of electronic signals between the missile and aircraft before missile launch. It also provides a connection to the launcher-mounted cooling gas supply, which prevents the electronic components of the guidance and control section from becoming overheated during operation before missile launch.

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Figure 9-29 — AIM-9X (series) Sidewinder guided missile. Sidewinder AIM-9X (Series) Guided Missile The AIM-9X (series) Sidewinder (hereinafter referred to as AIM-9X) is a supersonic, air-to-air, short- range guided missile, capable of both offensive and defensive counter-air missions in day/night operations (Figure 9-29). This launch-and- leave, air combat missile features passive infrared (IR) guidance to detect, intercept, and destroy enemy aircraft.

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Figure 9-30 — AIM-120 AMRAAM guided missile.

Principles of Operation The AIM-9X is launched from an aircraft after target detection to home in on IR emissions, and intercept and destroy enemy aircraft. The missile interfaces with the aircraft through the missile launcher using an umbilical cable, a mid-body buffer connector, and three missile hangers. The AIM- 9X incorporates a dual umbilical design (i.e. a modified AIM-9 “forward” umbilical cable and the AIM- 9/120 “mid-body” umbilical). Using combinations of the missile’s forward and mid-body umbilicals, AIM-9X has two distinct interface configurations: digital and analog. The digital interface configuration is invoked when the missile detects an active digital (i.e. MIL-STD- 1553) interface at either the forward or mid-body umbilical aircraft/missile interface. The analog interface configuration is invoked in the absence of a digital interface at either the forward and mid-body umbilical aircraft/missile interfaces. Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM) The AIM-120 (series) AMRAAM is an all-weather missile (Figure 9-30). The F/A-18 aircraft currently carries the missile. The AIM-120 (series) is an AUR that consists of a guidance section, armament section, propulsion section, and control section. The overall length of the missile is approximately 144 inches with a diameter of 7 inches. The AIM-120A/B/C/C-4 weighs approximately 348 pounds and the AIM -120C-5/C-6/C-7/D weighs approximately 356 pounds. The wing span of the AIM-120A/B is 21 inches and the wing span for the AIM-120C/C-4/C-5/C-6/C-7/D is 19 inches. The missile is issued to the fleet as an AUR. The only assembly required at fleet level is the installation of the wing and fin assemblies.

The guidance section consist of a radome, seeker components, electronics unit, inertial reference unit, target detection device, batteries, power converter, and related harnesses and hardware. The armament section includes a WDU-33/B fragmenting warhead, Mk 44 booster, and an FZU-49/B safe-and-arm fuze (SAF). The propulsion section consists of a dual-thrust, solid propellant, low-smoke rocket motor, a blast tube and exit cone, and an arm/fire device (AFD). 9-38

Figure 9-31 — AGM-65 (series) Maverick missile.

The control section includes four independently-controlled electromechanical actuators, four thermal batteries, a data link assembly, and associated hardware. Gas pressure-operated mechanical locks during ground handling and captive carry lock the control surfaces in position. During launch, a pyrotechnic gas generator creates enough gas pressure to unlock the control surfaces. Maverick Missile The AGM-65 (series) Maverick missile (Figure 9-31) is a precision-guided, high-velocity, low visibility standoff weapon possessing extreme accuracy and a high probability of target destruction. It is designed as a highly accurate, reliable, low maintenance air-to-ground hardened target weapon compatible with a variety of airborne platforms in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps inventories.

The Maverick is primarily utilized on fixed-wing aircraft for fixed hardened targets. The system is intended to be easy to load, launch, and maintain utilizing common launchers, ordnance support equipment, and electronic systems interfaces currently used by U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps war fighters. High-Speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM) The AGM-88 (series) high-speed anti-radiation missile (HARM) (Figure 9-32) is used for defense suppression and similar operations. The HARM is a supersonic, air-to-ground, rail -launched guided missile. Guidance is provided through reception of signals emitted from ground-based threat radar. It has the capability of discriminating a single target from a number of emitters in the environment. The C version has an improved guidance section which incorporates improved tactical software and an electronically reprogrammable memory. The missile has four major sections: guidance, control, warhead, and rocket motor.

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Figure 9-32 — AGM-88 (series) HARM missile.

Figure 9-33 — AGM-114 (series) Hellfire missile.

The HARM missile, in conjunction with the launching aircraft's avionics, detects, identifies, and locates enemy radar, displays threat information, and computes target parameters. The HARM missile is 10 inches in diameter, 194 inches long, and weighs 780 pounds. The missile operates in three basic modes: (1) self-protect (which attacks targets that pose immediate threat to the aircraft), (2) target of opportunity (which attacks discrete targets important to the tactical situation), and (3) prebrief (missile programmed to the vicinity of known or expected targets, and to attack when lock-on is achieved). Launch aircraft for the HARM are the EA-6B and F/A-18. Hellfire Missile The AGM-114 (series) Hellfire missile (Figure 9-33) is an antiarmor terminal homing weapon that uses a variety of warhead configurations, including shaped charge, blast fragmentation, and 9-40

thermobaric, to defeat individual hard point targets with minimal exposure to enemy fire by the delivery platform. It is designed as a precision-guided, high-velocity, low-visibility standoff weapon possessing extreme accuracy and a high probability of target destruction. It is highly accurate, reliable, low maintenance air-to-ground antiarmor weapon compatible with a variety of airborne platforms in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps inventory. Hellfire missiles provide accurate fire on targets acquired and designated by ground observers or the airborne laser target designator. The Hellfire is primarily used on helicopters against tanks, other armored vehicles, and hardened fixed targets. The system is intended to be easy to load, launch, and maintain utilizing common launchers, ordnance support equipment, and electronic systems interfaces currently used by Army and Navy war fighters. All versions of Hellfire missiles in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps inventory are carried on the M-272/M-299 guided missile launcher and can be launched from the AH-1W, AH -1Z, and H-60 Series helicopter, and the MQ-1B, MQ-1C, and MQ-9 Series Unmanned Air Vehicles. The Hellfire missiles may be launched in day or night operation in three launch modes and in four different firing modes. The AGM-114 (series) Hellfire missile is composed of five unique sections or groups: the laser seeker assembly, the guidance section, the control section, the warhead section, and the propulsion section (Figure 9-38). The laser seeker acquires and tracks targets designated with laser energy by using the energy reflected from the target. The laser seeker section is packaged in two separate units—the seeker head assembly and an electronics assembly. The seeker head assembly consists of a gyro-optics assembly, dome, potted coil assembly, and the interface board, which attaches to the back of the gyro support. The gyro- optics assembly is an inertial-stabilized, spinning-mass, gimbaled detector assembly made up of three subassemblies: the rotor, gimbal, and the sensor. The dome is made of injection molded optical grade polycarbonate. A purging operation is performed to remove any moisture within the seeker head by replacing the air that is present with dry nitrogen under positive pressure. All AGM-114 (series) Hellfire missiles utilize an equivalent or similar seekers. Joint Stand-off Weapon (JSOW) AGM-154 (series) The JSOW (Figure 9-34) is a family of low-cost, air-to-ground weapons which employ a GPS-aided inertial guidance system and a kinematically efficient airframe. The JSOW has an inherent range capability that satisfies the stand-off requirements of the U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps for attacking interdiction targets from outside enemy point defenses during day, night, and adverse weather conditions. The JSOW is intended for use on a wide range of aircraft, including the F-18C/D and the F-18E/F. There are currently two configurations of the JSOW vehicle: AGM-154A and AGM-154C. All weapon variants are inexpensive, unpowered, and survivable. For payload delivery, they are carried aloft by a host of aircraft and launched to the target area from a Stand-off Outside Point Defense (SOPD). The JSOW baseline AGM-154A is an air-launched, surface attack weapon that provides an intermediate standoff attack capability against a wide variety of less-than-value land and sea targets. It is an expendable air-to-ground weapon that can successfully accomplish pre-launch, launch, mid- course, and terminal flight phases of a surface attack mission. The baseline weapon body structure is composed of a main air vehicle assembly and payload assemblies. The main air vehicle assembly is used in all JSOW configurations. Sub-assemblies of the air vehicle assembly are used in all JSOW configurations.

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Figure 9-34 —AGM-154 (JSOW). Figure 9-35 — BGM-71E TOW missile. Tube-Launched, Optically Tracked, Wire-Guided (TOW) Missile The BGM-71E-5B TOW 2A missile (Figure 9-35) is a precision wire-guided, high-velocity, short-range antitank/antiarmor and bunker weapon. It is designed as a tube-launched, optically tracked, wire- guided (TOW) missile integrated on the AH-1W (series) platforms. The TOW force deployment on vehicles and man-portable launchers. The TOW system is intended to be easy to load, launch, and maintain utilizing common ordnance support equipment and electronic system interfaces currently used by U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps war fighters. 9-42

Figure 9-36 — Griffin missile. The TOW missile can be fired from tube launchers installed on vehicles, helicopters, or from a tripod on the ground. The operator identifies a target using the launcher's telescopic sight, and then fires the missile. A very short duration (0.05 second) rocket motor ejects the missile from the tube, and the mid-body stabilization fins and the control fins on the tail flip out. After a safe distance is reached, the solid-fuel main boost motor is ignited, and accelerates the missile to a speed of about Mach 0.9. The motor exhausts are on the side because the tail is used to spool out the guidance wire. After launch, the operator simply has to keep the cross-hairs of his sight pointing at the target, and the guidance system will automatically transmit corrective commands to the system through the wire. The TOW is controlled in flight by its four gas-operated movable tail fins. Griffin Missile The Griffin missile (Figure 9-36) is a small, light, precision-guided, small-yield weapon used for light fortified structures and soft targets. It is designed as a highly accurate and reliable air-to-ground weapon with low maintenance requirements. It is currently compatible with the U.S. Marine Corps Harvest Hawk weaponization kit, with future integration being planned for U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps UAV and rotary wing platforms. The Griffin is primarily utilized on the C-130 Harvest Hawk platform for light fortified structures, stationary or moving vehicles, or as an anti-personnel round. The system is intended to be easy to load, launch, and maintain utilizing common support equipment and electronic systems interfaces currently used U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps war fighters. There are currently two tactical variants of the Griffin planned for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps. The major difference between these two variants will be the launch mode of the weapon. Fixed wing platforms, like the Harvest Hawk, will utilize a rear launching variant of the Griffin missile, while most rotary and UAV platforms will utilize a forward launching variant. Regardless of launch type, the Griffin will utilize GPS guidance after launch to track toward the designated target area. After reaching the target area, the Griffin missile will maneuver to acquire the laser designator from the remote ground-based designator unit. The Semi-Active Laser will then perform terminal guidance of the missile to the target. The Griffin missile has three cockpit selectable fuzing options for controlled lethality and minimizing collateral damage. 9-43

Figure 9-37 — AN/AWW-9/13 advanced data-link pod.

These fuzing modes are height of burst, point detonation, and 5 millisecond delay fuzing. These fuzing options, along with Laser PRF codes and BIT testing via the Battle Management System, allow for real-time flexibility and assessment for the war fighter. AN/AWW-13 Advanced Data Link The AN/AWW-13 advanced data-link pod (Figure 9-37) is the communications link between the pilot and the weapon. The pod is suspended from a standard configured bomb rack. It can be jettisoned in an emergency. The pod contains the necessary electronics to allow the pilot to receive the transmitted video from the weapon and to transmit the command signals to the weapon. The AN/AWW-13 advanced data link allows the operator to select an aimpoint for weapon impact, and provides available link between munition seekers and humans. This link generally requires electro- optical/infrared acquisition in clear weather.

The AWW-13 pod transmits these RF signals to the missile under flight to allow slewing and designation of the track point of the missile. The missile data-link transmitter sends the seeker scene back to the AWW-13 data link pod on the controlling aircraft. The AWW13 pod then relays this scene up to the cockpit video display. In addition, the pod contains a video tape recorder (VTR) that records the video transmitted by the weapon all the way to impact on the target. This allows low-cost weapon performance monitoring, which can be played back for mission evaluation or for training purposes. The weapon system may be used in one- or two-aircraft operations. In a single aircraft operation, the aircraft carries both the weapon and the pod, and the aircraft perform both launch and control functions. In the two-aircraft operation, one aircraft carries the weapon and a second aircraft carries the pod. In this operation, both the launch aircraft and the pod aircraft receive a video picture of the target area from the weapon. After weapon launch, the pod aircraft monitors the flight of the weapon and can update the weapon aim point all the way to impact.

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Guided Missile Launchers Guided missile launchers provide the mechanical and electrical means of suspending and air- launching a guided missile from an aircraft. The physical, mechanical, and functional requirements vary for each particular missile-to-aircraft configuration. There are specific missile-to-launcher applications (Table 9-4) and a brief description of each type of missile launcher is discussed in the following paragraphs.

Table 9-4—Missile Launcher Application LAU-7/A-6 AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-7B/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-7/A-7 AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL EA-6B, F/A-18 LAU-B/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-7C/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL AV-8B, AH-1W, AH-1Z LAU-7D/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-7E/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-7F/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER/AGM-122 SIDEARM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-115C/A AIM-7 SPARROW, AIM-9 SIDEWINDER, AIM-120 AMRAAM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-115D/A AIM-7 SPARROW, AIM-9 SIDEWINDER, AIM-120 AMRAAM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-116/A AIM-7 SPARROW EJECTOR F/A-18 LAU-116A/A AIM-7 SPARROW, AIM-120 AMRAAM EJECTOR F/A-18 LAU-116B/A AIM-7 SPARROW, AIM-120 AMRAAM EJECTOR F/A-18 LAU-117(V)2/A AGM-65 MAVERICK RAIL AV-8, F/A-18, P-3 LAU-118(V)1/A AGM-88 HARM RAIL EA-6B, F/A-18 LAU-127D/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER, AIM-120 AMRAAM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-127E/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER, AIM-120 AMRAAM RAIL F/A-18 LAU-127F/A AIM-9 SIDEWINDER, AIM-120 AMRAAM RAIL F/A-18 M272 AGM-114 HELLFIRE RAIL AH-1 M279 AGM-114 HELLFIRE RAIL AH-1 M299 AGM-114 HELLFIRE RAIL AH-1, HH-60, SH-60, MH-60 TOW BGM-71A (TOW) MISSILE TUBE AH-1

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Figure 9-38 — LAU-7 (series) guided missile launcher. LAU-7 (Series) Guided Missile Launcher The LAU-7 (series) guided missile launcher (Figure 9-38) is a reusable launcher that provides a complete launching system for use with the AIM-9 Sidewinder and AGM-122 SIDEARM missiles. 9-46

Figure 9-39—LAU-7 (series) guided missile launcher (exploded view). The launcher (Figure 9-39) has four major assemblies—the housing assembly, mechanism assembly, power supply, and nitrogen receiver assembly or Pure Air Generating System (PAGS). Housing Assembly The housing assembly is the main structural member of the launcher. It is an extruded, machined- aluminum member that provides structural rigidity to the launcher and includes provisions for mounting all other assemblies. It also includes provisions for mounting the launcher to the aircraft. Forward Fairing Assembly The forward fairing assembly is an aluminum casting that mounts to the forward end of the outer housing to provide an aerodynamic nose to the front of the launcher. It has two doors that are spring loaded that provide access to the umbilical hook support assembly. The LAU -7F/A removes the spring-loaded doors. 9-47

Umbilical Hook Support Assembly The umbilical hook support assembly mounts to the forward housing rails and, during missile loading, is connected to the missile umbilical shear block. At missile launch, the mechanism snaps up, retracting the sheared end of the umbilical cable into the launcher to prevent interference with the missile hangers. Fin Retainer Assemblies Two fin retainer assemblies are mounted to the forward end of the housing assembly beneath the forward fairing assembly. The fin retainer snaps over the missile fins to prevent movement during captive flight. Aft Fairing Assembly The aft snubber mount fitting assembly, aft snubber assembly, and aft fairing latch are assembled together as a group and mounted to the aft end of the housing assembly. When the aft fairing latch assembly is in the open position, you can access the nitrogen receiver assembly or the PAGS. It also releases the aft snubbers to allow missile loading. When in the closed position, it allows the snubbers to spring over the aft missile hanger, locking it in place. Mechanism Assembly The mechanism assembly is an electro-mechanical device that holds the missile for takeoffs and landings and releases the missile for launching. It mounts in the center of the housing assembly forward of the nitrogen receiver assembly or PAGS. Power Supply One power supply is available for use in the launcher. The power supply is a self-contained single- phase unit with connectors on each end. The aft connector links the power supply and the mechanism assembly. The forward connector provides the connection to the missile's umbilical cable. Nitrogen Receiver Assembly The nitrogen receiver assembly stores the high-pressure nitrogen (3,200 psi) used to cool the missile's IR detector in the guidance system. The nitrogen receiver assembly mounts in the aft section of the launcher subassembly and screws into the aft end of the mechanism assembly. All ni trogen receiver assemblies contain a charging valve (for refilling), a relief valve, and a pressure indicator mounted in the aft end of the cylinder. The pressure indicator is color coded to ensure correct readings. Pure Air Generating System (PAGS) The PAGS is a modular constructed unit which mounts into the aft fairing of the launcher subassembly. The PAGS compresses and filters ambient air to generate high-pressure pure air used to cool the missile IR detector in the guidance system. The PAGS connects to the PAGS interface harness assembly. Two configurations of the PAGS exist; HiPPAG and M-PACT. Both configurations are completely interchangeable; however, slight variations exist between the two.

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Figure 9-40 — LAU-115 (series) guided missile launcher.

LAU-115 (Series) Guided Missile Launcher The LAU-115 (series) guided missile launcher (Figure 9-40) is a reusable launcher. It completes the F/A- 18 aircraft suspension and launching system for the AIM-7 (series) Sparrow, AIM-9 (series) Sidewinder, and AIM-120 (series) AMRAAM missiles.

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Figure 9-41—LAU-116 (series) guided missile launcher. LAU-116 (Series) Guided Missile Launcher The LAU-116 (series) guided missile launcher (Figure 9-41) is a reusable launcher of the F/A-18 aircraft suspension and launching system for the AIM-7 (series) Sparrow and AIM-120 (series) AMRAAM missiles. The launchers are mounted internally in the fuselage structure. They are self- contained, gas-operated mechanisms, capable of suspending and ejecting the AIM-7 (series) Sparrow and AIM-120 (series) AMRAAM missiles.

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Figure 9-42—LAU-117(V) 2/A guided missile launcher.

Figure 9-43 — LAU-118(V) 1/A guided missile launcher.

LAU-117(V) 2/A Guided Missile Launcher The LAU-117(V)2/A guided missile launcher (Figure 9-42) is a reusable launcher that completes the F/A- 18, AV-8, and P-3 aircraft suspension and launching system for the Maverick AGM-65 air-to- ground missile.

LAU-118(V) 1/A Guided Missile Launcher The LAU-118(V)1/A guided missile launcher (Figure 9-43) is a reusable launcher that completes the F/A-18 and EA6B aircraft suspension and launching system for the HARM AGM-88 air-to-ground guided missile.

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Figure 9-44—LAU-127 (series) guided missile launcher. The launcher consists of the launcher housing, forward and aft fairing assemblies, forward and aft launcher tracks, suspension lugs, and internal electrical components. The LAU-118 is suspended from the BRU-32 bomb rack on the inboard and outboard pylons. An electrically-operated retention mechanism prevents inadvertent loss of the missile. LAU-127 (Series) Guided Missile Launcher The LAU-127 series guided missile launcher (Figure 9-44) is designed to carry and launch the AIM-9 Sidewinder and AIM -120 AMRAAM missiles.

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Figure 9-45 — Hellfire (series) guided missile launcher.

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Figure 9-46 — TOW missile launcher.

Hellfire (Series) Guided Missile Launcher The Hellfire (series) guided missile launcher (Figure 9-45) is designed to carry and launch the AGM- 114 (series) Hellfire missiles. The M272 launcher provides a stable structure capable of carrying and launching one to four AGM-114 (series) Hellfire Surface Attack Guided Missiles. The M279 launcher provides a stable structure capable of carrying and launching one or two AGM-114 series Hellfire Surface Attack Guided Missiles. The M299 launcher adds the capability to fire one to four MIL-STD- 1760 capable AGM-114 (series) Hellfire Surface Attack Guided Missiles. The launcher is attached to the aircraft by a bomb-rack-equipped pylon on an aircraft weapons station. The launcher is suspended from the bomb rack by two hooks that engage the suspension lugs on the top of the launcher hardback. Sway braces on the bomb rack are adjusted against the launcher hardback to prevent lateral movement of the launcher. The aircraft wiring harness provides the electrical connection from the aircraft to the launcher. This cable runs from the aircraft pylon to the umbilical connector on the top of the Electronic Command Signal Programmer (ECSP) and is part of the aircraft wiring harness. The electrical connection to the missile is provided via the ECSP or LEA to the launcher rail wiring harnesses. When the missile is loaded onto the launcher rail, the missile umbilical connectors engage the launcher umbilical connectors. The missile is restrained in this position by the launcher holdback release mechanism. The holdback release mechanism is overcome during the launch sequence by missile thrust, allowing the missile to move forward and separate from the launcher. The launcher umbilical connector assemblies are protected by the launcher umbilical connector doors, which are automatically pushed open by the missile just prior to connector engagement. During launch, the launcher umbilical connector doors close, protecting the launcher umbilical connectors from the rocket motor blast. TOW Missile Launcher The TOW Missile Launcher (TML) (Figure 9-46) supports two BGM- 71A (TOW) missiles and provides electrical interface with the TOW Missile System (TMS). The TML electrically isolates the TOW missiles from the TMS until the gunner’s weapon action bar is closed. Then the TML provides the correct interface between the TMS and the missiles to be launched. When the gunner’s weapon action bar is closed and the program is running, the Remote Armament Control (RAC) assembly relays energize and close the signal paths between the TMS and the missile. Also, the RAC assembly shear pin engages the missile and determines whether the missile is 9-54

Figure 9-47—ADU-299 (series) missile launcher adapter. Figure 9-48 — M61A1 and M61A2 automatic gun. in a low or high shear condition. Low shear is ready to withstand the vibration and jolts of transportation. The missile is launched into the field of view of an infrared receiver, and wire-transmitted command signals from the TMS; guidance and command functional group steer the missile along the telescopic sight unit’s line-of-sight. After launch, the TML returns to its stow (+ 4 degrees) position. ADU-299 (Series) Missile Launcher Adapter The ADU-299 series missile launcher adapter (Figure 9- 47) is used to adapt the LAU- 7 missile launcher, providing Sidewinder missile capabilities. Mechanical attachment of the adapter to the ejector rack is provided by two suspension lugs on 30-inch centers. Mechanical attachment of the adapter to the LAU-7 launcher is provided by two swivel nuts positioned on 30- inch centers to mate with the launcher bolts. When the launcher and adapters are electrically connected and mechanically mated, an adapter harness from the wing pylon to the aft end of the adapter supplies electrical power. AIRCRAFT GUNS Gun systems installed in high-speed aircraft must meet demanding performance requirements and provide firepower. The General Electric M61A1 and M61A2 20-mm automatic gun system, installed in the F/A-18 aircraft, along with the GAU-21, GAU-16, GAU-17 and M240D machine guns, meet these requirements. M61A1 and M61A2 Automatic Gun The M61A1or M61A2 (M61A1/2) (Figure 9- 48) is a six-barrel, rotary-action, automatic gun based on the machine-gun design of Richard J. Gatling. The gun consists of a revolving cluster of barrels. Each barrel is fired once per revolution. The M61A1/2 automatic gun is hydraulically driven, electrically controlled, and can fire M50 and PGU-series ammunition at 4,000 to 6,000 rounds per minute. As installed in Navy aircraft, the gun has a pilot-selectable firing rate of either 4,000 (GUN LOW) or 9-55

Figure 9-49 — M61A1 gun components and locations. 6,000 (GUN HIGH) rounds per minute. It is designed for either air-to-ground or air-to-air gunnery missions. Ammunition is supplied to the M61A1/2 gun by an ammunition handling and storage system that functions within a specific aircraft. The system uses an endless conveyor that transports 20- milimeter ammunition from the ammunition drum to the gun. The conveyor then returns the expended cases and unfired rounds to the ammunition drum. Although the physical location of components varies between different aircraft gun installations, the function and description of the components are essentially the same. The primary parts of the gun are the barrels, housing assembly, and rotor assembly. The following paragraphs contain a description of each gun component and an explanation of how each component works. Figure 9- 49 s hows an exploded view of the gun components and locations. Gun Components The primary parts of the gun are described in the following paragraphs. Muzzle Clamp Assembly The muzzle clamp assembly is positioned at the outer end of the barrels. It restrains individual barrel movement during firing. It is positioned against the flange on the barrels and secured by the pressure of the self-locking nut assembly against the opposite side of the shoulders. Mid-Barrel Clamp Assembly The mid-barrel clamp assembly is positioned near the center of the barrels. The clamp tabs are engaged in the slots of the stop shoulders on the barrels. This clamp should be secured in this position by rotating the locating disk to the locked position. The direction of rotation of the gun and barrel hue prevents the clamp from unlocking. As an additional safety measure, a cotter pin should be inserted through the locking disk. 9-56

Barrels The M61A1/2 automatic gun has six rifled barrels. The stub rotor attached to the rotor body supports them. The three rows of interrupted locking lugs on the barrel engage similar interrupted locking lugs in the rotor to secure the barrel. There are three knurled bands near the center of the barrels. These bands provide a gripping surface for easy installation and removal of the barrels from the rotor. Recoil Adapters The recoil adapters are mounted on the bearing retainer and provide the front mounting for the gun. The adapters reduce the amount of recoil and counter-recoil forces transmitted to the supporting structure when the weapon is fired. Firing Contact Assembly The firing contact assembly is mounted to the housing so that the connector is outside the housing, and the spring-loaded cam is inside the assembly. The contact assembly provides the necessary path for the current to enter the housing and reach the breech-bolt assembly. This path goes through the connector to the conductor, to the insulated insert in the contact cam assembly, and then to the breech-bolt assembly. Clearing Solenoid Assembly The clearing solenoid assembly is mounted near the back of the gun housing. It is linked to and controls the movement of the clearing sector assembly. Clearing Sector Assembly The clearing sector assembly is linked to and controlled by the clearing solenoid assembly. When the solenoid is activated, the sector arm diverts the bolt assemblies into the clearing cam path. Guide Bar The guide bar is located on the gun housing. It guides the rounds into and out of the extractor lip that is located on each of the six breech-bolt assemblies. Breech-Bolt Assembly The breech-bolt assembly picks up a round as it enters the gun, transports it to the firing chamber, locks it into the firing position, transmits the firing voltage to the primer of the round, and returns the empty case to the guide bar, where it is cammed out of the gun. An extractor lip on the front of each bolt assembly engages the rim of a round throughout these actions. There are six breech-bolt assemblies in the gun. Guide slots or grooves on the side of the bolt body permit it to slide on the rotor tracks. The bolt roller shaft determines the position of the bolt as it follows the main cam path or the clearing cam path in the housing. Rotor Assembly The rotor assembly is a major unit of the M61A1/2 gun. The front section or stub rotor supports the six barrels. The main body of the rotor assembly contains the rotor tracks, rotor drive gear, and the locking lugs to lock the barrels in place. The rotor tracks support the breech-bolt assemblies and provide a guide for the forward and backward movement of the bolt. There are six sets of rotor tracks attached to the ribs along the rotor body. Each set contains a front, center, and rear removable track. The removable track lets you install or remove a bolt assembly for servicing or replacement. 9-57

The front support for the rotor assembly consists of a double row of ball bearings. The rear is supported by needle bearings located inside the rotor body. The end plate provides the inner race for the needle bearings, and it also provides for the gun's rear support. The rotor assembly is driven by an external hydraulic drive. Drive is applied through a shaft and drive assembly. The drive assembly is bolted to the gun housing but is not a component of the gun. Rear H ousing Assembly and Associated Parts The rear housing assembly is a major unit of the gun. It consists of an upper section and a lower section assembled as one unit. The rear housing assembly provides the main cam path that controls the movement of the breech-bolt assemblies. The elliptical (oval) shape of the main cam path causes the forward and backward movement of the bolt assemblies. The clearing-cam path is circular and located at the rear of the housing. It provides a path for the bolt assemblies during the gun's clearing cycle. The housing cover, when in the closed position, forms a part of the clearing cam path. The housing cover may be removed to install or remove the bolt assembly. The locking and unlocking cams are part of the housing assembly. The gun-indexing pin (timing pin) is located on the housing. It is used to time the gun when it is mated with the ammunition handling system, or when you perform loading/unloading procedures. Lubricator Assembly A lubricator assembly is attached externally to the gun housing assembly. It is used to lubricate the bolt assemblies during gun operation. During gun acceleration/deceleration and when the gun is firing, an inertia-actuated pump located within the lubricator assembly pumps the lubricant through a metal tube to the gun housing assembly. The lubricator can be refilled when performing normal maintenance procedures. HAND-MANIPULATED SIGNALING DEVICES Hand-manipulated devices are used for various signaling purposes, such as identification, recognition, warning, and distress. Pyrotechnics Pyrotechnics are items that produce their effect by burning, and are consumed in the process. Pyrotechnics, as used in the military, are items that produce a bright light for illumination or colored lights or smoke for signaling. All Navy pyrotechnic devices contain combustible chemicals. When ignited, these chemicals generate a flame, flash, infrared radiation, smoke, sound display, or combinations of these effects for many purposes. Some of these effects are visual and audible signaling, area and target illumination, reference point marking, indication of practice weapon impact or fuze action, tracking, decoying, simulating, and smoke-screen generation. Dye-marking devices are pyrotechnics and screening devices, even though their display is not the product of combustion. They are classed as pyrotechnic or screening devices because their end purposes are quite similar to those of the true pyrotechnic. Dye-marking devices are used to establish reference points on the surface of the water. In some cases, the dye is spread on the surface by explosive means. Pyrotechnics generally function by means of an ignition train, similar to the explosive train of high- explosive ammunition. For further information on pyrotechnics, you should refer to Pyrotechnic, Screening, Marking, and Countermeasure Devices, NAVSEA SW050-AB-MMA-010/NAVAIR 11-15-7. 9-58

Figure 9-51 — Pyrotechnic pistol, Mk 1 Mod 0. Figure 9-50 — Pyrotechnic pistol, AN-M8. Pyrotechnic Pistols Pyrotechnic pistols, Mk 1 Mod 0 (Figure 9-50) and AN-M8 (Figure 9-51) are breech-loaded, double-action, single- shot devices. The barrel is hinged to the frame and held in position by a breech block or latch pin. All are fired by pulling a pistol-type trigger. These devices are capable of firing various types of marine signaling devices. Refer to Table 9-5.

Table 9-5 — Pyrotechnic Pistols and Projectors ITEM DEVICES LAUNCHED Mk 1 Mod 0 Pyrotechnic Pistol Mk 2 Marine Smoke Signal Mk 1 Marine Illumination Signal AN-M8 Pyrotechnic Pistol Mk 1 Marine Illumination Signal Mk 2 Marine Smoke Signal Mk 50 Decoy Flare AN-M37A2 through AN-M45A2 Aircraft Illumination Signal AN-Mk 1 Marine Location Marker M11 Aircraft Illumination Signal Mk 31 Mod 0 Surface Signal Projector Mk 80 Hand-Fired Signal Mk 110 Hand-Fired Signal

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Figure 9-52 —Mk 124 Mod 0 marine smoke and illumination signal.

Mk 124 Mod 0 Marine Smoke and Illumination The Mk 124 Mod 0 signal is intended to be used for either day or night signaling, as appropriate, by personnel on land or sea. The signal is a one-handed operable device, intended for rescue use. Its light weight (237 grams) and small size permit it to be carried in life vests or flight suit pockets and on life rafts. This signal, (Figure 9-52), consists of an aluminum case approximately 5.376 inches long and 1.638 inches in diameter; each end is provided with a protective cap. The case has two raised beads around its circumference on the flare (night) end. These circumferential beads positively identify the flare end, by the sense of touch, for nighttime use. A label adhered to the outer surface of the case further identifies the smoke (day) and flare (night) ends and provides precise instructions for use. The case contains four sub-assemblies: smoke candle, smoke igniter, flare candle, and flare igniter. The igniter is one-hand operable and consists of an arming lever that must be extended before functioning and a mechanism that cocks (and then releases) the firing pin. For proper functioning of the Mk 124, the lever must be extended to the armed position and then depressed to cock and release the firing pin. This action allows the striker on the firing pin to hit the primer which ignites the flare candle (night) or the smoke candle (day) depending on the display desired. The signal emits an orange smoke or red flare for approximately 20 seconds. MK 79 MODs 0 and 2 Illumination Signal Kit The Mk 79 Mods 0 and 2 signal kit (Figure 9-53) consists of an Mk 31 Mod 0 Surface Signal Projector, a plastic bandoleer that holds seven Mk 80 Mod 0 signals, and an instruction sheet. A 48- inch long cord is attached to the bandoleer and signal projector. The Mk 79 Mod 2 kit contains Mk 80 Mod 2 signals. The Mk 80 Mod 0 Hand-Fired Signal consists of an aluminum case approximately 2.25 inches long and 0.50 of an inch in diameter. The case contains a percussion primer on one end and a steel end cap on the other end. The primer end of the case is threaded for attachment to the Mk 31 Mod 0 projector. The signal contains 3.0 grams of red pyrotechnic flare composition, 1.0 gram of black powder ignition composition, and 250 milligrams of black powder expellant charge. The Mk 80 Mod 2 s ignal is similar to the Mod 0 design. The Mod 2 design incorporates an expellant charge disc 9-60

Figure 9-53 — Mk 79 Mod 0 and 2 illumination signal kit. assembly and replaces the black powder ignition charge with 1.0 gram of red lead/silicon ignition mixture. In an emergency or during rescue operations, downed aircrew personnel use the distress signaling device kit. Because it is small and lightweight, personnel can carry it in pockets of flight suits or in life rafts. The projector aims and fires the signals. Each signal contains a single red star. On activation, this star is propelled upward to a height of between 250 and 650 feet. The star burns for a minimum of 4.5 seconds.

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To operate the device, the projector firing pin is cocked by moving the trigger screw to the bottom of the vertical slot, and slipped to the right so it catches at the top of the angular slot. After cocking the firing pin, a signal is removed from the bandoleer and the projector is mated with the signal. The projector is rotated clockwise until the signal is seated, and held overhead while pointed at a slight angle away from the body. While the projector is firmly gripped, the signal is then fired by slipping the trigger screw to the left, out of the safety slot, and into the firing slot. MK 108 MOD 1 Illumination Signal Kit The Mk 108 Mod 1 illumination s ignal kit is intended to be used as a signaling device. The kit is small and light in weight so that it can be carried in the pocket of a flight suit or on a raft. The signals in this kit produce a single green star display at a minimum altitude of 250 feet for a minimum time of 4.5 seconds. This kit consists of one Mk 31 Mod 0 Surface Signal Projector, a plastic bandoleer holding seven Mk 110 Mod 1 Hand-Fired Signals, and an instruction sheet. A 48-inch long cord is attached to the bandoleer and signal projector. The Mk 110 Mod 1 Hand-Fired Signal consists of an aluminum case approximately 2.25 inches long and 0.50 of an inch in diameter. The case contains a percussion primer on one end and a steel end cap on the other end. The primer end of the case is threaded for attachment to the Mk 31 Mod 0 projector. The signal contains 3.0 grams of green pyrotechnic flare composition, 1.0 gram of red lead/silicon ignition composition, and 250 milligrams of black powder expellant charge. Handling and Safety Precautions Pyrotechnic ammunition is one of the most widely used types of ammunition in naval aviation. Pyrotechnics of one type or another are carried in almost every Navy aircraft, including unarmed transport and training aircraft. All pyrotechnic and screening devices, while designed and tested to be safe under normal conditions, are subject to accidental ignition. A general rule for the handling of pyrotechnic devices is as follows:

Pyrotechnic and screening devices are normally equipped with some type of safety pin, lock, or tape that is designed to prevent accidental activation of the initiation mechanism. Do NOT tamper with such equipment. Do NOT strike, bend, or otherwise remove the safety equipment until just before the device is launched. Any devices that show signs of damage to the safety features are considered unserviceable; carefully put them to one side and promptly dispose of them according to current directives. If a pyrotechnic device should accidentally ignite, it will result in a fire hazard. In a confined area, the gases generated by this combustion could present a serious toxic hazard. Signaling charges that contain propellant charges, designed to propel the pyrotechnic candle into the air, create an extremely dangerous missile hazard. Pyrotechnic compositions characteristically contain their own oxidants; therefore, they do not depend on atmospheric oxygen for combustion. For this reason, exclusion of air, by whatever means, from a pyrotechnic fire is usually ineffective. Many pyrotechnic mixtures, particularly illuminating flare compositions, burn with intense heat (up to 4500 ° F). Normally, extinguishers are not useful in this kind of fire. NOTE You should be constantly aware that pyrotechnics contain chemical components that are intended to burn with intense heat, and you should act accordingly.

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Carbon dioxide extinguishers, in addition to being ineffective, are potential sources of danger because they tend to produce oxygen, which supports the combustion. Foam-type extinguishers are equally ineffective because they work on the exclusion-of-air principle.

Pyrotechnic hazards are frequently increased by such factors as age, improper storage conditions, rough handling, moisture penetration, excessive temperatures, damage to shipping containers, and other mishaps that cause the devices to become unserviceable. In most cases, immediate danger does not exist. Unserviceable pyrotechnic and screening devices on ships at sea are put to one side for normal return to an appropriate shore station for disposition according to the instructions and regulations contained in NAVSEA OP 5, Volume 1. Conditions may develop that demand emergency disposal of potentially hazardous devices. In such cases, disposition is the responsibility of the commanding officer. Under NO circumstances, other than an extreme emergency, should ammunition, explosives, or other related hazardous materials be dumped at sea by a Navy vessel, aircraft, or activity without prior approval of the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO). If, in the commanding officer's best judgment, immediate disposition is necessary to protect lives and property, the commanding officer should order such disposition by the most appropriate means available. In all cases, the commanding officer must notify Naval Sea Systems Command, at the earliest practical time, of the facts and circumstances. CARTRIDGES AND CARTRIDGE-ACTUATED DEVICES (CADs) With the advent of the high-performance jet aircraft, aviation relies more and more on CADs. CADs are small explosive-filled cartridges used to fire other explosives or release mechanisms. CADs provide high reliability and easy maintenance. The cartridges undergo rigid quality control throughout design and manufacture. Their actual performance is dependable only when they have been properly handled and installed. In a personnel escape system, the CAD must work perfectly the first time. Malfunction of a device or failure to fire when needed usually results in injury or death to the pilot and/or crew members. Escape operations performed by cartridges and CADs are canopy removal, seat ejection, streaming of ejection seat drogue chutes, and parachute opening. It is not possible to discuss all the cartridges and CADs in this TRAMAN. Therefore, a few representative cartridge systems are briefly discussed.

NOTE Water, in flooding quantities and at low pressure, should be used to cool the surrounding area and to prevent the spread of the fire. Properly controlled and directed, water is the best fire-extinguishing agent for aircraft parachute flares burning in the open.

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Figure 9-54 — Impulse cartridges. Personnel Escape Device Cartridges High-speed aircraft have many designs, special control features, and space limitations. As a result, a sequence of emergency operations must be carried out before it is possible for pilot and/or crew members to escape. CADs allow several operations to be performed concurrently (at the same time), or in rapid sequence, to ensure personnel escape. Personnel in the AME rating usually install cartridges and CADs used in personnel escape systems. The impulse cartridge (Figure 9-54 slide 1) contains an electric primer, a booster, and a main charge. When the cartridge is fired, gas pressure moves a piston and unlocking linkage, freeing and/or ejecting the store from the rack. Impulse and Delay Cartridges Impulse cartridges are used as power sources in aircraft stores release and ejection systems. The cartridges provide a force to free or eject a store away from the aircraft or to operate other devices. CCU-45/B Impulse Cartridge The CCU -45/B impulse cartridge (Figure 9-54 slide 2) is used primarily for release and ejection of stores from an aircraft in flight. Mk 19 Mod 0 Impulse Cartridge The Mk 19 Mod 0 impulse cartridge (Figure 9-54 slide 3) is a backup cartridge. It is normally used for the emergency jettison/release of stores loaded on an aircraft during flight. This cartridge is fired after an attempt has been made to fire the primary cartridges. Miscellaneous Cartridges Miscellaneous cartridges include cable cutters, explosive bolts, and fire extinguishers. The Mk 97 Mod 0 impulse cartridge (Figure 9-54 slide 4) is used as a power source to actuate a helicopter cable cutter to cut a chain/cable in an emergency. The Mk 1 Mod 3 impulse cartridge (Figure 9-60 slide 5) is used primarily to actuate a refueling hose guillotine in an emergency. In the event of fire, the aircraft fire extinguisher cartridges start the release of fire-extinguishing agents into the area surrounding an aircraft engine. BOMB RACKS The Navy uses complex suspension, arming, and releasing devices in combat aircraft and weapons. The high speed and performance of potential targets and our own aircraft require the electronic operation of suspension, arming, and releasing equipment. 9-64

Figure 9-55 — Aero 1A/1B bomb rack adapter assembly.

The equipment covered in this chapter is part of the aircraft search or kill stores systems. Generally, these devices operate electrically and are controlled by aircraft electrical circuits. A circuit-closing device actuates them manually by a hand switch or automatically in the system. Aircraft bombs, torpedoes, mines, and other stores are suspended internally or externally from the aircraft by bomb racks. Bomb racks carry, arm, and release stores. Aero 1A/1B Adapter Assembly The Aero 1A (Forward)/1B (Aft) adapter assemblies (Figure 9-55) are used on the forward and aft ends of the BRU-14/A or BRU-15/A bomb racks which enable them to load and carry weapons/stores that have suspension lugs spaced 30 inches apart and weigh up to 2,000 pounds. The Aero 1A/1B adapter linkage attaches to the bomb rack. The movement of the Aero 1A/1B adapter suspension hooks corresponds to the movement of the bomb rack suspension hooks. More information on the Aero 1A/1B adapter assembly can be found in Bomb Rack Adapter Assembly Aero 1A/1B, NAVAIR 11-5E-17.

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Figure 9-56 — BRU-12/A, BRU-12A/A aircraft bomb rack. BRU-12/A, BRU-12A/A Bomb Rack The BRU-12/A and BRU-12A/A bomb racks (Figure 9-56) are designed for fixed mounting in a bomb bay of the P-3 aircraft and can be used to carry, arm, and release a weapon/store weighing up to 1,450 pounds, and having two hooks, spaced 14 inches apart.

Two solenoid actuated arming units at the bottom of the rack provide mechanical arming for the nose and tail of a weapon/store. These units are electrically actuated to arm a weapons/store as it is dropped. If the arming units are not electrically actuated, the weapon/store will drop unarmed. A Linear Electro-mechanical Actuator (LEMA) provides electrical release of a weapon/store. No in-flight manual release mechanism is provided. A BRU-12/A bomb rack with improved positive arming latch installation creates a BRU-12A/A.

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Figure 9-57 — BRU-14/A aircraft bomb rack (left-hand configuration).

BRU-14/A Bomb Rack The BRU-14/A bomb rack (Figure 9-57) provides suspension and release of conventional and special weapons/stores up to 2,200 pounds with 14-inch suspensions. At times, Aero 1A/1B adapter assemblies are used to increase the bomb rack to 30- inch suspension capacity. It may be installed in the bomb bay of the P-3C aircraft and in the weapon pylon of the H-60 aircraft. Sway braces are bolted to the rack frame. Installation of an in-flight operable bomb rack lock (IFOBRL) allows remote locking and unlocking of the rack when electrical power is applied to the aircraft. The BRU-14/A bomb rack has an auxiliary unlock assembly. It releases the IFOBRL if it fails to function in the normal release mode. The auxiliary unlock assembly is a CAD that provides a mounting point for the aft end of the IFOBRL. When actuated, the unlock assembly releases the IFOBRL and allows it to move forward. This frees the sear link from restraint and lets the rack linkage function normally. The BRU-14A bomb rack has a secondary release assembly. It initiates hook release if the LEMA fails to function. The secondary release assembly is a CAD that consists of a housing, piston, and release slider assembly mounted on the top of the bomb rack frame. When actuated, the secondary release moves the sear link forward to release the bomb rack. The BRU-14/A does not have remote manual-release capabilities.

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Figure 9-58 — BRU-15/A bomb rack.

BRU-15/A Bomb Rack The BRU-15/A bomb rack (Figure 9-58) is installed on the wing stations of the P-3 aircraft. It is used with the aircraft wing store launcher assembly, which is modified to launch a Harpoon missile. Aero 1A/1B adapter assemblies can be attached to increase the bomb rack to 30-inch suspension capacity.

The BRU-15/A bomb rack is a modification of the BRU-14/A bomb rack. The IFOBRL mechanism and associated auxiliary unlock device are not included. There is a safety mechanism to positively lock the release mechanism of the bomb rack when a safety pin is installed. There is a cable-actuated manual release mechanism that operates the primary release linkage through an added manual release cable and lever. Bomb Ejector Racks When in flight, today's high-speed fighter and attack aircraft create a vacuum under the fuselage and wings. If a weapon/store is released from the bomb rack, this vacuum can prevent the weapon/store from entering the airstream and falling to the target. If this happens, the weapon/store may physically contact the aircraft structure, causing serious damage to or loss of the aircraft. Bomb ejector racks are different from bomb racks. Bomb ejector racks use electrically fired impulse cartridges to eject the weapon/store free of the bomb racks. Bomb ejector racks eject the weapon/store from the bomb rack with sufficient force to overcome vacuum buildup and ensure a safe weapon/store-launching environment. BRU-32 (Series) Ejector Unit Rack Assembly The BRU-32 (series) ejector unit rack assembly (Figure 9-59) is a non-jettisonable single carriage rack used for carrying weapons or other external stores on the F/A-18 aircraft. The bomb rack is attached to the aircraft by four bolts and electrically connected to the aircraft weapons system. The BRU-32A/A can carry weapons/stores of between 10 and 28 inches in diameter weighing up to 2,600 pounds, while the BRU-32B/A can carry weapons/stores of the same diameter weighing up to 9-68

Figure 9-59 — BRU-32 (series) bomb ejector rack. 4,200 pounds. There are two pairs of suspension hooks, 14 and 30 inches apart on the longitudinal centerline of the ejector unit rack. The BRU-32 (series) is used to suspend single stores, BRU-33/A vertical ejector racks (VER), BRU- 33A/A canted vertical ejector rack (CVER), BRU-55/A ejector rack, and LAU-115/A, LAU-117/A, and LAU-118/A missile launchers by using a 14-inch suspension hook. The BRU-32 (series) bomb ejector rack has safety interlock and two sway brace assemblies with self- adjusting wedges. The safety interlock mechanically prevents the accidental opening of the suspension hooks. It is also used to lock and unlock the suspension hooks during loading operations. Automatic sway bracing is controlled by the opening and closing of the suspension hooks.

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Figure 9-60 — BRU-33/A bomb ejector rack. Sensing switches are incorporated within the rack to indicate to the aircraft weapon system that a store is loaded. The primary ejection uses two cartridges to generate the required gas pressure for rack operations. If the primary ejection fails, the auxiliary release unit provides emergency release. The auxiliary release unit uses one cartridge that opens the hooks only. Nose and tail arming solenoids are used with mechanical fuzing. The Mk 39 electric fuzing receptacle is used for electric fuzing. The bomb rack is interchangeable with the centerline or the inboard and outboard pylons. BRU-33 (Series) Vertical Ejector Rack Assembly The BRU-33/A vertical ejector rack assembly (VER) (Figure 9-60) and BRU-33A/A canted vertical ejector rack (CVER) are suspended by the BRU-32 (series) bomb ejector rack. They are used to carry two external stores weighing up to 1,000 pounds each, 10 to 16 inches in diameter, by using 14- inch suspension hooks. The VER/CVER feature a special safety interlock and self-adjusting wedges. The safety interlock is electrically controlled by the aircraft and mechanically prevents accidental opening of the suspension hooks.

Sensing switches are incorporated to indicate to the store management system (SMS) that a store is loaded. The rack has provisions for mechanical and electric fuzing. The ejection unit uses two cartridges to generate the required gas pressure for rack operations.

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Figure 9-61 — BRU-55 aircraft bomb ejector rack. BRU-55 (Series) Aircraft Bomb Ejector Rack The BRU-55 (Figure 9-61) allows carriage of two smart weapons (up to 1,000-pound class) on a single aircraft station. BRU-55 weapons currently consist of JSOWs, and 1,000-pound JDAMs. The BRU-55 uses the MIL-STD-1760 interface (Aircraft-to-Rack and Rack-to-Weapons). BRU-55 aircraft currently consist of the F/A-18. The BRU-55 is 70 inches long, 29 inches wide, and weighs between 228 and 236 pounds. Its aircraft interface is 30-inch lugs and single 1760 umbilical. Its weapons interface is 14-inch lugs and one 1760 umbilical each. The BRU-55 is equipped with two weapon umbilical-retaining brackets to prevent damage to the weapon umbilical upon release.

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Figure 9-62 — BRU-41/A IMER.

Figure 9-63 — BRU-42/A ITER. Improved Multiple Ejector Rack (IMER) BRU-41/A and Improved Triple Ejector Rack (ITER) BRU-42/A The BRU-41/A (Figure 9-62) and the BRU-42/A (Figure 9-63) operate and function basically the same way. There are four major subassemblies—the structural adapter assembly, the electronic control unit, the cable assembly, and the ejector unit. The electronic control unit and the ejector unit are the same for both the BRU-41/A and the BRU-42/A.

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End of Chapter 9 Aircraft Ordnance Review Questions 9-1. What is the name for ammunition containing compositions that produce illumination?

A. Cartridge activated device (CAD) B. Propellant C. Pyrotechnics D. Warhead

9-2. What is the name for the part of ammunition containing the materials intended to inflict damage?

A. Cartridge activated device (CAD) B. Propellant C. Pyrotechnics D. Warhead

9-3. Which of the following is an unmanned vehicle designed as a weapon that travels above the surface of the earth?

A. Airborne stores B. Guided missile C. Incendiary D. Warhead

9-4. What type of ammunition is intended for operational use?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

9-5. What type of ammunition is specifically designed or modified for use in exercises?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

9-6. What type of ammunition and components contain no explosive material?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

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9-7. What type of ammunition is used for training personnel in all aspects of a familiarization program?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

9-8. What type of ordnance is painted yellow?

A. Armor -defeating B. Marking C. High explosive D. Toxic

9-9. What type of ordnance is painted grey with a dark green band?

A. Armor -defeating B. Marking C. High explosive D. Toxic

9-10. What type of ordnance is painted light blue?

A. Illuminating B. Irritant C. Low explosive D. Practice

9-11. What is the average reaction time of an MK 82 unprotected?

A. 3 + 30 B. 10 + 00 C. 12 + 18 D. 14 + 15

9-12. What is the shortest reaction time of a BLU-117 thermally protected?

A. 3 + 30 B. 10 + 00 C. 12 + 18 D. 14 + 15

9-13. Which of the following types of bomb is used in most bombing operations?

A. General-purpose (GP) bombs B. Special purpose bombs C. Cluster bombs (CBU) D. Low-collateral damage bomb (LOCO)

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9-14. A bomb body is shipped with a plastic plug installed in the nose and tail fuze wells to prevent what occurrence?

A. The explosive filler from spilling out B. Static charge build- up C. Accidental arming D. Damage to the internal threads from moisture entering the fuze wells

9-15. When shipping bombs, what type of pallet is used?

A. Metal B. Nylon C. Plastic D. Wood

9-16. How do laser-guided bombs detect a target?

A. Laser beam illumination B. Remote guidance C. Laser -guided bombs do not detect targets D. Programmed target data

9-17. Long-range missiles are usually capable of traveling what minimum number of miles?

A. 100 miles B. 200 miles C. 300 miles D. 400 miles

9-18. Speeds from Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2 are referred to by what term?

A. Subsonic B. Transonic C. Supersonic D. Hypersonic

9-19. Speeds above Mach 5.0 are referred to by what term?

A. Subsonic B. Transonic C. Supersonic D. Hypersonic

9-20. A service missile is usually referred to as which of the following types of missile?

A. A practice missile B. A tactical missile C. A dummy missile D. A training missile

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9-21. Which of the following guided missile launchers is a complete launching system used with AIM-9M (series) missiles?

A. LAU -7 B. LAU -115 C. LAU -116 D. LAU -118

9-22. What launchers are capable of launching the AIM-9X?

A. LAU -7 and LAU-118 B. LAU -7 and LAU-127 C. LAU -115 and LAU-117 D. LAU -117 and LAU-118

9-23. All versions of Hellfire missiles in the Navy and Marine Corps inventory are carried on what type of guided missile launcher?

A. LAU -117 and LAU-118 B. LAU -118 and LAU-127 C. M-272/M- 299 D. All the answers are correct

9-24. How is an M61A1/A2 automatic gun (1) driven and (2) controlled?

A. (1) Electrically (2) pneumatically B. (1) Hydraulically (2) electrically C. (1) Electrically (2) electrically D. (1) Hydraulically (2) pneumatically

9-25. At what prescribed rate can an M61A1/A2 gun fire M50 series ammunition?

A. 2,000 to 6,000 rpm B. 2,000 to 4,000 rpm C. 4,000 to 6,000 rpm D. 4,000 to 7,200 rpm

9-26. What components are the primary parts of an M61A1/A2 automatic gun?

A. Barrels, housing assembly, and muzzle clamp assembly B. Housing assembly, muzzle clamp assembly, and clearing sector assembly C. Barrels, rotor assembly, and housing assembly D. Muzzle clamp assembly, rotor assembly, and barrels

9-27. A hand-manipulated signaling device is used for all EXCEPT which of the following signaling purposes?

A. Identification

B. Countermeasure C. Warning D. Distress 9-76

9-28. When fired, the star ejected from an Mk 80 Mod 0 signal burns for what minimum amount of time?

A. 4.5 seconds B. 10.5 seconds C. 4.5 minutes D. 10.5 minutes

9-29. When an Mk 25 Mod 2 marker is in the water, what liquid serves as an electrolyte to produce a current in the battery?

A. Fresh water B. Oil C. Seawater D. Acid

9-30. What type of CAD is used primarily for release and ejection of stores from an aircraft?

A. CCU-44/C B. CCU-45/B C. Mk 19 Mod 0 D. Mk 97 Mod 0

9-31. What type of CAD is used as a power source to actuate a helicopter cable cutter?

A. CCU-44/C B. CCU-45/B C. Mk 19 Mod 0 D. Mk 97 Mod 0

9-32. What type of bomb rack is designed for fixed mounting in a bomb bay of a P-3 aircraft and can be used to carry, arm, and release a weapon?

A. BRU- 11 B. BRU- 12 C. BRU- 14 D. BRU- 32

9-33. What type of bomb rack allows carriage of two smart weapons (up to 1,000-pound class) on a single aircraft station?

A. BRU- 12 B. BRU- 14 C. BRU- 55 D. BRU- 65

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9-78

Figure 10-1 — A/S32A-31A aircraft towing tractor. CHAPTER 10 SUPPORT EQUIPMENT This chapter identifies support equipment (SE) used to handle, service, load, test, and maintain aircraft. As an airman apprentice, you will be required to operate SE. Some SE is used both ashore and afloat, while other SE is used only ashore or only afloat. The SE division of the Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department (AIMD) afloat and the Fleet Readiness Centers ashore is tasked with maintaining SE. Principal users of SE are the squadron line division, the base operations line division, supply, and the air department aboard aircraft carriers. LEARNING OBJECTIVE When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. State the purpose and function of the types of support equipment, to include operation, maintenance, hazards, and carrier air and shore-based operations. 2. Explain the purpose for support equipment preoperational maintenance. 3. Define the support equipment training, licensing, and misuse-abuse. TYPES OF EQUIPMENT There are two types of support equipment—aircraft handling equipment and aircraft servicing equipment. The following text discusses these various types of support equipment. HANDLING EQUIPMENT Aircraft handling equipment consists of tow tractors; crash and salvage equipment, to include fire- fighting vehicles and maintenance cranes; forklift trucks; and flight deck scrubbers. Tow Tractors A/S32A-31A Aircraft Towing Tractor The A/S32A-31A aircraft towing tractor (Figure 10-1) is designed for towing aircraft aboard ship. The drive system consists of a 3-cylinder diesel engine, automatic transmission, and rea r-wheel drive with dual wheels. Front- wheel steering is power assisted and has seating for the driver only. Service brakes are hydraulic, power operated, wet-disc type with a mechanical hand brake for the rear wheels. A 24-volt electrical system provides starting, lighting, and instrumentation. Front- and rear- mounted pintles are used for aircraft towing. A universal jet-engine start unit mounts to the rear of the tractor.

10-1

Figure 10-2 — A/S32A-32 aircraft towing tractor. Figure 10-3 — Shipboard helo handler (SHH). A/S32A-32 Aircraft Towing Tractor The A/S32A-32 aircraft towing tractor (Figure 10-2), also called "The Spotting Dolly," is designed to tow, turn, and position aircraft within the confines of an aircraft carrier hangar deck. It is p owered by a 3-cylinder diesel engine, which drives two main hydraulic pumps. The hydraulic pumps supply fluid to drive motors that turn two open-chain reduction drives via two gearboxes at each main wheel, which operates independently. A mechanical wheel clutch handle is used to engage or disengage the drive wheels, enabling the tractor to pivot on a caster wheel around its center within a zero turning radius. A joystick control, next to the operator's seat, is an electromechanical device used to control the speed and direction of the spotting dolly's movement. The lift cylinder, which raises and lowers the lifting arms, and two spread cylinders, which keep the arms pinned against the aircraft nose gear, are powered by an auxiliary hydraulic pump. Several pairs of axle pins that engage both sides of the nosewheel are carried on the tractor and fit a variety of aircraft. Shipboard Helo Handler (SHH) The s hipboard helicopter handler (SHH) (Figure 10-3) is a highly maneuverable, low- profile, towbarless helicopter handling vehicle that replaces the current hangar bay spotting dolly and attaches to and lifts a helicopter's single-tail landing gear. When attached to the helicopter, it has the ability to rotate about the attachment to the tail landing gear with a zero turning radius to provide the maneuverability necessary to spot H-60s in a densely packed hangar bay environment. The SHH is low profile to permit compatibility with the H-60 during tail landing gear engagement and to facilitate transit underneath aircraft in the hangar bay when it is densely packed with aircraft.

10-2

Figure 10-4 — A/S32A-48 large land based tow tractor. Figure 10-5 — A/S32A-45 mid-range Tow Tractor (MRTT). A/S32A-48 Large Land-Based Tow Tractor The A/S32A-48 aircraft towing tractor (Figure 10-4) is an inline, 4-cylinder, diesel-powered, liquid-cooled, 4-wheel drive vehicle designed to move heavy, shore-based aircraft. The chassis incorporates a welded steel co nstruction and steel unit body frame. A 2- se at, air-conditioned and heated enclosed cab is provided for operator comfort in all weather. The driver is positioned on the left- hand side of the vehicle, while passenger seating is on the right-hand side adjacent to the driver. Both seats are adjustable. Two 12- volt batteries, 24-volt, 70-amp alternator electrical system provides power for lighting, instrumentation, control panels, starter motor, switches, wipers/washer motor, and heater/defroster. The full-power shift transmission has four forward and one reverse speeds. The tractor’s front and rear wheels’ directional control is by 4-wheel coordinated steering. Service brakes are hydraulic, power operated, wet-disc type with a Self-Activating Hydraulic Release (SAHR) parking/emergency brake system. Ballasted, the tractor is capable of approximately 35,000 pounds of drawbar pull. A/S32A-45 Mid-range Tow Tractor (MRTT) The A/S32A-45 mid-range tow tractor (Figure 10-5) is a 4-cylinder, diesel-powered, 3-speed automatic transmission, liquid- cooled, rear-wheel-drive tractor designed for towing aircraft weighing up to 80,000 pounds. The frame is a welded-steel, one - piece unit, with Brierton Dead Steer front axle with power-assisted front steering and has a 50-degree turning angle. An adjustable driver’s seat is located on the left side of the vehicle, and a second seat is located on the right side for a passenger. Standard disc brakes are provided on the front wheels, and integrated hydraulic wet brakes are provided on the rear wheels. It employs a 12-volt, 800-cold-cranking-amp batteries consisting of spiral cell technology to supply power for the lights and accessories, horn, starter motor, ignition, and instrumentation. The mid-range tow tractor is geared to travel at a maximum speed of 15 mph forward and 7 mph in reverse with no towing load. Front- and rear-tow couplers (pintles) and tie-down attachments are provided.

10-3

Figure 10-6 — A/S32A-35A (CVCC) aircraft crash handling and salvage crane. Crash and Salvage Equipment Various salvage and maintenance cranes, firefighting vehicles, and Twinned Agent Unit (TAU-2H) extinguishers are discussed in the following text. A/S32A-35A (CVCC) Aircraft Crash Handling and Salvage Crane The A/S32A-35A aircraft crash handling and salvage crane (Figure 10-6) is a self-propelled, 4-wheel drive, 6-cylinder, liquid-cooled, turbocharged, diesel, electric-powered vehicle mounted on 6 pneumatic rubber tires. The ac generator is directly coupled to the engine and provides power to the drive motors, luff/hoist winch motor, auxiliary hoist/counterweight wench motor, and motor control sy stems. A hydraulic pump is directly coupled to the engine and provides fluid flow for steering, self- adjusting service brakes, and winch brake control. Vehicle steering is accomplished by hydraulic cylinders, which connect to the rear axle and main frame. The front and rear axles pivot in opposite directions, allowing significant turning capability. The crane main hoist has a static lift capacity of 75,000 pounds, and the crane auxiliary hoist has a lift capacity of 10,000 pounds. The crane is capable of operating aboard ship in inclement weather. It is designed to be stowed on the flight deck of an aircraft carrier, where it will be exposed to extreme weather and corrosive conditions. In service, the crane will lift crashed/damaged aircraft from various locations and attitudes and move loads on a rolling and pitching ship to a safe parking zone on the flight deck.

10-4

Figure 10-7 — A/S32A-36A (AACC) amphibious assault ship crane. A/S32A–36A (AACC) Aircraft Crash Handling and Salvage Crane The A/S32A-36A aircraft crash handling and salvage crane (Figure 10-7) is a 6-wheel, 4-wheel drive, li quid-cooled, turbocharged, diesel, electric-powered, self-propelled vehicle. Steering is hydraulically controlled via the front and rear wheels. Mid- and rear-axle drive motors provide traction power and have a 6-wheel, self-adjusting air/hydraulic brake system incorporated. Rear- and mid-dc-electric drive motors provide power for crane travel, while a separate dc electric motor provides power to the main hoist control or boom luff control. The crane has a maximum lift capability of 70,000 pounds and can be operated from the cab or by a remote pendant control. The crane is capable of operating aboard ship in inclement weather. It is designed to be stowed on the flight deck of an aircraft amphibious assault ship, where it will be exposed to extreme open-sea weather conditions and the corrosive effects of a saltwater atmosphere. In service, the crane will lift crashed/damaged aircraft from various locations and attitudes and move loads on a rolling and pitching ship to a safe parking zone on the flight deck. A/S32P-25 Shipboard Fire-Fighting Vehicle The P-25 shipboard firefighting vehicle (Figure 10-8) is a 4-wheel (2-wheel drive), 6-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, 24-volt, diesel-powered vehicle with a hydrostatic drive system that transmits power to the rear wheels. Steering is performed by a single hydraulic cylinder and tie-rod assembly that controls the front wheels. Dynamic vehicle braking is provided by the hydrostatic drive system. When the accelerator is released, the brakes automatically engage. Separate tanks within 10-5

Figure 10-8 — A/S32P-25 shipboard fire-fighting and rescue vehicle. Figure 10-9 — A/S32M-19, heavy maintenance crane (HMC) wheel mounted, 25-ton. the vehicle chassis carry 750 gallons of water and 55 gallons of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF). Three 20-pound fire extinguishers containing bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211), a halogenated extinguishing agent, are stored on the right side of the vehicle. One nursing line connection on each side of the vehicle provides AFFF mixture from the ship's system directly to the vehicle's water pump. The vehicle has seating for a crew of two. The driver compartment is located at the left-forward end of the vehicle and contains the main control panel for activating the firefighting systems. AFFF can be sp rayed from both the forward turret nozzle and handline hose reel nozzle. These nozzles operate independently and can be used simultaneously to make this vehicle ready for firefighting duty. A/S32M-19, Heavy Maintenance Crane (HMC) The heavy maintenance crane, Part No. CD2 25 HMC (Figure 10-9), is a 25-ton, diesel-powered hoist maintenance vehicle. It has 4-wheel drive, 4-wheel steering cap ability, and a crane superstructure that revolves 360 degrees. The crane consists essentially of a diesel engine, transmission, drive axles, a hydraulic craning circuit, and a Rated Capacity Indicator (RCI) system. The hydraulic craning circuit is made up of a hydraulic pump and motors, valves, hoist, cylinders, piping, and superstructure that lifts and moves heavy loads from one location to another. The electrical circuit is 12 volts for starting, lighting, and instrumentation. The crane’s primary purpose is to remove and replace aircraft 10-6

Figure 10-10 — Forklift truck. Figure 10-11 — Flight deck scrubber. components in support of scheduled and unscheduled maintenance. This includes engines, transmissions, propellers, engine modules, and rotor blades. Forklift Truck The forklift truck (Figure 10-10) is a cantilever-type industrial truck, either ga soline, diesel (shipboard use), or electrically operated, and is used in the handling and lifting of palletized unit loads. It contains vertical uprights and an elevator backplate equipped with two or more forks of sufficient length and thickness for lifting pallets. The forklift truck is probably the most w idely used power-driven piece of m aterial- handling equipment for palletized loads aboard ship and in Navy industrial supply warehouses. When not on a hard surface, a forklift truck should have pneumatic tires to operate efficiently. Public works maintains forklifts on shore stations. Aboard carriers, the support equipment division of AIMD performs the maintenance. Flight Deck Scrubber The flight deck scrubber (Figure 10-11) is designed to spray a cleaning solution onto the flight and hangar decks, scrub the deck, and recover the residual solution and debris for disposal. It consists of the debris hopper housing, two opposed rotation cylindrical brushes, a solution and recovery tank, and a vacuum recovery system and rear squeegee. Those are mounted on a driver-operated, 4- cylinder, 2-wheel drive, and diesel- engine power drivetrain. The purpose of having flight deck scrubbers aboard ship is to achieve and maintain a high degree of deck cleanliness, which contributes to a reduction of aircraft engine foreign object damage (FOD) and provides better traction, thereby improving personal safety during flight operations. SERVICING EQUIPMENT Servicing equipment provides compressed nitrogen or air, electrical and hydraulic power, and air- conditioning for aircraft functions while the aircraft is on the ground. Mobile electrical power plants (ME PPs) supply electrical power for aircraft testing and maintenance and operate on shore stations 10-7

Figure 10-12 — A/S37A-3shipboard mobile electric power plant. Figure 10-13 — NC-10C and A/M32A-108 mobile electric power plant. and aboard aircraft carriers. MEPPs have high maneuverability and mobility. On shore stations, MEPPs may be self-propelled, trailer-mounted, and/or require towing. The following text describes some of the servicing units you will see in the aviation community. A/S37A-3 Shipboard Mobile Electric Power Plant (MEPP) The A/S37A-3 shipboard MEPP (Figu re 10-12) is designed to provide 115-volts alternating current (VAC) , 3-phase, 400-Hertz (Hz) or 28-volts direct current (VDC) electrical power for aircraft aboard ship. The MEPP is a 4-wheeled, self-propelled vehicle powered by a 3-cylinder diesel engine. T he engine drives the electrical generator and hydraulic propulsion system. A 24-VDC vehicle electrical system provides starting, lighting, and instrumentation. The variable displacement axial p iston pump provides hydraulic pressure to two gear pumps that drive the rear wheels. Power ste ering is provided to the front axle for ease of vehicle movement in congested areas on the flight deck and hangar bay. The ac and dc power cables are stored in a compartment near the driver. They deliver 115 VAC, 3-phase, 400-Hz, or 28-VDC electrical power to the aircraft. All controls, propulsion direction shifter, parking brake, and electrical power are located on right- hand side of operator’s seat. The MEPP is designed for air transport and is provided with tie-down rings and forklift channels. NC-10C and A/M32A-108 Mobile Electric Power Plant (MEPP) The NC-10C (Figure 10-13) is a trailer-mounted, self-contained power plant designed for shore- based facilities. It supplies electrical power for servicing, starting, and maintaining aircraft. The NC -10C has a 6-cylinder diesel engine, whereas the A/M32A-108 has a 4-cylinder diesel engine, both are 2-cycle with water-cooled components. Both units have ac and dc generators, enclosed in a removable steel housing. The ac and dc power cables are stored on spring-loaded reels next to the control panel and deliver 115/200- volt, 3-phase, 400-Hz ac, and 28-volt dc electrical power. A tow bar for towing and steering, tie-down rings, fire extinguisher, hinged doors for operation, and manual hand brake are provided.

10-8

Figure 10-14 — A/M24M-5 static frequency converter. A/M24M-5 Static Frequency Converter The static frequency converter (SFC) (Figure 10-14) is a 4-wheeled, not self- propelled vehicle and must be towed or moved manually. It is equipped with tie- down rings, pneumatic tires, a mechanical hand brake, and a tow bar for towing and steering. It is designed for flight deck conditions as well as land-based theaters. The SFC consists of two major assemblies: the trailer assembly and the converter assembly. Input power is provided from shipboard and shore-based receptacles that supply an external power source of 440/220-VAC, 3-phase, 60/50-Hz, ungrounded. The SFC converter assembly automatically senses either 440-VAC or 220-VAC input. The input phase rotation is insensitive and will operate normally when rotation is in either direction. The SFC converts the input power and provides converted power via four 30-foot cables providing 115-VAC, 3-phase, 400-Hz, 270-VDC, and 28-VDC providing electrical power to aircraft/equipment aboard ship or shore. MSU-200NAV Air Start Unit The MSU-200NAV air s tart unit (MSU) is designed to provide for aircraft main engine start (MES) and to supply onboard environmental control systems (ECS) with compressed air. The MSU delivers sufficient bleed air to start the main engines of all aircraft whose requirements are within the performance range of the unit. The MSU comes in two variations. In the land based (Figure 10-15), the MSU is mounted on an MSU trailer, A/M32U-16A. When installed on the trailer, the unit’s display/control panel (DCP) is mounted on the enclosure, and the fuel for the MSU is supplied by a fuel cell mounted on the trailer. In the shipboard configuration (Figure 10-20), it is installed on a shipboard tow tractor (STT) using a special MSU L-frame assembly. The DCP is positioned at the tractor driver’s location and fuel is provided by the fuel tanks. The intake air required for the operation of the MSU is drawn in through the air intake grill on the left side of the enclosure (ship configuration) and forward part of the enclosure (shore-based configuration) and then drawn into compressor compartment. The intake air grill can be closed with the sliding door and a switch is installed on the door, which precludes operation of the MSU unless the sliding door is fully opened. The MSU-200NAV is equipped with a sophisticated internal built-in test equipment (BITE) Figure 10-15 — MSU-200NAV air star unit, A/U47A-5 mounted on MSU trailer A/M32U-16A (land based configuration). 10-9

Figure 10-16 A/M27T-14 electrical hydraulic power supply (EHPS). and full authority digital engine control (FADEC) system that checks all electrical sensors and valves for proper operation prior to starting the unit and supervises the operating data and its limits during sta rtup and operation. Depending on the failure and the operating mode, the unit will be shut down and faults will be displayed in plain text on the DCP. A storage compartment for the pneumatic starter duct is located on both configurations of the MSU carrying platform. You must take extra special precautions as to where an air-start unit (ASU) is positioned during operation, especially aboard ship where aircraft are parked closely together. High volume air pressure, extreme exhaust temperatures, jet intake suction, high noise levels, and unqualified operators are all potential hazards.

A/M27T-14 Electrical Hydraulic Power Supply (EHPS) The A/M27T-14 electrical hydraulic power supply (EHPS) (Figu re 10-16) is a single-system, hydraulic-pumping unit with a rated capacity of 32 gallons per minute (gpm) at 3000 pounds per square inch (psi) and 22 gpm at 5000 psi. The EHPS is a self- contained unit designed to check performance and operating characteristics of aircraft hydraulic systems. The unit delivers h ydraulic fluid at controlled pressures without the necessity of starting the aircraft engines. The EHPS electric model employs a 75-hp, 440/460-VAC, 3-phase, 60-Hz induction-type electric motor, which is used and directly coupled to the main hydraulic pump. The hydraulic system has a fluid reservoir with a usable capacity of 25 to 28 gallons that feeds the hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pump system contains a boost pump and a high-pressure pump. The hydraulic hoses, tubing, and fittings route hydraulic fluid through an oil cooler and low- and high-pressure filters to the outlet ports. External hoses (high pressure and return) are used to connect the EHPS to the aircraft being tested. Relief valves prevent damage to aircraft’s/EHPS’s hydraulic system components. A pressure compensator and control valves allow control of hydraulic pressure. Operator controls and indicators a re mounted on the instrument panel and main manifold and are accessible through the instrument panel access door. Additional controls and indicators are accessed through other access doors on the base/housing assembly. The EHPS is a 4-wheeled, not self-propelled vehicle and must be towed or moved manually. It is equipped with tie-down rings, pneumatic tires, a mechanical hand brake, and a tow bar for towing and steering.

WARNING Hot exhaust from a jet aircraft start unit is a serious hazard when operating in close proximity to aircraft, aircraft components, fuel, weapons, equipment, and personnel. 10-10

Figure 10-17 A/M27T-15 diesel hydraulic power supply (DHPS). Figure 10-18 — A/U26U-1 oxygen servicing unit. A/M27T-15 Diesel Hydraulic Power Supply (DHPS) The A/M27T-15 diesel hydraulic power supply (DHPS) (Figure 10-17) is similar in operation to the A/M27T-14 except for its source of power. The A/M27T- 15 is powered by a 4- cylinder, 4-cycle turbocharged diesel engine. During normal operation, the diesel engine operates at 2100 revolutions per minute (rpm). The engine is directly coupled to the main hydraulic pump assembly. The electrical system consists of two 12-volt maintenance-free batteries to power the 24-VDC electrical system. During initial start up of the DHPS, battery current energizes the starter motor to crank the diesel engine. During normal operation, the alternating current is used to power the various lights, controls, cooling fans, and indicators on the DHPS control panel and keeps the batteries fully charged. A warning alarm alerts to a fault condition before damage to unit occurs. Like the EHPS, the DHPS is a 4- wheeled, not self-propelled vehicle and must be towed or moved manually. It is equipped with tie-down rings, pneumatic tires, a mechanical hand brake, and a tow bar for towing and steering. A/U26U-1 Oxygen Servicing Unit The A/U26U-1 oxygen-servicing unit (Figure 10-18) is used to replenish oxygen storage cylinders and emergency bailout oxygen systems, which are installed in aircraft. The trailer has two fixed wheels and a retractable, rotatable caster wheel for movement by hand or towed by a tow tractor. The unit contains a n itrogen module, oxygen module, and three cylinders of gas. Two cylinders of nitrogen are used to drive the boost pump, and one cylinder of oxygen is used for servicing. The modules contain the gas pressure and flow controls, boost pump, connectors, and safety devices within a protective case. 10-11

Figure 10-19 — A/M26U-4B nitrogen servicing unit. Figure 10-20 — TMU-70 low-loss, closed-loop, liquid oxygen storage tank. A/M26U-4B (NAN-4) Nitrogen Servicing Unit The A/M26U-4B (NAN-4) nitrogen-servicing unit (Figure 10-19) provides a mobile source of compressed nitrogen to recharge aircraft nitrogen systems. It consists of a welded steel frame, 2-wheel axle, a front-retractable caster wheel, drawbar coupler ring for towing, tool and storage boxes, six compressed gas cylinders, and a manual hand brake. Nitrogen under pressure is transferred from the NAN-4 to the aircraft through a series of gauges, valves, manifold, filters, pressure regulator, and hoses. It is equipped with a boost pump that is capable of boosting nitrogen supply pressure up to a maximum of 3500 psi. TMU-70 low-loss, closed-loop, liquid oxygen storage tank The TMU-70 (Figure 10-20) is a completely self-contained unit composed of three major

components: a 50-gallon storage tank, a 15- liter transfer tank, and a system of transfer lines and control valves. The three components are permanently mounted on a portable 3-wheel trailer. The trailer is equipped with a manually operated parking brake system and retractable caster wheel. The storage and transfer tanks have liquid level, pressure gauges, and pressure-relief devices. Mobile Air-Conditioning Units Most modern aircraft are crammed with electronic equipment that generates tremendous amounts of heat and makes air- conditioning a requirement in the air and on the ground. Air-conditioning is normally provided by an onboard system, but the aircraft engines must be operating for the system to work. When on the ground, electronic equipment must run for long periods of time for maintenance, testing, or calibration. Therefore, some other means of air-conditioning is needed, and that is the purpose of mobile air-conditioning units.

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10-13 Figure 10-22 — A/M32C-23 land based air conditioner (LBAC). Figure 10-21 — A/M32C-21 air-conditioner. A/M32C-23 Large-Land-Based Air-Conditioner (LBAC) The A/M32C-23 large-land-based air- conditioner (LBAC) (Figure 10-21) is a mobile, 4-wheel, trailer-mounted, self-contained, 6-cylinder diesel powered unit coupled to three 15-ton scroll-type compressors that provides air-conditioned, dehumidified, or vented (ambient) air through a standard 8-inch ring, collapsible air- ducting hose to the aircraft’s electronic equipment or cockpit/cabin areas during ground maintenance. The LBAC consists of a generator engine s et (GENSET) rated at 211 kilowatts (kw), 480-VAC, 60-Hz at 1800 rpm, and operating controls for air-conditioning and heating systems. The amount of air-conditioning can be adjusted at the control panel. In low speed (30 Hz), a single compressor can output as little as 5 tons of air-conditioning. At high speed (90 Hz), each compressor can output 15 tons for a total of 45 to ns of air-conditioning at a discharge temperature between 40 and 65 degrees Fahrenheit. The tertiary compressor (COMP-3) is activated first. If additional cooling is required, the secondary compressor (COMP-2) is activated, followed by the primary compressor (COMP-1). Each is activated in turn as the demands for additional cooling increase. The chassis has towing and Ackerman-type steering and manually operated parking brake. The LBAC is designed for air transport and is provided with tie-down/lifting rings and forklift channels. A/M32C-21 Air-Conditioner The A/M32C-21 air-conditioner (Figu re 10-22) is a mobile, 4-wheel, trailer- mounted, electrically powered, self- contained unit powered by a 30-hp, 440-volt, 3-phase, 60 -Hz ac electric motor that is an integral part of the 6- cylinder reciprocating-type compressor. A 30- to 50-foot external power cable, a 30-foot collapsible duct hose for aircraft connection, a collapsible tow bar for towing and steering, tie-down rings, and a manual parking brake are provided.

Figure 10-23 — Hydraulic jacks, aircraft axle jacks, and aircraft tripod jacks. Figure 10-24 — B-1 maintenance platform. Hydraulic Jacks Hydraulic jacks are frequently used in aircraft maintenance. Maintenance of the tires, wheels, brakes, and struts requires part or all of the aircraft to be lifted off the deck. The entire aircraft must be lifted off the deck to perform operational testing of the landing gear. Different types and sizes of hydraulic jacks are needed. Some typical hydraulic jacks are described in the following paragraphs. The basic types are illustrated in Figure 10-23. Aircraft Axle Jacks The aircraft axle jack (Figure 10-23) is a portable, self-contained, hydraulically operated unit. These jacks are used to raise the landing gear wheels off the deck to perform maintenance operations. The lift, a component of the base of the jacks, consists of three rams and an outer cylinder. A rectangular tank welded to the base forms the fluid reservoir. Aircraft Tripod Jacks The aircraft tripod jack (Figure 10-23) is a portable, self-contained, hydraulically operated jack. These jacks are used for raising the wing, nose, or tail of an aircraft. When used in sufficient numbers and at the required jacking points, this jack can lift the complete aircraft off the deck. The jack consists of three main assemblies: a hydraulic cylinder, a tubular steel tripod leg structure with caster wheels, and a hydraulic pump assembly. The cylinder and ram are raised by manually operating the hydraulic pump. Maintenance Platforms Performing maintenance on aircraft does not always occur at ground level and often requires the use of a maintenance platform. There are several different models to use depending on type of aircraft, the maintenance requirement, and location. Two common maintenance platforms are the B-1 maintenance platform and the B-4 maintenance platform. B-1 Maintenance Platform The B-1 maintenance platform (Figure 10-24) is a fixed height, 10-foot lower structure, a variable-height upper structure, and a ma nual pump-actuated hydraulic system for raising and lowering the upper structure. The 10-14

Figure 10-25 — B-4 maintenance platform. upper structure includes a work platform with guardrails and steps with handrails. The lower structure includes fixed steps and handrails, a towbar, and four free-swivel caster wheels with safety locking devices, four immobilizing jacks, and a hydraulic pump, lines, and reservoir. The height range for the B-4 work platform is from 13 feet to 20 feet, and it has a weight-bearing capacity of 600 pounds. B-4 Maintenance Platform The B-4 maintenance platform (Figure 10- 25) is a moveable, hydraulically operated, adjustable platform with a ladder assembly. Four free-swivel caster wheels, each having a foot-lever actuated mechanical brake and swivel lock mechanism, are included. The platform is equipped with safety guardrails; ha ndrails for the ladder; and two safety-lock pins, which are inserted into the frame to lock the extension scissors of the platform. A hydraulic hand pump with reservoir is provided for raising and lowering the platform. The adjustable height range for the B-4 work platform is from 3 to 7 feet and a weight-bearing capacity of 600 pounds. MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS You, as an airman apprentice, are not responsible for maintaining support equipment, unless you are striking for aviation support equipment technician. You will, however, be required to operate support equipment and perform preoperational maintenance. Preoperational maintenance is like checking your automobile before you drive it; that is, checking your oil, tire pressure, battery, radiator, and so forth. The point is, if the support equipment unit has developed a problem, return it to the support equipment shop. Let the technicians work on it. They have had the training. Most support equipment is dangerous. The MEPPs, for instance, produce 1000 amps, which is more than enough to electrocute you. Hydraulic units have working pressures as high as 5000 psi. You do the operating, and leave the maintenance to the technicians. The three levels of naval aviation maintenance are organizational, intermediate, and depot. Organizational maintenance is the general upkeep of aircraft that is performed by aviation squadrons. Intermediate maintenance is performed at FRCs/AIMDs, and includes component inspection, disassembly, repair, reassembly, testing, and fabrication. Depot-level maintenance is normally the complete repair of the entire aircraft and systems. You will most likely be concerned with the organizational level. Preoperational Maintenance Preoperational maintenance is performed by organizational and intermediate maintenance personnel. A preoperational card is used to inspect support equipment prior to its use. All support equipment you operate will have a preoperational card specific to the type of equipment. The card is easy to use and must be completed in the numerical sequence, and it must be accomplished prior to the first use of the day and any use thereafter. All types of support equipment require a preoperational check before 10-15

each use. The preoperational card does not state how to repair, make adjustments, or correct defective conditions. These functions are performed in FRC/AIMD. QUALIFICATIONS FOR OPERATING SE As a direct result of support equipment accidents, the Navy established a Support Equipment Operator Training and Licensing Program. The purpose of the program is to make sure you receive effective training in the safe and efficient operation of specific aircraft support equipment, as prescribed in the Naval Aviation Maintenance Program (NAMP), COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2 (series). You cannot, without great risk, properly or safely move, secure, service, or maintain an aircraft using support equipment unless you are completely trained and qualified on both the support equipment and the aircraft. Training The SE Operator Training and Licensing Program has two distinct parts—Phase 1 and Phase 2. Phase 1 covers the support equipment, and Phase 2 covers the operation or use of the support equipment on a specific type of aircraft. You get your Phase 1 training from AS ratings at the support equipment school sponsored by FRC/AIMD. This school covers daily pre/post-operational inspections, safety, appropriate gear, and operating procedures on each specific type of equipment. Phase 2 training is handled by your own squadron or unit. Usually, the program is managed by the line division and monitored by quality assurance (QA). This is practical on-the-job training, relating what you learn in support equipment school with actual aircraft handling, servicing, or maintenance. While in Phase 2 training, you are under the direct supervision of a qualified and licensed operator of the support equipment you are using. Licensing Once you complete training, you are eligible for a USN Aviation Support Equipment Operator's License, commonly known as a "yellow license." This license is required to check out certain types of support equipment from the FRC/AIMD support equipment division and/or to operate the support equipment. When you complete Phase 1, a certificate of completion is issued to your unit. It certifies completion of Phase 1 training only and does not authorize you to operate any given piece of support equipment. When you complete Phase 2 training in your unit, you are issued your "yellow license," which is signed by your commanding officer (or the aircraft maintenance officer if he/she is so authorized in writing by the commanding officer). Your "yellow license" is good for 3 years from the date issued for each specific type of support equipment and aircraft. After 3 years, you must requalify. If you transfer to a new outfit with different types of aircraft, your license is not valid. You must requalify under Phase 2 training for the new types of aircraft and be issued a new license. Misuse/Abuse Your commanding officer has the responsibility to revoke your yellow license under the following co nditions:  You display unsafe operator habits or behavioral traits that constitute unsafe or abusive use of support equipment.  Your State Motor Vehicle Operator's License becomes invalid (applies to self-propelled support equipment only).  You intentionally misuse or abuse support equipment. Once your “yellow license” has been revoked, you must go through the entire Phase 1 and Phase 2 training to requalify for a new license. Local misuse or abuse forms are generally available and may be submitted by anyone witnessing misuse or abuse regardless of the command to which the person is attached. It is common practice 10-16

aboard stations for the support equipment division to have roving patrols to observe and report misuse, abuse, and discrepancies in all areas and spaces where support equipment is used. Reports can, and do, result in disciplinary action for improper operation, negligence, or vandalism.

NOTE For additional information concerning support equipment (SE) training, licensing, and misuse/abuse, refer to Naval Aviation Maintenance Program (NAMP), COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2 (series). 10-17

End of Chapter 10 Support Equipment Review Questions 10-1. How many types of SE are there?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

10-2. What SE is a highly maneuverable, low-profile, towbarless helicopter handling vehicle that rep laces the current hangar bay spotting dolly and attaches to and lifts a helicopter's single-tail landing gear?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A- 32 C. SHH D. HSS

10-3. What SE is an inline, 4-cylinder, diesel-powered, liquid cooled, 4-wheel drive vehicle designed to move heavy, shore-based aircraft?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A- 32 C. A/S32A- 45 D. A/S32A- 48

10-4. What SE is an aircraft towing tractor, also called "The Spotting Dolly," and is designed to tow, turn, and position aircraft within the confines of an aircraft carrier hangar deck?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A- 32 C. A/S32A- 45 D. A/S32A- 48

10-5. What SE is a mid-range tow tractor with a 4-cylinder, diesel-powered, 3-speed automatic tran smission, liquid cooled, rear-wheel-drive tractor designed for towing aircraft weighing up to 80,000 pounds?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A- 32 C. A/S32A- 45 D. A/S32A- 48

10-18

10-6. What SE is an aircraft crash handling and salvage, self-propelled, 4-wheel drive, 6-cylinder, liquid-cooled, turbocharged, diesel electric-powered vehicle mounted on 6 pneumatic rubber tires?

A. A/S32A-35A B. A/S32A- 32 C. A/S32A- 45 D. A/S32A- 48

10-7. What SE is a shipboard mobile electric power plant (MEPP) designed to provide 115 VAC, 3- phase, 400-Hz or 28-VDC electrical power for aircraft aboard ship?

A. A/S32A-35A B. A/S32A- 32 C. A/S37A-3 D. A/S32A- 48

10-8. All support equipment you operate will have what type of card specific to the SE?

A. Non-operational B. Operational C. Post-operational D. Pre-operational

10-9. What phase of the SE training program do you receive training from AS ratings at the support equipment school sponsored by FRC/AIMD?

A. 4 B. 3 C. 2 D. 1

10-10. What phase of the SE training program covers the operation or use of the support equipment on a specific type of aircraft?

A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5

10-11. Who has the responsibility to revoke your yellow license under the condition that you int entionally misuse or abuse support equipment?

A. AMO B. CO C. DO D. XO

10-19

10-12. Who performs preoperational maintenance?

A. Organizational and intermediate administrative personnel B. Organizational and intermediate maintenance personnel C. Intermediate and civilian administrative personnel D. Intermediate and civilian maintenance personnel

10-20

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10-21

CHAPTER 11 LINE OPERATIONS AND SAFETY One of the busiest, most important, and dangerous divisions in a squadron is the line division. Upon reporting to a squadron, no matter your rate or paygrade, you may be assigned to the line division. As an Airman, or third class petty officer, you may become a plane captain. A plane captain has many responsibilities in flight operations and the day-to-day maintenance and upkeep of modern aircraft. You will be required to operate support equipment and handle, secure, and service aircraft. You must also be aware of the related safety precautions to reduce personal injury, avoid aircraft and equipment damage, and prevent a loss of operational readiness due to ground accidents. This chapter outlines some of these crucial responsibilities. LEA RNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Describe the proper procedures for operating ground support equipment near or a round aircraft, the safety precautions and hazards involved, and support equipment color iden tification. 2. Recognize fixed wing aircraft handling procedures to include signaling, spotting, launching, landing, securing, and general safety precautions on board aircraft carriers. 3. Define aircraft handling signals aboard ship, to include those for fixed and rotary winged aircraft. 4. Explain securing procedures of aircraft and support equipment aboard ship, during normal and he avy weather conditions. 5. Identify aircraft-handling accessories. 6. Identify the safety precautions to be followed while handling aircraft aboard a carrier and the p ersons responsible for safety. 7. Recognize aircraft handling operations ashore, including spotting, securing, and operati ng vehicles on flight lines and around aircraft. 8. State the hazards associated with working around aircraft. 9. Describe helicopter securing procedures and safety precautions. OPERATING EQUIPMENT AROUND AIRCRAFT When mobile equipment is used around aircraft, certain operating techniques, handling procedures, and safety precautions are followed to reduce the number of accidents, to prevent damage to aircraft and equipment, and to ensure the safety of personnel. The following operating techniques and handling procedures should be followed: Vehicles should not pass under any p art of a parked aircraft. Where such passing is absolutely necessary, the vehicle must come to a complete stop and, before proceeding, a visual check must be made to ensure that sufficient clearance exists. Vehicles carrying passengers must stop only at the boarding entrance and clear of aircraft while loading or unloading passengers. Riding on fenders, hoods, running boards, or any place not intended for passengers is strictly prohibited. 11-1

Personnel involved in the towing of aircraft must be alert and exercise extreme care. Tractor drivers must always maintain a safe distance from parked aircraft and be on the alert for movements of other aircraft. Motorized vehicles used to service aircraft or those used near aircraft must be driven or parked adjacent to aircraft so that inadvertent movement of the vehicle will not result in a collision. When aircraft are serviced, all refueling vehicles should be parked forward of the aircraft and parallel to the wing. The refueling vehicle should be parked at a point as distant from the aircraft as the length of hose permits, and preferably to the windward (upwind) side of the aircraft. If it is necessary to park near a parked aircraft, the hand brake of a motorized vehicle must be set and the ignition turned off. If the service being rendered requires running the motor, the motorized vehicle must be manned. The speed limit for operating vehicles on airfields in the vicinity of aircraft and hangars (50 feet) is 5 miles per hour (mph). On runways, taxiways, parking areas, ramps, and work areas, the speed limit is 10 mph. When aircraft are towed, the towing speed should never be faster than the slowest person can walk or exceed 5 mph. Sudden starts and stops must be avoided. Extreme caution must be exercised when an aircraft is towed over unprepared surfaces or into or through a congested area. Hazards of Support Equipment Tow tractors, electrical power units, hydraulic jennys, jet aircraft start units, air conditioners, nitrogen carts, work stands, jacks, floodlight carts, and utility vehicles are mostly big, heavy, clumsy, noisy, and dangerous. You should always be aware of the following support equipment hazards.  Smoking or having an open flame around or near aircraft and fueling equipment is strictly prohibited.  Never operate support equipment that you are not licensed and qualified to operate.  High voltage can zap you and aircraft electric systems without warning.  High pressure air or hydraulics can blow up hoses, equipment, aircraft systems, or personnel.  Contamination, (water, dirt, grease, oil, trash, foreign object damage (FOD)), when introduced to the wrong system, can ruin an aircraft or support equipment, or injure personnel.  Unfamiliar controls on support equipment can cause you to go in directions you didn't intend.  Cables and hoses hooked up to aircraft incorrectly may cause damage.  Avoid breathing fuel vapors and noxious gases that can make you sick or kill you.  Defective, nonstandard, or jury-rigged hoses, cables, plugs, and devices can kill you or damage an aircraft.  Avoid loud noises by wearing appropriate hearing protection.  Driver's seats that restrict visibility can cause you to run over people, equipment, or aircraft.  Crankcases and radiators ruin an engine when they run dry.  Jacks or work stands that collapse because of neglect or improper use can spoil your day. 11-2

Figure 11-1 — Cranial helmet assembly. Figure 11-2 — MK 1 inflatable life preserver. Color Markings of Equipment All handling and servicing equipment used around aircraft have standard colors and markings. This is necessary so that the equipment and markings can be seen easily by pilots taking off, landing, or taxiing in aircraft, or by tower operators. These colors and markings identify the equipment as be ing authorized for use around aircraft on flight decks, hangar bays, parking ramps, taxiways, and runways. Most support equipment is painted yellow and/or white with reflective tape strips on the corners. The front and rear bumpers are painted with alternate black and yellow stripes at a 45- degree angle. Danger areas, such as intakes/exhausts and front/rear pintels for attaching tow bars, are painted red. FIXED WING AIRCRAFT HANDLING The combined efforts of officers and crewmen are necessary to conduct effective air operations on an aircraft carrier. There are those who have prepared the plans, briefed the pilots, plotted the weather, and fueled and armed the aircraft. There are others who assist in launching and landing the aircraft. After the aircraft have returned, there are still others who check the results, debrief with the pilots, interpret the photographic findings, and refuel and rearm in preparation for the next flight. The efficient and coordinated efforts of all persons concerned are of vital importance to the success of the operation. As part of this team, personnel whose duties require them to work on the flight deck must wear the proper flight deck uniform. All personnel must wear a cranial impact helmet with liner, goggles, and sound attenuators (Figure 11-1). Personnel who work on the flight deck must also wear a long sleeve jerseys and trousers, flight deck shoes, an inflatable life preserver outfitted with distress light marker and sea dye marker, and a secured whistle (Figure 11-2). All personnel assigned flight quarters stations on or above the hangar deck level must wear this uniform as described in Table 11-1. Notice the different colors identifying different assignments or jobs. 11-3

Plane-Handling Crews The V-1 division is responsible for handling aircraft on the flight deck, and the V-3 division is responsible on the hangar deck. The personnel, other than plane directors, assigned to h andling crews are usually Airmen from these divisions. A complete handling crew normally consists of a director, crew leader, one safety man, and six to ten Airmen. The director is usually an ABH, and is the only petty officer in the crew. He is responsible for the crew and directs them in the movement of aircraft. The crew leader acts as the director's assistant, and is in charge of the crew in the absence of the director. Crew members are stationed near the wing tips on the opposite side of the aircraft and act as wing walkers. One crew member is referred to as the safety man. It is his/her duty to keep the director info rmed about the safety of the aircraft and to prevent accidental damage and personal injury. Two of the crew members serve as chockmen. They tend the chocks, removing them and chocking the aircraft when the director gives the signal. Wh en aircraft are moved on the hangar deck, directors must make sure they do not hit bulkheads, hangar deck fixtures, support equipment, or other aircraft. The handling crew safety men are in the best position to prevent collisions of this sort. It is the plane director's responsibility to keep the crew thoroughly informed about safety precautions for handling aircraft. Each crew member must know his/her responsibility as an individual and as a member of the plane-handling crew. A good plane director must be able to obtain maximum efficiency fro m his/her crew. When aircraft are being moved on the flight deck or hangar bay by handling crews, verbal orders (w ith or without radio headsets), hand signals, and whistles are used in giving directions. You must remember that the noise level on an operating carrier during landing and launching operations is very high. All verbal orders must be given in a loud and clear manner. Indistinct directions or orders may lead to costly accidents. When a high noise level can cause misunderstanding, the plane director mu st make sure that directions are understood by some form of return signal from his crewmen. In most cases the aircraft crew station is manned during a move. This person acts as a brake rider, and only qualified personnel are allowed to perform this task. When moving an aircraft by pushing, handling crews must know the proper positions for pushing to p revent damage to the aircraft. Crews must also know the correct use of handling equipment and the proper use of aircraft securing equipment.

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Table 11-1 — Authorized Flight Quarters Clothing

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Launching Procedure As soon as the flight requirements for a launch are known, the aircraft handling officer holds a briefing, which is attended by key flight deck personnel, including flight directors, spotters, catapult and arresting gear personnel, and crash and salvage personnel. Specific launch procedures and sequences are given, the disposition of aircraft that go down is determined, and the directors and spotters are informed about their specific part in the operation. After the briefing, directors inform their cre ws of the details of the launch, and the aircraft are spotted on the flight deck. Details of the recovery are included in the next launch briefing, and crews must always be aware that the need for a ready deck could arise at any time because of an emergency situation. Aircraft are spotted as to type, mission, and what catapult is to be used to ensure an even, continuous flow to the catapults. Since most aircraft are jets, they are catapulted. Conventional (reciprocating and turboprop) aircraft can be either catapulted or deck launched. The search and rescue helicopter is no rmally the first aircraft launched and the last to be recovered. Flight quarters are usually sounded 1 to 2 hours before the launch time. The flight deck becomes very active. All Air Department personnel engage in a FOD walkdown. The walkdown finds things (nuts, bolts, safety wire, and general trash) that could be sucked into an aircraft's engine or blown by exhaust that could cause serious damage or injury. Plane captains single up on aircraft tie-down chains. Arming crews load aircraft with the appropriate armament. Fueling crews check aircraft for load s. Catapult and arresting gear crews check their machinery and equipment. Plane-handling crews make last minute respots and check tow tractors and other plane-handling equipment. Crash and salvage (C/S) is manned 24 hours a day. They break out the equipment the day the vessel gets un der way with aircraft aboard. The only requirement of the crash and salvage crew thereafter is to inventory and check out the gear. Approximately 30 minutes before launch time, flight crews perform their final checks to start the engines upon the signal from primary fly control (PRI-FLY). Flight deck control coordinates ground cre ws to provide the aircraft with air conditioning, electrical power, engine start high-pressure air, to mo ve or respot aircraft as required, and to manage all aircraft securing equipment. Once complete, the first launch aircraft are started.

Directing Taxiing Aircraft During flight operations, the speed with which aircraft can be launched and recovered depends largely upon the efficiency of the plane directors. When launching, aircraft must be moved out of the spotting area and positioned on a catapult or takeoff spot, often coming within inches of the flight deck or other aircraft. Under these conditions, mistakes prove costly. When an aircraft lands, it must be released from the arresting gear, moved forward, and spotted to make room for the next aircraft landing. Three important rules for you to remember in directing taxiing aircraft are as follows: 1. Make sure the pilot can see the signals. The standard position for the director is slightly ahead of the aircraft and in line with the left wing tip, but the position may have to be adjusted aboard a carrier. A foolproof test is "if you can see the pilot's eyes, the pilot can see your signals." 2. The person being signaled must know and understand the signals and use them in a precise manner. Indistinct signals or poor execution of signals will lead to casualties. WARNING Beware of jet blast, props, and rotors. 11-6

3. When taxiing an aircraft, you must use extreme caution to prevent personnel from being caught in the jet blast exhaust and being severely burned or blown overboard. Other aircraft and/or support equipment could suffer a similar fate. As the carrier turns into the wind, you must have coordination between PRI-FLY, which gives the catapult officer the signal to launch, flight deck control, which oversees the movement of all aircraft, and the bridge, which gives permission to commence the launch.

When the flight deck is readied (equipment, lighting, personnel, etc.) and all final checks are performed, the proper signals and communications are given for launch by primary flight control. Then, the catapult officer launches an aircraft from the catapult, then another, giving only sufficient time for the first aircraft to clear the bow of the ship. As the catapult officer launches an aircraft, the directors move another aircraft into the launch position. The intervals between aircraft being launched is p redetermined and reflects case 1, 2, or 3 launch. Normally, intervals are as close as 30 seconds or within a safe launch sequence. This procedure is co ntinued, alternating between the catapults (2, 3, or 4) until all jet aircraft are airborne. Conventional aircraft may be catapulted or deck launched, depending on the operational situation. In this manner, an entire deckload of aircraft can be launched in a matter of minutes. Landing Procedure Landing aircraft on a carrier is one of the most dangerous operations performed. All hands not involved in landing operations are ordered to clear the flight deck, catwalks, and guntubs. Personnel whose duties require that they be in exposed places must keep alert and watch incoming aircraft so they can get clear in case of an abnormal or emergency landing.

Before the aircraft landing, the flight deck aft is checked by the arresting gear officer to ensure the following:  Catapult gear is clear of the landing area.  The shuttle is retracted and the cover is in place on the No. 3 catapult.  Sheaves are up in the aircraft area.  The Fresnel Lens Optical Landing System (FLOLS) is turned on, or the manually operated visual landing system (MOVLAS) is rigged in its place.  The barricade hatch is clear, and a tractor is hooked to the stored barricade if it is needed.  The green rotating beacon at the aft end of the island is turned on.  The aircraft are clear of the fouled deck line.  The arresting gear crews are manned and ready.  The landing signal officer's (LSO ’s) platform is manned and ready. NOTE PRI-FLY has control for all flight deck lighting, landing spot lighting, flight deck floodlights, the stabilized glide slope indicator (SGSI), and the flight deck rotary beacon. WARNING Personnel should not turn their backs on landing aircraft or aircraft taxiing out of the arresting gear. 11-7

 The gear is set for the first aircraft. (The recovery officer then calls, "Gear manned and rea dy; need a green light from the PRI-FLY.")

 The stanchions are all the way down.  The removable coamings are stored.  The aircraft elevators are up and in the locked position. The ship is then turned into the wind, and the air officer switches the aft rotating beacon from red to green, giving the pilot the signal to begin landing operations. The aircraft enters a standard traffic pattern for the landing approach. The LSO stationed portside aft on the flight deck monitors or directs the pilot in the final approach. By using various signals or radio v oice communications, the LSO corrects any discrepancy in the aircraft's speed, altitude, and attitude. If it is a propeller-driven aircraft, once in the proper position, the LSO gives the pilot a "cut." The "cut" signal can be a hand signal, a light signal, a radio transmission, or a combination of any two of these signals. The pilot then flies the aircraft onto the deck. If, on approaching the flight deck, the aircraft is not in the proper position, the pilot is given a ”wave-off” by the LSO. This means that the pilot must again enter the traffic pattern and make a new approach. The FLOLS is a major improvement in carrier aviation. This system places the major control of the aircraft in the hands of one person (the pilot) instead of two. It also gives the pilot quicker, more certain awareness of errors in his/her approach. Using the FLOLS, the aircraft enters a standard traffic pattern for the landing approach. The FLOLS provides continuous glide path information to the pilot. Propeller-type aircraft are given a "cut" signal by li ght or voice radio by the LSO. The pilot must maintain correct airspeed and line up the center line of the landing area. If the aircraft is not on the glide path or the deck is foul, the LSO flashes the WAVE-OFF light located on the FLOLS. The wave-off is mandatory, and the pilot must again enter the traffic pattern and m ake a new approach. If a jet aircraft makes a good approach and the deck is clear, no signal is given by the LSO. The aircraft continues on the glide path with power on until it contacts the deck and comes to a complete stop. If the aircraft is not arrested, it continues toward the end of the angled deck. The pilot must again enter the traffic pattern for another approach. (This is referred to as a "bolter.") After an aircraft has engaged a cross-deck pendant (cable) and comes to a complete stop, the gear puller, a director assigned to direct aircraft from the landing area, gives the signal to either raise the hook or to pull the aircraft backwards. This allows the gear puller to have sufficient slack on the cross- deck pendant so he can safely raise the tailhook. In the event the tailhook cannot be raised, the crash and salvage crew may either free the cable or manually raise the hook. The hook runner acts as a sa fety check and displays the emergency hold signal directed to th e arresting gear console operator. When the aircraft is free of the cross-deck pendant, the director taxies the aircraft clear of the landing area; the deck is then readied for another landing. An a lternating red and white striped line that runs the length of the flight deck, known as the foul line or safe parking line, separates this area from the rest of the deck. The fly one director then taxies the aircraft to a position so the nose of the aircraft is pointed over the side, and stops the aircraft. NOTE Aircraft carriers with an angled deck elevator also have to be checked for the following items. 11-8

Figure 11-3 — Aircraft barricade. The director ensures that the area directly in front of the aircraft is clear of personnel and of other aircraft. He/she then turns the aircraft over to the ordnance crew for disarming. He/she displays a hold signal to the pilot with one hand and points to the ordnance director with the other. Once the disarming is accomplished, the V-1 director then directs the aircraft for parking or to be spott ed. Spotting Aircraft Most carriers have a basic spotting order. This spotting order varies from carrier to carrier to suit the fli ght-deck layout. After the aircraft is spotted, chocked, and secured, the plane captain takes over from the pilot. The plane captain stays with the aircraft until it is parked in its final spot. Certain aircraft must be spotted in a specific location to permit servicing, loading of ammunition, starting, fueling, maintenance, and so forth. For certain large aircraft, the spotting location must not interfere with the movement of other aircraft or launching or reco very operations. This process is repeat ed until all aircraft have landed. After all aircraft have landed, the flight deck is respotted by the handling crews for the next launch. Tow tractors are used to move the aircraft around the flight deck when taxiing cannot be done. When the refueling, servicing, rearming, or any minor maintenance is completed, the carrier is again ready to launch aircraft. The entire procedure from launch to landing and respotting takes about 90 minutes. Emergency Recovery Equipment Barricades (Figure 11-3) are that part of the emergency recovery equipment used for the emergency arrestment (stopping) of an aircraft that cannot make a normal (pendant) arrested landing. Barricades are used when aircraft have battle damage, tailhook failure, or some other mechanical failure. The barricade has expandable nylon webbing that is stretched across the flight deck between port and starboa rd stanchions.

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During the aircraft arrestment, when the aircraft contacts the barricade, the wings engage the nylon webbing, which transmits the arresting force to the barricade engine below deck and stops the aircraft safely. The V-1 division works in conjunction with the V-2 division in the initial preparations of the barricade. They set down the deck plates and ensure that they are locked in place, pull out the webbing, and direct all hands in this process. AIRCRAFT HANDLING SIGNALS The aircraft-handling signals discussed in this section (Figure 11-4) are used by all aviation branches of the United States Armed Forces. You, the beginner, must first learn (memorize) these signals thoroughly. Then, you must practice these signals to ensure precise execution. If you drop one arm to indicate application of a brake on a turn, snap the arm out briskly. If you stretch your arms out in rendering a signal, open them wide. When practical, keep the hands well separated. It is better to exaggerate a signal than to make it in such a manner that it may be misinterpreted. Aboard carriers, the "emergency stop" signal is used more frequently than on shore stations. You must remember that this signal is meant for emergencies only. Do not use it as a routine stop signal. It is sometimes necessary for the director to give a "come ahead slowly" signal in close q uarters. The director should execute this signal by alternately giving the standard "come ahead" signal with slow movem ent of the arms, followed by the stop signal.

NOTE The "emergency stop" signal is mandatory. All other director hand signals are advisory when directing aircraft. 11-10 Figure 11-4 — General aircraft-handling signals.

Figure 11-5 — Taxi guidance wand. During night operations, the plane director uses two lighted taxi guidance wands (Figure 11-5) in giving handling signals. During night flight operations, only the prescribed signal wands may be use d, and then only by authorized personnel. The wands are different colors and/or shapes for the personnel designated to use them. The different colors and/or shapes of the cones on the wands are a safety factor. The colors/shapes prevent personnel from misinterpreting a signal that could cause damage to the aircraft or injury to personnel. Table 11-2 lists the personnel authorized to use wands by wand color, the number of wands, and the type. Other personnel that are involved in night flight operations must use a standard flashlight with a red filter. Wands are used at night in the same way that hands are used for day signaling. Night signals that differ from day signals are also sho wn in Figure 11-4. In operations requiring taxiing of aircraft, directors are usually stationed at intervals of 50 to 100 fe et along the flight deck. The director must be in a position that will give the pilot an unobstructed view of the signals. The usual stance of an e xperienced director ready to take over control of an a ircraft is with one arm high overhead and palm inward. This not only aids the pilot in recognizing the director, but it also puts the director in a position to render practically any taxi signal with a minimum of movement. The director retains control of t he aircraft only while it is in his control area. He then passes control to the next director in line on the deck. For more information on aircraft hand signals refer to NAVAIR-00-80T-113, Aircraft Signals NATOPS Manual.

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Table 11-2 — Taxi Signal Wand Identification PERSONNEL COLOR NO TYPE* Aviation Fuels Checker Amber 1 Stubby Catapult Hookup Petty Officer White 1 Stubby Catapult Safety Observer (ICCS) Red 1 Standard Green 1 Standard Flight Deck Officer and Aircraft Directors Amber 2 Standard Hook Runner Red 1 Stubby Launching and Arresting Gear Officer/Helicopter LSE/LSO Red 1 Standard Green 1 Standard Ordnance Arming Crew Red 1 Stubby Banded** Ordnance Arming/Safety Supervisor Red 2 Standard Banded*** Plane Captain Blue 2 Standard Squadron Aircraft Inspector Blue 1 Stubby * Standard and stubby denote cone shape. Standard denotes full length cones; stubby is a modified cone providing 3 inches of lighted cone. Any suitable battery and switch housing is authorized if cone is brightly lighted. All signal wands/flashlights must be equipped with heat-shrinkable sleeving to prevent possible cone separation. ** One 3/4 inch band on the cone (plastic electrician's tape is recommended). *** Two 3/4 inch bands spaced equidistant on the cone (plastic electrician's tape is recommended). SECURING AIRCRAFT ABOARD CARRIERS In general, methods for securing aircraft and mobile support equipment are specific to particular naval aviation ships. CVN carriers embark mostly fixed-wing jet, turboprop, and helicopter aircraft. LHD, LHA, LPH, and LPD class amphibious assault ships embark vertical short takeoff and landing (V/STOL ) aircraft, such as the V-22 Osprey, AV-8 Harrier, and a variety of helicopters. This section does not differentiate between the different types of ships. The importance of properly securing and handling aircraft and mobile support equipment aboard carriers cannot be overstressed. It is of the utmost importance that they are secured in a manner that prevents fore and aft and athwart ship (side to side) movement. The reasons for this are threefold: 1. The pitch and roll of the ship, caused by heavy seas. 2. The list of the ship, caused by maneuvering, particularly when making high-speed turns. 3. The parking of aircraft on the flight and hangar decks with a minimum of clearance between them. 11-12

Adjustable chock assemblies are used to block the main landing gear of all aircraft and wheels on support equipment. The chocks should be in position at all times when the aircraft is not being moved and support equipment is not being driven. They should be removed only upon command from a plane director. Both ends of the chock should be snugly against the wheel with the adjustable end toward the rear of the plane. This ensures easy removal when engines are turning up and the wheel is set hard against the forward end of the chock.

Fittings are provided on all aircraft for attaching tie-downs. These fittings are usually located on each of the landing gear struts. On some aircraft additional fittings may be found on the fuselage. In all circumstances, tie-down chains are attached to each of these points when the aircraft is being secured. Tie-down assemblies are used to secure aircraft and support equipment aboard carriers. These assemblies are equipped with attachments for deck fittings (pad eyes). Deck fittings are provided on both the flight and hangar decks for securing aircraft. Methods of securing aircraft or support equipment and the quantity of tie-down assemblies will vary, depending upon the type of aircraft, equipment, scheduled operations, and weather conditions. No rmal Weather Conditions In general, the following procedures apply when securing aircraft under normal conditions: 1. Plane captains of landing aircraft stand by with tie-downs on the flight deck in a designated area. They join their aircraft as they are being parked. If an aircraft is moved to the hangar bay below, its plane captain should board the elevator with it if he ca n do so safely. 2. Aircraft-handling crews stand by in a designated area during recoveries and act as chockmen while aircraft are being taxied and parked. They put on the initial tie-downs and are assisted by the plane captain when possible. 3. When the aircraft reaches the final spot, the director will signal the pilot of the aircraft to lower its tailhook. This automatically straightens the nosewheel to ce nter. Some aircraft must have the nosewheel aligned to center manually. 4. The plane captain connects the ground wire and installs wing fold jury struts, parking harness and batten boards, engine and crew station covers, and any tie-downs needed in addition to the initial tie-downs put on by the aircraft-handling crews. Detailed procedures for securing a specific aircraft are found in the maintenance instruction manual (MIM) for that aircraft. Heavy Weather Procedures The procedure for securing aircraft during heavy weather differs very little from that used in n ormal weather. The main difference is that more tie-downs are used. All flight control surfaces are secured with battens, and controls inside the aircraft are secured. Figure 11-6 shows the tie-down arrangement for an F/A-18, depending on the size of the aircraft the number of chains for heavy NOTE You should exercise caution when using wheel chocks. If aircraft chocks are not loosened during fueling operations, they will be close to impossible to remove after the aircraft is fueled because of the added weight. The opposite occurs when the aircraft is defueled; chocks must then be tightened. 11-13

Figure 11-6 — F/A-18 tie-down arrangement. weather requirements will vary. For more information, refer to specific aircraft Maintenance Instruction Manual (MIM). When extremely heavy weather is anticipated, as many aircraft as possible are spotted on the hangar deck. The remainder are spotted in the fly 2 (center) and fly 3 (aft) areas of the flight deck. Avoid securing aircraft athwart ship and in the heavy weather spot. Aircraft remaining on the flight deck should be spotted inboard along either side of the center line of the deck. Leave a clear area around the perimeter of the flight deck. If possible, spread the wings on the aircraft that are spotted on the flight deck. For special instructions on securing an individual aircraft, refer to the aircraft's specific MIM. When the ship is not at flight quarters or during heavy weather conditions, the Air Department is required to maintain a security/integrity watch on the flight deck and hangar deck to ensure that each aircraft remains properly secured. The watch must be especially alert for loose or broken jury struts, tie-downs, battens, chocks, engine intake/exhaust and canopy covers, for any leakage, or for hazardous conditions. Extreme caution is necessary when you handle aircraft in heavy weather.

Cold Weather Procedures Handling aircraft during cold weather operations is extremely difficult. Keep as many aircraft on the hangar deck as is possible during extremely cold weather. Keep the flight deck clear of ice and snow. The following methods for snow and ice removal are often used:  Mobile equipment removal —some aircraft tow tractors may be fitted with snowplow blades or with rattan or wire rotary brushes. CAUTION In severe cold weather environments, do not lock the canopies of aircraft parked in the landing area. Canopies will freeze "closed" and prevent brake rider protection. 11-14

Figure 11-7 — NWC-4/5 universal wheel chock. Figure 11-8 — NWC-4/5 universal wheel chock installed. Figure 11-9 — TD-1A and TD-1B chain-type tie-down assemblies.  Manual removal —conventional methods include brooms, crowbars, shovels, wooden mallets, and scrapers. Use compressed air to blow snow from pockets. Use firemain water at 100 psi and steam lances for undercutting ice. Use deck scrapers and auxiliary hot-air heaters to clear flight-deck equipment, such as wires, sheaves, arresting gear, and elevators, of ice. Normal deck procedures are used in cold weather, but considerably more time is required because of the excessive hazards involved. Use battens on control surfaces. Jury struts and flight station covers are recommended. Tie down the controls inside the aircraft to eliminate the chance of movement of outer control surfaces. Aircraft on ice or snow should always be moved slowly. Avoid using the brakes as much as possible when turning aircraft.

AIRCRAFT-HANDLING ACCESSORIES In addition to self-powered equipment, several important handling accessories are required for safe and efficient handling of aircraft. These accessories are discussed in the following text. Aircraft Wheel Chocks Several types of aircraft wheel chocks are used by the Navy. Of these, the NWC-4/5 polyurethane universal wheel chock (Figure 11-7) is the most common, particularly aboard aircraft carriers. On sho re stations you will find two polyurethane or wooden blocks joined by nylon or manila line with different lengths to accommodate different aircraft wheels sizes. Figure 11-8 shows a wheel chock insta lled. 11-15

Figure 11-10 — Close-up showing proper installation of the TD-1A assembly. Figure 11-11 — Aero full power tie-down assembly. Figure 11-12 — MXU-657/W aircraft restraint. TD-1A and TD-1B Tie-Down Assemblies The quick-release TD-1A and TD-1B tie-down chain assemblies (Figure 11-9) are now used almost exclusively aboard ship and ashore. These assemblies consist of a locking and release mechanism, tension bar, adjustable tension nut, and a chain with a hook at one end. Figure 11-10 shows a close-up of the proper installation. Both assemblies are available in two different lengths, 9 foot and 14 foot, and are fully adjustable from a foot and a half to full extension. A/B Tie-Down Assembly This tie-down is called the Aero full-power tie-down asse mbly (Figure 11-11). It is commonly called the A/B (afterburner) tie-down. It consists of a deck attachment fitting, a safety lock retainer, a chain, and a coupler that fits the aircraft holdback fitting. This assembly has a working load of 30,000 pounds. It weighs about 102 pounds and has no adjustments to lengthen or shorten it. It can be modified by joining two tie-downs together with a dummy link for aircraft requiring more length A newer version of the A/B tie-down, called the MXU- 657/W aircraft restraint, has a different deck attachment fitting, and is shown in Figure 11-12. Otherwise, it is identical. Special high-strength deck fittings are installed aboard ships and at shore stations in designated engine run-up areas. Specific A/B tie-down instructions for each type of aircraft are contained in the specific MIM.

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11-17 Figure 11-13 — Adjustable length towbar. Figure 11-14 — Tow bar attachment. Aircraft Tow Bars Two general classes of tow bars are used in naval aviation—those adaptable to only one type of aircraft and those adaptable to more than one type.

The universal aircraft tow bar, Model Adjustable Length Towbar (ALBAR) (Figure 11-13) is the type of tow bar most commonly used by the Navy today. It is available in four different models and lengths. It is used to tow and position aircraft weighing up to 90,000 pounds. The ALBAR is designed for towing aircraft that have nose or tailwheel axle holes, or fuselage or landing gear tow rings (Figure 11-14), and it can be configured to accommodate different aircraft. For more information on handling accessories, refer to NAVAIR 00-80T-96, Support Equipment Common, Basic Handling and Safety Manual, or the "General Information and Servicing" section of the MIM for any given aircraft. CAUTION Before you attempt to tow an aircraft, be sure that the tow bar tensioning chain is under maximum tension when the axle pins are used. When using the tow hooks, ensure the locking pins are closed.

GENERAL FLIGHT DECK SAFETY PRECAUTIONS The ship's commanding officer is responsible at all times for the safety of embarked aircraft and personnel. The commanding officer or officer in charge of the aircraft squadron/detachment and the pilots of individual aircraft are directly responsible for the safety of assigned aircraft and personnel. Ultimately, however, safety is the responsibility of all hands. Nearly all aircraft-handling accidents/incidents or personal injury/death are the result of poor training and supervision, lack of awareness, and/or disregard of h andling instructions. Some of the safety precautions that could prevent dangerous and costly accidents during flight operations aboard carriers are as follows:  Never operate or allow personnel under your supervision to o perate any machinery or equipment when not thoroughly checked out and qualified on all safety and operating instructions.  The deck is considered foul any time unauthorized personnel are in or around aircraft parked in the safe-parking area aft of the island.  While flight operations are being conducted, no personnel except those authorized and required may be in the catwalks, in the guntubs, on the flight deck, in the catapult or arresting gear engine rooms, or in the pilot's landing aid television (PLAT) lens room without the express permission of the air officer.  Personnel should never stand or otherwise block entrances to the island structure or exits leading off the catwalks.  Personnel should not turn their backs on aircraft landing or taxiing out of the arresting gear.  While taxiing aircraft out of the arresting gear, directors must be aware of the activities of the hook runner, tiller-bar man, and the wing walkers.  While directing aircraft, the director must be in p lain view of the pilot at all times. If the pilot loses sight of his director, he must STOP immediately.  No director should give signals to a pilot who is being controlled by another director EXCEPT in an attempt to avert an accident.  Never allow yourself to become complacent to the point of permitting unsafe conditions to exist. Complacency is one of the major causes of aircraft accidents/incidents in handling aircraft.  Make sure that the brakes are manned before you move an aircraft.

 Use the proper tow bar for the aircraft that is being moved.  Use wing and tail walkers in all movements.  Use chockmen at all times in case the aircraft is to be stopped without brakes or in the instance where brakes fail. Use chockmen when you back an aircraft to the deck-edge spots.  Never move an aircraft when there is doubt as to clearance. NOTE If an aircraft with inoperative brakes is to be respotted, the cockpit must NOT be manned, and the chockmen must be in position to chock the main wheels instantly when ordered. 11-18

 Watch for unexpected ship movement that may have a bearing on aircraft being moved.  Be extremely cautious when you handle aircraft on and off of elevators. There is always the danger of losing one over the side because they are at the extreme edge of the deck.  Make sure the elevator is in the full up or down position before you move an aircraft on or off it.  Because of the small confines of the hangar deck, it is of the utmost importance that aircraft be moved with extreme caution. Ensure that hydraulic brake fluid pressure is available and is sufficient to safely accomplish the handling operation.  Handling of other equipment around aircraft should always be performed with utmost care.  Unlock the nose or tail wheel (if applicable) before you move an aircraft.  Be particularly careful when you move a jet that has b een started. Ensure that all personnel are clear of the intake and jet blast.  Stay clear of the launching and landing areas unless you are part of that operation.  Stay alert when you are working around aircraft. There is never room for carelessness, daydreaming, or skylarking on the flight deck.  Keep constant vigilance for coworkers. This helps to avoid accidents.  Ensure that aircraft wheel chocks and tie-down chains are always used whenever an aircraft is not being moved.  Always wear articles of flight-deck clothing in the following manner: o Helmets on and buckled, goggles down over eyes. o Flight-deck jerseys on with sleeves rolled down. o Life vest on and fastened. o Safety shoes on.  Be alert for slick deck areas. Clean spillage from the deck as so on as possible.  Aircraft with wings folded are not to be sp otted, towed, or taxied immediately behind a jet blast deflector when another aircraft is at high-power turnup on the catapult.  You must strictly observe all safety precautions when working around aircraft equipped with an ejection seat. Accidental actuation of the firing mechanism can result in death or serious injury to anyone in the crew station area.  Beware of jet blast, props, and rotors. AIRCRAFT HANDLING OPERATIONS ASHORE The methods and procedures for handling aircraft ashore are similar to those afloat. When an air wing or squadron is shore based, it operates on air stations that have paved spotting areas. The area where a particular group of aircraft is spotted or parked is referred to as "the line." Aircraft are spotted on the line for servicing, loading, maintenance, and checking for operational readiness. It is the responsibility of the personnel assigned to the line crew to direct and spot the aircraft. The line is spotted following the flight schedule instructions. Aircraft must be spotted for engine turnup, taxiing, or towing without endangering other aircraft on the line. In directing an aircraft that is taxiing from the line, the director should remain in control of the aircraft until it is clear of other aircraft or obstructions in the spotting area. Incoming aircraft should be met at the edge of the spotting area and directed to the appropriate spot. 11-19

Transient aircraft often require assistance in taxiing from the runway to the spotting area. An appropriate vehicle that has the words "follow me" displayed in large letters is used. The vehicle meets the aircraft at the end of the runway or an intersection to the runway and leads it to the spotting area or flight line. Personnel assigned to flight line duty should prepare for possible emergencies by becoming thoroughly familiar with the various types of fire-fighting equipment available on the line. They must know their location and capabilities and ensure, by frequent inspection, that they are always ready for use. The use of standard color-coded fire extinguishers promotes greater safety and lessens the chances of error, confusion, or inaction in time of emergency. Coding distinguishes flight-line fire extinguishers from building fire equipment. The type of extinguisher, together with the class of fire it extinguishes, must be painted on a 6-inch color band. The letters are black and at least 1 inch in height. The 6-inch band around the top of the extinguisher should be painted as follows:  Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ....... Yellow  AFFF Type ........................ Silver or white  Purple K Powder ............... Purple  Halon ................................. Fluorescent yellow Carts for handling the 50-pound extinguisher bottles should be painted the same color as the e xtinguisher band. The containers or holders for the other fire extinguishers located on the line may also be painted the same color as the extinguisher band. Multiengine Aircraft Handling Because each type of multiengine aircraft requires slightly different handling procedures, this discussion is limited to general handling procedures. Specific handling procedures for specific aircraft may be found in the "General Information and Servicing" section of the MIM. Many multiengine aircraft have a means of steering the nosewheel from the crew station. While this provides more effective control when the aircraft is taxied, it also limits the radius of turns. When an aircraft equipped with crew station steering is being directed, allow sufficient space as a turn is being made. The nosewheel steering system should be disengaged, if possible, when an aircraft is towed by the nosewheel. Special towing equipment is provided for each type of multiengine aircraft. This consists of a nosewheel towing and steering bar for forward towing and a main gear tow bar or adapter for aft towing. The nosewheel bar is used to steer the aircraft when towing it from aft. Large aircraft should be towed slowly and carefully. Sudden starts, stops, and turns must be avoided. When an aircraft is towed, the brakes should be engaged only in an emergency. If a quick stop is necessary, the brakes of the tractor and aircraft should be applied at the same time (the aircraft move director coordinates this action by blowing a whistle). In addition to the above handling instructions, the following safety precautions should be observed:  During towing operations, have a qualified operator in the pilot's seat to operate the brakes when necessary. Ensure that there is sufficient hydraulic pressure for brake operation.  When aircraft are moved in close spaces, a taxi director and sufficient walkers should be placed to provide centralized control and to ensure clearance of obstructions.  If the aircraft is equipped with a tail wheel, unlock the tail wheel before the aircraft is moved. 11-20

 Ensure that the landing gear safety lockpins or down locks are installed before the aircraft is towed.  Do not turn the nosewheel beyond the nosewheel turn limits. Structural damage will result. Securing Aircraft Ashore The parking areas on air stations are usually equipped with tie-down pad eyes, which are sunk into the surface of the concrete aprons on the "line." One end of the tie-down chains or securing line assemblies are attached to the aircraft tie-down fittings, and the other end is secured to the pad eyes and properly adjusted.

The fundamental rules for securing aircraft ashore are as follows: 1. Direct or locate the aircraft to a protected spot. 2. Park the aircraft into the wind if possible. 3. Place chocks both in front of and behind each main landing gear wheel. 4. Ground the aircraft. 5. Place all controls in neutral position and lock or secure. 6. Tie the aircraft down. 7. Install the protective covers. 8. Secure propellers and rotor blades as req uired. 9. Ensure brakes are set.

When high winds threaten, move the aircraft inside the hangar if possible. If not, ensure tie-downs or lines and anchorages are doubled and control surfaces are secured with battens. Multiengine aircraft are usually tied down at six points. These points are the landing gear, the tail, and each wing. Detailed information concerning securing a particular aircraft may be found in the "General Information and Servicing" section of the MIM. CAUTION When you are securing aircraft with manila line, leave sufficient slack for shrinkage that occurs when the line becomes wet. NOTE Most aircraft are equipped with their own special securing accessory equipment, such as intake, exhaust, canopy, and external flight instrument covers, propeller or rotor blade restraints and tie-downs, flight control and landing gear lock pins, etc. CAUTION Do not install intake or exhaust engine covers when the engine is hot. 11-21

Figure 11-15 — Helicopter tie-down configuration. HELICOPTER HANDLING Helicopters are used on CVN/LHD/LHA/LPH/LPD type vessels. They are also used on destroyers, fast frigates, replenishing ships, cruisers, and, of c ourse, shore stations. There are areas that differ be tween handling fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. Unique flight characteristics and aircraft operation require special handling procedures. Hel icopter Tie-Down and Securing Procedures With the exception of the main rotor blade tie-downs, helicopter tie-downs and securing procedures are similar to those for conventional fixed-wing aircraft. Tie-downs for the main rotor blades are used to prevent damage that might be caused by gusty and turbulent wind conditions when the blades are in a spread position. This type of tie-down usually co nsists of a canvas boot with an attached length of manila line; however, some helicopter rotor blades have special fittings and attachment accessories to accomplish this task. The canvas boot is placed over the tip of the rotor blade, and the boot line is then secured either to a d eck fitting or to an aircraft fitting on the helicopter itself. An example of a helicopter tie-down configuration is given in Figure 11-15. Always consult the applicable MIM’s "General Information and Servicing" section for detailed securing instructions for a specific type of helicopter.

NOTE Rotor blade securing lines should be taut enough to hold the blades without applying excessive bending force. Check lines for security and shrinkage when wet, and readjust lines when required. 11-22

Figure 11-16 — Helicopter hand signals. Hand Signals Hand signals shown in Figure 11-16 are used when helicopters are directed. As you can see, they differ greatly from fixed-wing aircraft. The director, called a Landing Signalman Enlisted (LSE), is normally stationed on a 45-degree bearing to the portside of the helicopter if the pilot in control is in the left seat, and to the starboard side if the pilot in control is in the right seat. When you are acting as LSE, you should position yourself upwind of the area in which the helicopter is to be launched and in a similar position for a landing.

NOTE The helicopter hand signals "wave-off" and "hold" are mandatory; all others are advisory in nature when directing aircraft. CAUTION Aircraft engines, auxiliary power plant starts, blade spread/fold, and rotor engagement must not be accomplished in wind conditions exceeding the individual aircraft's NATOPS limitations. 11-23

Figure 11-17 — Shipboard helicopter landing spot (typical). Helicopter Flight Operations Carrier flight decks and air station runways or taxiways have marked helicopter landing areas that are controlled by PRI- FLY (afloat) and the control tower (ashore) for helicopter takeoff and landings. See Figures 11-17 and 11-18. The LSE, under the supervision of the air officer, is responsible for visually signaling to the helicopter, thus assisting the pilot in making a safe takeoff and/or landing on the ship. He or she is responsible for directing the pilot to the desired deck spot and for ensuring general safety conditions of the flight deck, to include control of the flight deck crew. Flight deck operations with rotors engaged are particularly hazardous to personnel. The tail rotor of some helicopters revolves in a vertical plane fairly close to the deck. In addition, the possibility always exists that the main rotor blades may strike the deck during engagement or disengagement of the rotor system due to the wind being out of parameters or hurling pieces of debris. Because of this hazard, flight deck personnel should be kept to the minimum needed for the operation. Once the proper commands (Table 11-3) are given to the flight deck officer and the flight deck lighting has b een activated from PRI-FLY (Table 11-4), the LSE supervises and is responsible for the following:  Launch and recovery operations.  Chocks and tie-downs (as required).  Fire bottle and guard (posted).  Auxiliary power plant start/shut down.  Clearances around the aircraft.  Rotor blade spread/fold.  Engine start/shut down.  Rotor engagement/disengagement.  The movement of all personnel around the aircraft when loading or unloading troops, cargo, or fueling.  All other activities around the launch or landing area.  External material condition and security of the aircraft. For detailed information on shipboard V/STOL aircraft operating procedures, you should refer to the Naval Warfare Publication Shipboard V/STOL Aircraft Operating Procedures, NWP-63-1; the LHD/LHA/LPH/LPD NATOPS Manual, NAVAIR 00-80T-106; and the Shipboard Helicopter Operating Procedures, NWP-42, latest revision. 11-24

Figure 11-18 — Air station helipad identification and perimeter markings.

11-25

Table 11-3 —Flight Deck Commands

11-26

Table 11-4 —Deck Status Lights/Rotating Beacon Signals for Helicopter Operations EVOLUTION DECK STATUS LIGHTS/ROTATING BEACON SIGNAL Start Engines Red Engage Rotors Amber Launch Green Recovery Green Disengage Rotors Amber Shut Down Red HELICOPTER SAFETY PRECAUTIONS During aircraft operations afloat or ashore, the following helicopter safety precautions should be observed:  Do not approach or depart a helicopter without direction from the LSE.  Do not approach or depart a helicopter while the rotors are being engaged or disengaged.  Helicopters should not be taxied on the flight deck.  Helicopters should not be towed or pushed while the rotors are engaged.  Helicopters should not be launched or recovered and rotors should not engage or disengage while the ship is in a turn or the wind is out of parameters.  A helicopter should not be flown over any other aircraft during takeoff and landing.  Never approach a tail rotor type helicopter from the rear while the rotors are turning.  Personnel required to be in the area of operating helicopters should exercise extreme caution and observe the signals or directions from the aircraft director.

11-27

End of Chapter 11 Line Operations and Safety Review Questions 11-1. When aircraft are towed, the towing speed should never be faster than the slowest person can walk or exceed…….mph.

A. 2 B. 5 C. 7 D. 10

11-2. What colors are most support equipment painted?

A. Blue and/or white with reflective tape strips on th e side. B. Yellow and/or red with reflective tape strips on the corners. C. Yellow and/or white with reflective tape strips on the corners. D. White and/or blue with reflective tape strips on th e side.

11-3. What color flight deck jersey does t he arresting gear crew wear?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. Yellow

11-4. What color flight deck jersey does t he Liquid Oxygen (LOX) crew wear?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. White

11-5. What color flight deck jersey does t he aircraft handling crew and chock men wear?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. White

11-6. What color flight deck jersey do ordnance personnel wear?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. White

11-28

11-7. How many hours before the launch is f light quarters usually sounded?

A. 1 to 2 B. 2 to 3 C. 4 to 5 D. 5 to 6

11-8. How many minutes before launch time do flight crews perform their final checks to start the engines upon the signal from primary fly control (PRI-FLY)?

A. 15 B. 20 C. 25 D. 30

11-9. Whi ch of the following is part of the emergency recovery equipment used for the emergency arrestment (stopping) of an aircraft that cannot make a normal (pendant) arrested landing?

A. A rresting hook B. Barricade C. Catwalks D. Number 3 wire

11-10. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: arms above head in v ertical position with palms facing inward?

A. Affirmative (all clear) B. Negative (not clear) C. Proceed to next marshaler D. This way

11-11. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: arms down, fists closed, thu mbs extended inwards, swing arms from extended position inwards?

A. Affirmative (all clear) B. Insert chocks C. Install down locks D. Remove chocks

11-12. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: either arm and hand level w ith shoulder, hand moving across the throat, palm down; hand is moved sideways, arm remaining bent, other arm pointing to engine?

A. Cut engine B. Disconnect ground electric power C. S low down engine D. Start ground electric power

11-29

11-13. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: describe large figure eight with one hand and point to the area with the other hand?

A. Cut engine B. Disconnect ground electric power C. Fir e D. Engage nosegear steering

11-14. What is the meaning of the following day time helicopter hand signal: arms extended ho rizontally sideways, palms downward?

A. Hover B. Move downward C. Move upward D. Move to left

11-15. What is the meaning of the following day time helicopter hand signal: waving arms over the he ad?

A. Land B. Lower wheels C. Rem ove blade tiedowns D. Wave off

11-16. During cold weather procedures jury struts and crew station covers are …….

A. Mandatory. B. Optional. C. Necessary. D. Recommended.

11-17. What is designed for towing aircraft that have nose or tailwheel axle holes?

A. ALBAR B. TD-1A C. TD-1B D. Wheel chock

11-18. What is used to tie down aircraft aboard ship?

A. ALBAR B. TD-1A/B C. TD-22C D. Wheel chock

11-30

11-19. Which of the following is a true statement if an aircraft with inoperative brakes is to be respotted?

A. The crew station must be manned. B. The crew station must NOT be manned. C. The move crew will have double the personnel. D. The move crew will have triple the personnel.

11-20. What color is the 6-inch band around the top of a fire extinguisher that signifies it is Halon?

A. Purple B. Fluorescent yellow C. Silver D. Yellow

11-21. What color is the 6-inch band around the top of a fire extinguisher that signifies it is AFFF?

A. Purple B. Fluorescent yellow C. Silver D. Yellow

11-22. What color is the 6-inch band around the top of a fire extinguisher that signifies it is CO2?

A. Purple B. Fluorescent yellow C. Silver D. Yellow

11-23. What color light/rotating beacon signal is used to signify recovery?

A. Amber B. B lue C. Green D. Red

11-24. What color light/rotating beacon signal is used to signify start engines?

A. A mber B. B lue C. Green D. Red

11-25. Who should you get direction from before approaching or departing a helicopter?

A. Blue shirt B. Landing Signals Enlisted (LSE) C. Landing Signals Officer (LSO) D. Y ellow shirt

11-31

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11-32

CHAPTER 12 AIRCREW SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT Emergency conditions arise quickly and leave little or no time for preparation. You must know what survival equipment is available and how to use it before the need arises. You can receive aircrew survival training in a number of places. The first place is the aviator's equipment shop, commonly called the "parachute loft" or just the "paraloft." There you will meet the personnel that rig, pack, inspect, and maintain all Navy survival equipment. These personnel are members of the Aircrew Survival Equipmentman rating and are commonly called "parachute riggers." In the parachute loft, you can get first-hand information on the different items that are covered in this chapter. The next place is in flight physiology. There you will find the medical people who are responsible for survival training. You may have an opportunity to see or even take a ride in the pressure chamber. The pressure chamber allows you to use oxygen equipment under the atmospheric pressure conditions encountered at high altitudes and to see how your body reacts to those changes. The multiplace egress device is used in many areas. This device is used to simulate the problems involved in ditching an aircraft at sea, day or night. This training teaches you how to escape from a sinking aircraft and how to use inflatable life rafts and life preservers. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. State the types, characteristics, and uses of flight clothing. 2. Explain the history, components, and types of parachute assemblies. 3. Describe the different types of life preservers. 4. Identify types of life rafts and their uses. 5. List survival items and rescue equipment. FLIGHT CLOTHING Naval aircrew protective equipment is designed to meet the extreme stresses of a combat environment. It also provides fire protection and camouflage, and has design features for escape and evasion. The wide range of environmental conditions in which aircraft must operate requires a compromise between comfort and the high level of protection needed. Protection is the first priority. Postcrash fire and cold water exposure are two critical areas where the survival requirements are more important than maintaining the best cockpit flying conditions. Flight clothing is designed to minimize injury from these hazards. Aircrew personal protective equipment, such as flight clothing, plays an important role in the safety and survival of pilots and aircrewmen. It protects personnel from the elements and provides adequate comfort for efficient mission performance. The primary purpose of flight clothing and equipment is to protect you from a variety of hazards. No single item of clothing or equipment can cover all the potential requirements. The Navy uses both general flight gear and specialized protective equipment for protection and comfort in cold and hot climates. General flight gear consists of flight coveralls, boots, gloves, etc.; specialized protective equipment consists of Anti-gravity (anti-g ) protection coveralls and anti-exposure equipment. 12-1

Figure 12-1 — Summer flyer’s coverall. Summer Flyer’s Coverall CWU-27/P and Blue Flyer’s Coverall CWU-73/P The CWU-27/P summer flyer’s coverall and the CWU-73/P blue flyer’s coverall (Figure 12-1) are designed to be worn as an outer garment in warm-temperature zones, and they provide protection in the event of an aircraft fire. They are designated for use by all aircrew members. Configuration The coveralls are one-piece, unlined garments that are made of aramid cloth, which is a high-temperature-resistant, inherently flame-retardant synthetic fabric with no hot-melt point or drip characteristics (Figure 12-1). This lightweight fabric does not support combustion, but begins to char at 700 to 800 °F. The fabric has abrasion resistance similar to nylon, and like nylon, aramid is nonabsorbent. Because of this characteristic, cotton underwear should be worn under the coverall for optimum comfort. The colors of the CWU-27/P are sage green and Khaki, and the CWU-73/P is blue. The CWU-27/P and CWU-73/P have a slide fastener (zipper) front closure, side pass- through, biswing back, and hook and pile fastener size adjustments at the end of each arm. Also included are two breast patch pockets, one combination cigarette and multiple pencil compartments on the upper front left sleeve, and two thigh pockets. The CWU-73/P has epaulets to allow attachment of shoulder boards. Except for the knife pocket on the left thigh and the multiple pencil compartment pocket on the right lower leg, all pockets and pass-throughs have butted, beaded, and covered slide fasteners. If a hook blade knife (shroud cutter) is carried, it should be tied to the pocket cord and stowed in the knife pocket with the hook blade open for emergency use. Fitting The coveralls are fitted to the aircrew member, and their size normally corresponds to men’s regular suit sizes. The coveralls are used with standard Navy personal equipment and may be worn under the anti-g garment. The coverall sleeves should always be worn down and closed at the wrist to ensure maximum fire protection. Maintenance The aircrew member’s responsibility for maintaining the coverall is limited to cleaning. The coveralls are inspected for general condition at intervals not to exceed 360 days. Repairs performed at the organizational level are restricted to repairing open seams and small holes or tears, replacing hook and pile fastener tape, and replacing slide fasteners. 12-2

Only high-temperature-resistant aramid cloth (MIL-C-81280) and high-temperature-resistant nylon thread (MIL-T-83193) should be used for repairs. A new coverall should be laundered before use to soften the fabric and eliminate any possible skin irritation that might occur due to original fabric harshness. After tumble drying or during drip drying, the coverall should be hung on a wooden hanger. The fabric is a drip-dry type that requires no special handling, and it may be washed as frequently as needed. The coverall may be laundered by the aircrew member at home or in a commercial-type washer and dryer. Laundering in water up to 140 °F and tumble drying up to 180 °F does not damage or shrink the coveralls. Using a commercial fabric softener in the rinse cycle removes body oils during the laundering process. The fabric softeners also stop static cling. Ironing or pressing is permissible. However, it is difficult to remove wrinkles or creases due to the high-temperature-resistant qualities of the material. Coveralls that are heavily soiled and/or stained with oil or grease may be cleaned with solvents normally used in commercial dry cleaning establishments. Dry cleaning or laundering does not compromise the flame-retardant properties, and no renewable flame-retardant treatment is required. EZ-P Optional Zipper Alteration The CWU-27/P is altered with the horizontal relief zipper in lieu of the standard CWU-27/P configuration. The optional zipper alteration is a continuous zipper that was added just below the waist adjustment tabs. The zipper starts at the right front waist area and extends to the left front waist area. To protect the skin from the zipper, an internal section of fabric was added. To provide snag resistance and conceal the zipper, an external flap of fabric extends the length of the horizontal zipper.

The alteration must only be accomplished by Creative Apparel Associates; Aircrew Survival Equipmentmen are not authorized to install the alteration. Flight Coveralls (Cold Weather) The cold weather flight coverall is a one-piece lined coverall similar to the summer-weight flight suit. The outer layer is a fire-resistant aramid twill with an inner layer of aramid microfiber thermal insulation. The coverall is sized and belted, has a concealed hood in the collar, has ample pocket space, and is wash and wear. The coverall has adjustable sleeve cuffs. A front closure and leg CAUTION Altered garments are not authorized to be worn with the Chemical Biological Radiation(CBR) Ensemble (A/P22P- 14(V) with CMU-34/P and CMU-35/P Chemical Protective underclothes). If the command has a CBR posture, at least one normal (unaltered) flight suit must be available to be worn with the CBR Ensemble. NOTE Testing revealed that flight suit fit is critical for effective use of this alteration. There should be no less than 4 inches of ease in the hip of the flight suit that is sent to the manufacturer for alteration. Therefore, ordering a flight suit that is larger than the standard issue suit may be required. 12-3

Figure 12-2 — Flyer’s air safety boot. Figure 12-3 — Fire-resistant flyer’s gloves. zippers make it easy to get into and provide a snug fit. The coverall is available in 24 sizes and may be worn instead of the summer flight suit when conditions warrant. Flyer’s Boot/Bellville/Air Safety Boot The impact-resistant approved flyer’s boots (Figure 12-2) are designed to protect the aircrew member’s feet against high-impact forces. The boot is water-resistant. Configuration The upper boot is black in color and constructed of high-quality calfskin. The inner liner is made with soft, full-grain, glove leather. The boot is 8 inches high when fully laced and is available in sizes 4 narrow through 14½ extra wide. The traction treads outsoles and heels are made of nonslip, nonmarking, jet-fuel-resistant rubber. The steel box toe is constructed of cold-rolled carbon steel to provide a safety margin through greater compression resistance. The boot is designed for use by all aircrew members. Fitting The boot is fitted to the aircrew member and normally corresponds to the individual’s shoe size. Maintenance The aircrew member is responsible for maintenance of the boot. Maintenance is limited to cleaning and polishing. Polish used for everyday care of shoes is acceptable. Repairs are not authorized, as the sole and heel should outwear the upper boot. Broken or worn laces may be replaced. Fire-Resistant Flyer’s Gloves, GS/FRP-2 The fire-resistant flyer’s glove (MIL-G-81188) is designated for use in warm-to-moderate temperature zones and provides protection in the event of aircraft fire. They are used by all aircrew members (Figure 12-3). Configuration The gloves are snug fitting and designed to provide maximum dexterity and sense of touch. If properly fitted, they should not interfere with the operation of the aircraft and use of survival equipment. The gloves are available in sizes 4 through 12. Because the fabric is stretchable, the sizes will accommodate any size hand. The gloves are constructed of soft cabretta gray leather (palm and front portion of fingers) and a stretchable, sage green/khaki, lightweight knit aramid fabric (entire back of hand). The 12-4

cloth portion of the gloves will not melt or drip, and it does not support combustion. The fabric does begin to char at 700 to 800 °F. 12-5 Fitting The fire-resistant flyer’s glove normally corresponds to the aircrew member’s glove size. Determine the proper size glove on a trial fit basis. The glove must fit snugly. Maintenance It is the aircrew member’s responsibility to clean the gloves. Repairs or other maintenance actions are performed at the organizational level or above and are limited to restitching seams. Helmets Wearing protective helmets while flying in Navy aircraft depends upon the designation of the aircraft. You will find that aircraft such as fighters, attack planes, and helicopters usually require aircrew members to wear a protective helmet during takeoff, in flight, and during landing. Other aircraft may require that the helmet be worn only during takeoff and landing. The Navy headgear for an aircrew member is considered to be a pilot’s protective equipment. Maintenance and upkeep is the responsibility of the Aircrew Survival Equipmentman. There are a number of different types of headgear. Each has its own specific function. As you work with the different types, you will find that with very little effort, you can change their basic configuration to meet requirements for all fixed-wing aircraft. General Aircrew Helmet Assemblies The basic HGU-68/P helmet assembly seen in Figu re 12-4 features a lightweight helmet shell constructed of a multi-layer mixed composite of graphite fabric and ballistic nylon fabric with the helmet edge trimmed for optimal peripheral vision. The helmets are available in four sizes (medium, large, extra-large, and extra-large wide). An integrated chin/nape strap and a thermoplastic comfort liner provide stability and comfort. The HGU-68/P is compatible for use with the AN/AVS-9(R) Night V ision Image Intensifier Set (NVIIS), the A/P22P-14(V) CBR protective mask, and the MBU-17(V)2/P oxygen mask. The helmets also house the communications components: H-87B/U earphones, radio frequency (communications) cable assembly, and a boom swivel mount for installation of the M-87/AIC

or M26542/2 series boom microphones. The visor assemblies authorized for use with the HGU-68/P helmet assembly are the neutral, clear, gradient, amber, and laser eye protective or neodymium.

The visor assemblies can be easily attached or removed via snap fasteners. Figure 12-4 — HGU-68/P helmet assembly.

Figure 12-5 — Helmet Shell Assembly. Figure 12-6 — Flyer’s helmet bag (MIL-B- 43290J). Configuration Helmet Shell Assembly The helmet shell assembly seen in Figure 12-5 is designed to provide impact protection. This assembly consists of a helmet shell that is constructed of pressure- molded, laminated graphite and ballistic nylon and a polystyrene energy-absorbing liner that absorbs and reduces impact forces. The helmet assembly also includes a lens pad that buffers the visor from the shell, snap fasteners that the visors are attached to, a boom swivel assembly that supports the microphone assembly, and a helmet block for mounting an NVIIS or a Helmet Sight Assembly (HSA) (HGU- 67/P). The helmet shell is equipped with pile fasteners that are attached to the inside to facilitate positioning and retention of earcups. The edge of the helmet shell is covered with a foam edgeroll encased in a black leather cover. Flyer’s Helmet Bag (MIL-B-43290J) The flyer’s helmet bag (Figure 12-6) is a nylon fabricated bag used for holding the aircrew member’s helmet and auxiliary equipment. Anti-Exposure Assemblies Anti-exposure assemblies consist of several garments that protect the aircrew member in the event of immersion. Constant wear assemblies provide additional protection from cold weather. The constant wear assemblies consist of a waterproof outer garment worn over a ventilation liner and/or cold weather underwear. 12-6 The basic HGU-84/P (Figure 12-5) helmet does not come equipped with the communications components and NVIIS interface accessories, which must be procured separately and installed on the helmet to build up the configurations.

The quick-donning anti-exposure suit is carried in the aircraft and donned only in case of emergency. It consists of a waterproof outer garment equipped with permanently attached boots and wrist and neck seals. An inflatable hood and anti-exposure mittens are stowed in the pockets. In case of emergency, the assembly is donned over the regular flight clothing. Either continuous-wear or quick-donning anti-exposure suits are provided as appropriate for flight personnel and passengers when there is a significant risk of crashing in the water, or when any of the following conditions prevail: 1. The water temperature is 50 °F or below 2. The outside air temperature (OAT) is 32 °F (wind chill factor corrected) or below If the water temperature is between 50 and 60 °F, the commanding officer of the unit concerned considers the following search and rescue (SAR) factors: 1. The maximum probable rescue time. This should be a function of mission distance, SAR equipment, and SAR location. 2. The lowest temperatures that will occur in the mission area during the time period of the flight. Then by using (Table 12-1), the commanding officer determines whether anti-exposure suits are required. Table 12-1— Anti-exposure suit temperature chart Wh en water temperature is below 60 °F and anti-exposure suits are not required, the flight equipment includes anti-exposure, high-temperature-resistant undergarments. Wearing double layers of these 12-7

Figure 12-7 — Anti-exposure assemblies. undergarments can significantly improve anti-exposure protection. Please refer to OPNAVINST 3710.7U (pages 169 through172) for water temperature charts. A/P22P-6(V)2 and A/P22P-6A(V)2 Anti-Exposure Assemblies The A/P22P-6(V)2 and the A/P22P-6A(V)2 anti-exposure assemblies (Figure 12-7) are continuous wear assemblies designed to keep the wearer dry. The complete assemblies provide protection from the thermal effects of cold water immersion in the event of emergency overwater bailout. The assemblies differ only in the type of liner that is worn. The A/P22P-6(V)2 assembly uses the CWU- 23/P liner, and the A/P22P-6A(V)2 assembly uses the CWU-72/P liner. The A/P22P-6(V)2 and the A/P22P-6A(V)2 anti-exposure assemblies are intended to provide the aircrew member with a lightweight coverall assembly that allows for the performance of all required flight operations without restricting any body movements. The coveralls are moisture/vapor permeable to prevent excessive buildup of body heat. In the event of immersion in water, the suit fabrics will not allow water to enter, keeping the wearer dry. All components of the assembly must be worn to achieve the greatest level of exposure protection.

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Figure 12-8 — CWU-23/P liner. Figure 12-9 — CWU-72/P liner. The A/P22P-6(V)2 and the A/P22P- 6A(V)2 anti-exposure assemblies should be properly sized to the aircrew member based on His or her height, weight, and chest measurements. You determine the chest circumference by taking a tape measurement at nipple height with the aircrew member wearing one cold weather undershirt. The CWU-23/P liner (Figure 12-8) is a one-piece garment that is supplied in 12 sizes. The liner is worn directly under the CWU-62/P anti-exposure coverall and over the recommended underclothing. The liner provides an inner layer of 100 percent cotton and an outer layer of polypropylene netting. Each sleeve ending has a coated stretch fabric insert to permit easy insertion of the hands and to reduce bulk. The leg endings are short enough to clear the tops of the flight boots, again to reduce bulk. They are notched at the front to allow standard wool or cotton socks to be pulled up over the liner legs and to hold the liner legs in place when the CWU- 62/P coverall is donned. The CWU-72/P liner (Figure 12-9) is a one-piece garment and is supplied in nine sizes. The liner is worn directly under the CWU-62/P coverall and over the recommended underclothing. The liner provides a layer of thermal protection and is made of 100 percent olefin microfiber thermal insulation sandwiched between two layers of high-temperature-resistant aramid fabric.

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Figure 12-10 — Anti-exposure coverall. CWU-62/P Series Anti-Exposure Coverall The CWU-62/P anti-exposure coverall (Figure 12-10) is a one-piece garment and is supplied in 12 sizes. The coverall should not be worn in direct contact with the skin. It is a lightweight coverall that prevents water from entering but permits bodily produced moisture vapor to pass out, thus minimizing heat and moisture buildup. Proper maintenance is essential to the life and safety of this coverall, as well as proper sizing and fitting. The neck seal and wrist seals are manufactured from rubber and are sealed with a water- and pressure-sealing slide fastener. To fit the CWU-62/P coverall, the neck and wrist seals may be trimmed at the initial fitting, but the seals tend to adjust to the aircrew member after a short period of time. If no excessive seal restriction exists, and if the seal fit is acceptable to the aircrew member, the seals should be left as they are. Neck seals need to fit snugly and remain in direct contact with the neck through all normal head movements. Wrist seals must fit tightly enough to prevent water entry but not be so tight as to restrict blood flow. Multi-Climate Protection System Multi-Climate Protection System (MCPS) is composed of 12 pieces that can be mixed and matched to form 6 different individual layers. The MCPS is a modular garment system that can be worn in conjunction with current flight suits and aviation flight equipment in a broad range of climate conditions by adding or removing layers that provide flame resistance, moisture management, thermal wind, and water protection. Four different state-of-the-art, flame-resistant textiles were developed exclusively for use in the MCPS garments. 12-10

Figure 12-11 — Gammon-type sample fittings view. Configuration 1. The silkweight garment set seen in Figure 12-11 is a lightweight layer for times when a warmer layer is not needed or for layering under a thicker layer. The fabric is an aramid rashel knit that provides breathability, insulation, and flame resistance. The shirt has a thumbhole in the cuff to allow the sleeve to be held in place when other layers are donned overtop. It can also be used to keep the hand partially covered with the cuff for warmth. The shirt has an aramid mesh fabric on the bottom to reduce bulk when tucking it in. The drawer has a front fly and elastic waist. The elastic stirrup on the bottom of the leg is to aid in donning layers overtop and can be cut off by aircrew members who do not like this feature. 2. The midweight garment set seen in Figure 12-12 is a medium-weight layer for use alone or for layering over and under other layers of the MCPS. The set is constructed of an aramid fleece engineered to provide flame protection in a garment that wicks and provides a comfortable fit. The aramid fleece is worn on the inside next to the skin, and a polyester Lycra blend is worn on the outside to provide a closer fit. The shirt has an aramid mesh cloth on the bottom to reduce bulk when tucked in. The drawer has a front fly and elastic waist. The elastic stirrup on the bottom of the leg is to aid in donning layers overtop and can be cut off by aircrew members who do not like this feature.

Figure 12-12 — Midweight shirt and drawer. 12-11

Figure 12-13 — Heavyweight shirt and drawer. Figure 12-14 — Overall. 3. The heavyweight garment set seen in Figure 12-13 will provide the level of protection required for in- water immersion when used with the anti- exposure coverall. The zip neck shirt is made of an aramid double velour, which is modeled after the 200-weight polyester double velour available commercially. This layer can be worn alone or with the silkweight and/or midweight layers under a flight suit or an anti- exposure suit. Due to the knit structure of the fabric and its compressibility, it increases comfort and mobility when compared to currently fielded garments. The shirt has a Nomex mesh on the bottom to reduce bulk when tucked in. The liner pant has a front fly and elastic waist. 4. The overall seen in Figure 12-14 was developed to be worn over the flight suit and underneath the shell pant to provide insulation to aircrew on helicopters or in the back of patrol and cargo fixed-wing aircraft who work in an environment with very little, if any, capability to provide heat. The design enables the overall to be put on while boots are worn and has a suspender that adjusts with Velcro in order to avoid hardware that could press into the body and create a hot spot. Aircrews that wear a torso harness will not use this item. The overall is made from the same double-weight velour as the heavyweight garments.

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Figure 12-15 — Fleece jacket. Figure 12-16 — Fleece vest. 5. The fleece jacket shown in Figure 12-15 and vest shown in Figure 12-16 are designed to be worn over the silkweight, midweight, and/or heavyweight garments, alone or under the shell outer jacket on cold/wet days. The garments provide warmth without weight and block 95 percent of the wind while still providing outstanding breathability. The garments are water- repellent, shed rain and snow, and dry quickly. The vest provides warmth to the body core on moderately cold days while still providing freedom of movement. The garments are constructed of an aramid 300-weight double fleece engineered to provide flame protection in a garment that wicks and provides comfort.

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Figure 12-17 — Outershell jacket and trousers. Figure 12-18 — Face mask. 6. The outershell jacket and trousers seen in Figure 12- 17 are made of a waterproof, windproof, and breathable flame-resistant Gortex Best Defense fabric, developed and manufactured for the MCPS. The outershell jacket can be used alone or over the other MCPS garments as layered protection. The jacket is designed to stay on the hip, has waterproof zippers, a map‖ pocket on the upper left chest, hand warmer pockets behind the large front patch pockets, and survival hood that can be snapped onto the collar. The shell pant is made of the same fabric as the shell jacket. The pant can be put on while boots are worn and comes with suspenders to help keep them in place. The outershell trousers can be used alone or over the other MCPS components as layered protection. 7. The face mask shown in Figure 12-18 is a unisex pullover-style garment designed for use in rotary wing aircraft only. The face mask is a semi-form fit, soft, warm, wind-resistant, fire- resistant garment with minimum bulk. The face mask can be worn under the helmet or as a stand-alone cold weather garment. The face mask is constructed of aramid fleece, with a black stretch, velour panel insert at the back to help facilitate donning and doffing. The ear inserts are made of a mesh knit that provides a layer of protection while still allowing unimpeded hearing through the aircrew member’s helmet/cranial/headset without removing the face mask. The left front has a slit in the fleece to facilitate the use of a boom microphone. The face mask comes in two sizes (medium/large and extra-large) and can be worn up, covering the face, nose, mouth, chin, ears, and neck, or in the down position, covering the neck only. The face mask was designed to be tucked under a shirt or jacket for full neck protection. 12-14

Application MCPS is designed to provide aircrew with the ability to select the garments they require based upon mission, aircraft, and environment. Anti-G Garments Although there is no limit to the speed a human can endure in straight and level flight in an aircraft, changing speed or direction can produce inertia to which the body has a sharply limited tolerance. In the case of extreme stresses exerted by forces of the type met in seat ejection, ditching, or parachute opening shock, the short duration of the force restricts its effects. However, changing the direction of flight often produces stress forces equal to several times the normal value of gravity for periods longer than a second. These forces can have dangerous effects. At 5 g’s (five times the force of gravity), the pilot’s body is exposed to a force that increases its weight and that of its components five times. This increased weight has many effects. The pilot is pushed down into his seat. His arms and legs feel like lead, and manipulation of the controls becomes more difficult. In addition, the extra weight of the internal organs causes abdominal and chest discomfort. Most important, however, is the effect on the circulatory system. At 5 g’s , the pressure exerted by the column of blood between the head and the heart becomes just about equal to the blood pressure in the arteries. As a result, the pressure supplied by the heart is not great enough to pump an adequate supply of blood to the head. To counteract these effects, the pressure in the arteries must be increased above the heart level. At the same time, distended vessels and tissue and fluid spaces in the regions below the heart must be restored to normal. This is accomplished by the anti-g garment. With the anti-g system, compressed air is metered to the garment in proportion to the gravitational force being exerted. The bladders of the garment inflate, compressing the legs and abdomen of the wearer by an amount also proportional to the gravitational force. Thus, the garment prevents blood from collecting in the abdomen and lower extremities and forces blood from the lower to the upper part of the body. This effect increases blood flow to the heart and increases resistance to the shifting of blood to the lower limbs. In addition, it raises the diaphragm, decreasing the distance between the heart, the eyes, and the brain. Altogether, it increases the tolerance of the pilot an average of about 2 g‘s. Anti-g Garments Description The anti-g garments are designed to provide protection against the effects of high g-forces experienced by aircrew personnel assigned to high-performance aircraft. Configuration The anti-g garments consists of a bladder system that is encased in a fire-resistant outer shell. As gravitational forces increase, the system automatically inflates at predetermined pressures. To lessen the effect of a blackout, the anti-g garment applies pressure on the body to restrict the flow of blood to the aircrew member’s waist and feet. The following garments fit from the waist down and are worn over the standard flight suit:  CSU-15/P  CSU-13B/P  CSU-20/P The CSU-21/P counter pressure vest, also discussed in this chapter, is worn on the upper torso over the standard f light suit. 12-15

Figure 12-20 — CSU-13B/P and CSU-15/P parts nomenclature. CSU-15/P, CSU-13B/P, and CSU- 15A/P Anti-G Garments The CSU-15/P anti-g garment and the CSU-13B/P anti-g garment seen in Figure 12-19 provide protection against the effects of g-forces experienced in high-performance aircraft. The CSU-15A/P anti-g garment is identical to the current CSU-13B/P in form, fit, and function and will be used as an alternative to the CSU-13B/P anti-g garment for Navy/Marine Corps only. Configuration The anti-g garments, seen in Figure 12-20, are made of a fire-resistant aramid cloth outer shell that houses a bladder. The garments are cut away at the buttock, groin, and knee area for comfort and flexibility. The outer shell has waist and leg entrance fasteners, adjustment lacing areas with lacing covers, and leg pockets with slide fastener Figure 12-19 — CSU-13B/P anti-g garment. 12-16

closures for refined adjustments and storage. The bladder is made of a polyurethane-coated nylon cloth that covers the abdomen, thighs, and calves. The bladder of the anti-g garment is fitted with a hose that is connected directly to the aircraft’s anti-g system. Application The CSU-15A/P and CSU-13B/P anti-g garments are used in conjunction with standard Navy personal equipment. The CSU-15A/P anti-g garment is identical to the current CSU-13B/P and can be used as an alternative for Navy/Marine Corps only. PARACHUTE FAMILIARIZATION The word parachute is, in the modern sense, derived from the French word para, meaning to prepare for or to protect against, and the French word chute, meaning a fall or quick descent— literally, to protect from a fall. As early as the year 1300, Chinese experimenters are reported to have jumped off the Great Wall with devices resembling umbrellas. In the year 1495, the great genius, artist, and inventor Leonardo da Vinci sketched a parachute design to be made of caulked linen that would permit a gentle descent to earth. About a century later, Fausto Veranzio described and sketched a parachute design consisting of a four-poled square frame covered with fabric, which he claimed could be used to escape from tall, burning buildings. Since man, not yet airborne, had no use for a lifesaving device of this nature at that time, parachutes were considered novelties or items of amusement, and interest in them gradually lessened. It was not until the invention of the first aerial balloon that interest in the parachute was renewed. As a result of the balloon, the parachute became less of a toy and more a means of escape. History In the late 1700s, the Montgolfier brothers had invented a balloon that would stay aloft. This balloon was kept in the air by burning bundles of straw beneath the bag to furnish the necessary supply of hot air. If the fabric caught fire, the flight was abruptly ended. This meant that those who went up on such flights had to have a means of escape. Those early days of ballooning saw excursions of curiosity into the use of parachutes by early balloonists such as the Montgolfiers, Blanchard, Martyn, Arnold, Appleby, and Hampton. Some parachute drops, using animals as passengers, were successfully made. The first human parachute descent was accomplished by the famous French balloonist Andre- Jacques Garnerin, on 22 October 1798. This historic event took place over Monceau Park, near Paris, when Garnerin released himself and his semi-rigid parachute from the balloon at an altitude of 6,000 feet. On 14 July 1808, a famous Polish balloonist, Jodaki Kuparento, was the first man to have his life saved from a flaming bag of hot air when, over Warsaw, remnants of his burning balloon blew into the balloon’s net structure and blossomed into a parachute, lowering him to the ground safely. However, the need for a foolproof parachute— whose main role at that time was its use as an added thrill to balloon ascensions—was not strong enough to stimulate a great deal of inventive effort until nearly 100 years later. Hence, with the coming of the air age in 1903, when the Wright brothers made their spectacular flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, there came also an era of experimentation with parachutes designed for this new type of flying machine. Albert Berry is credited with being the first person to jump successfully from an aircraft using a parachute. This jump was made on 1 March 1912, from a Benoist Pusher biplane, at Jefferson Barracks, not far from Kinloch Park Aerodrome, St. Louis, Missouri. The parachute was an unbleached muslin cotton parachute, 36 feet in diameter. Its suspension lines terminated into a trapeze bar and strap arrangement. The parachute assembly was packed into a cone attached under the airplane. It was retained within the metal cone by a series of break cords. The weight of Berry’s falling body pulled the canopy and lines from the container. Many others, using makeshift or 12-17

experimental parachutes, made descents before World War I, but parachutes still were not considered essential equipment for military aviators. As World War I progressed, the resultant mortality rate among pilots was very high. However, the lives of over 800 balloonist observers and artillery fire directors were saved by parachutes, demonstrating a desperate need for a foolproof and practical lifesaving device for aviators. The next step was to improve parachute reliability and make them mandatory for military flyers. Parachute lore tells us that in 1917 a French pilot attacked a German Fokker and riddled it with bullets. The plane exploded in flames and began to plunge to earth. As the Frenchman circled his kill, he was surprised to see the enemy pilot jump, immediately followed by a ribbon of white swinging out behind him as he fell through the clouds. Still amazed, he watched as a great billowing canopy fluttered and opened. The plummeting body slowed with a jerk and began swaying gently beneath the air-filled blossom. The adversary waved at the stunned victor and proceeded to swing into no man’s land, where the reception was far from friendly. Twenty-seven rifle and machine gun bullets were pumped into the German’s legs. He survived and gained the honor of being the first person to save his life by an emergency escape from an airplane. Official documentation reveals that regular emergency bailouts were made during the late months of 1918 by German aviators. Captured equipment showed the parachute to be a unique one designed by Heineke. Gradually, German fighter pilots began to equip themselves with parachutes. Soon, whole squadrons were doing the same. At the end of the war, it was reported that all flyers in the entire German Air Force were in the process of wearing parachutes in flight. All parachutes, however clever in design, were still dependent upon a static line attached to the aircraft to deploy the parachute, and they were far from perfect. Thus, some emergency escape attempts continued to take lives. Towards the end of 1918, with the war coming to a close, demands by the flying public and Congress finally resulted in the formation of a U.S. Air Service Parachute Board at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio. Floyd Smith, with a reputation for his ideas in parachute design, was put in charge of this new unit of the engineering division. He surrounded himself with Guy M. Ball, James M. Russel, James J. Higgins, and Sgt. Ralph W. Bottreil. At the beginning of 1919, energetic Major E. L. Hoffman was chosen as military head of this parachute development team. The crash program produced results. Parachutes from all over the world, all attached (static-line actuated) types, were tested and found to be unsafe, weak, or otherwise unsuitable for use in emergency jumps from airplanes. Initial testing on a new parachute design devised by Floyd Smith showed potential. This concept involved the use of a parachute canopy and lines packed into a container worn on a body harness, and a manually operated ripcord yanked while falling freely through the air with no attachment to the aircraft was used to open the parachute. Floyd Smith, with Guy Ball closely at his side, worked to perfect this new revolutionary parachute. This parachute ultimately became the U.S. Air Service Airplane Parachute, type A. It had a 28-foot diameter silk canopy with silk suspension lines. The canopy was formed of 40 gores, with a novel shock-reducing vent design, and it was packed into a backpack container worn on the body of the flyer through the use of a webbing harness. A small pilot-chute was used to deploy the packed canopy and lines into the air when a pull on the ripcord opened the flaps on the back container worn on the body. Not having to be attached to the aircraft allowed the aviator to leave his disabled aircraft regardless of its position. It was capable of withstanding an opening shock delivered by 200 pounds falling at a speed of 400 miles per hour. When Major Hoffman felt that it was time for the Model A parachute to be live-jumped, he chose a young, enthusiastic parachutist and designer named Leslie L. Irvin because of his vast experience as a parachute jumper. Irvin had previously responded to the government’s call for a suitable parachute and had submitted a static-line operated parachute assembly with a cotton canopy. He was apprised that the submitted parachute was unsuitable because by that time the use of a silk canopy, as well as the ripcord concept, was considered preferable. Irvin continued to cooperate with the board by 12-18

Figure 12-21 — Ejection sequence. supplying parachute items. On 28 April 1919, flying in a USD-9 airplane piloted by Floyd Smith at an altitude of 1,500 feet and airspeed of 80 miles per hour, Irvin jumped from the turret cockpit wearing a prototype Model A chute. He pulled the ripcord, the parachute opened in 1.4 seconds, and he became the first man to make a free-fall parachute jump from an aircraft. The new parachute was the first step on the way to all modern personnel parachutes— emergency, military, and sporting. From this basic design came the seat pack, chest or reserve chutes, backpacks, and any other parachute that can be attached to a harness. In October 1922, Lieutenant Harold Harris, U.S. Army, was saved from death using a manually operated parachute when his aircraft failed. By March 1924, it became mandatory for all Army and Navy aircrew to wear the standard back-type parachute while in flight. A sign in one of the parachute lofts read, “Don’t forget your parachute. If you need it and you haven’t got it, you’ll never need it again.” With the requirement for all Navy aviators to wear parachutes came the necessity for trained personnel to pack and maintain these parachutes. In June 1922, the Bureau of Aeronautics requested volunteers from among the petty officers attached to the various naval air stations to take a course of instruction in parachutes at the Army School at Chanute Field, Rantoul, Illinois. Thirteen Chief Petty Officers were selected from throughout the Navy. They completed the course of instruction and returned to their duty stations. Three of them were selected for further training at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, at that time known as the Army Equipment Experimental Depot. The three chief petty officers received advanced training in parachutes. In August 1923, Chief Alva Starr and Chief Lyman Ford— two of the three—were ordered to Lakehurst, New Jersey, to set up a training course on parachutes. Although the course was established, the PR rate was not established until 1942. In September 1924, class No. 1 was convened at the Parachute Material School at Lakehurst to teach parachute rigging. Although his name is now lost to history, one of the farsighted founders of the PR school decided on a novel means to help combat the airmen’s reluctance to “hit the silk.” He reasoned that if the men who packed and repaired the parachutes had enough confidence in their ability and equipment to make a deliberate, premeditated jump, aviators might be more willing to trust his parachute over his crashing airplane. In the beginning, graduate trainees jumped from the outer wing tips of a biplane flying high above the naval air station at Lakehurst. Later, the students let go from short rope ladders suspended from the sides of the old gondola airships (blimps) and eventually from training and patrol- type lighter-than-air ships. Since the beginning of the PR school in 1924, there have been over 72,000 parachute jumps made at Lakehurst, New Jersey. With the coming of the jet age, the emergency use of parachutes has become a highly technical sequence. Today’s emergency sequence for ejecting from a disabled aircraft starts with the aircrewman making a decision to leave the aircraft. After that decision is made, everything is done automatically, as you will see in the ejection sequence for the A- 6 aircraft, shown in Figure 12-21. 12-19

Figure 12-22 — Aircraft egress, pilot chute deployed, and main canopy. This is only one of several types of ejection systems used in modern naval aircraft. For example, the ejection sequence of the MK GRU-7 is as follows: 1. Initial ejection. 2. Drogue gun fires. 3. Controller drogue deploys. 4. Stabilizer drogue deploys. 5. Main parachute deploys, and a normal parachute descent is made. The parachute has evolved from the experimental devices of the early Chinese through the seat ejection systems of today. Considering parachute evolution in light of continuing innovations in shuttle flight and other advanced aircraft, it appears that development to this point is just the beginning. A parachute appears somewhat similar to a giant umbrella. By offering a large air-resisting or drag surface, the parachute, when opened, provides the deceleration necessary to allow for the safe descent of an aircrewman. In each parachute jump a sequence of events takes place as shown in Figure 12-22. The parachutist clears the aircraft and then pulls the ripcord. The ripcord pins are removed from the locking cones, permitting the grommets to separate from the locking cones. The container spring opening bands pull the side and end flaps apart, allowing the pilot chute to spring beyond the negative pressure area immediately above the falling body. This results in its getting a better ―bite‖ on the surrounding air, thus speeding the opening of the canopy. The aircrewman falling away from the pilot chute causes the main canopy to be pulled from the container assembly, followed by the suspension lines. The canopy begins to fill with air during this operation. The ties on the risers break as the load is applied. The lift webs are then pulled from the container while the canopy fully opens; at this point the parachutist receives the opening shock as the parachute fills with air. The aircrewman then hangs or sits suspended in the harness during the descent. Many different types of parachutes are used in today’s naval aircraft. To really understand the operating principles of a parachute, you should first know the basic design and construction of a parachute and its components. 12-20

Figure 12-23 — The five major parts of a parachute. Figure 12-24 — Pilot chute. Components of Parachutes The design and construction of a parachute and its components are based on the idea that a chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Every component or link from the jumper to the canopy must carry its share of the maximum load that is applied during the opening shock. The five major parts of a standard service parachute, starting at the top and working down, are the pilot chute, main canopy, suspension lines, harness, and pack. These five major parts are shown in Figure 12-23. Pilot Chute The pilot chute has the job of anchoring itself in the airstream in order to pull the remaining packed components out of the parachute pack. The order of deployment for most parachute assemblies is the pilot chute, the canopy, the suspension lines, and the risers. A typical pilot chute is shown in Figure 12-24.

Canopies Six sizes of canopies are used in naval aviation. They are the 35-foot, 28-foot, 26-foot, 24-foot, 21- foot, and 17-foot sizes. The 28-foot canopy is the size dealt with in this chapter and is most commonly 12-21

Figure 12-25 — Suspension lines on a 28-foot canopy. Figure 12-26 — Close-up view of a gore. described as a polygon having 28 sides and a diameter of 28 feet ±1 inch. The 28-foot canopy contains approximately 796 square feet of nylon cloth plus 2,400 yards of nylon thread. The sewing on a parachute varies from 8 to 10 stitches per inch. The cloth that is used in the construction of a parachute canopy is high-tensile strength, 1.1 ounce ripstop nylon. Ripstop nylon cloth must meet the following minimum requirements: tensile strength (T/S) of 42 pounds per square inch, tear strength of 5 pounds, and air permeability of 80 to 100 cubic feet per minute. T/S is the greatest stress cloth can withstand along its length without rupturing, expressed as the number of pounds per square inch. Tear strength is the average force, expressed in pounds, required to continue a tear across either the filling or the warp of the cloth. Air permeability is the measured amount, in cubic feet, of the flow of air through a square foot of cloth in 1 minute under a specific pressure. The suspension lines are sewn into the canopy. These lines run continuously from the connector link on one side, through the canopy, and to the connector link on the other side (Figure 12-25). The material between any two suspension lines is called a gore (Figure 12-26). Suspension Lines The suspension lines form a net or skeleton for the canopy and absorb much of the shock load. Therefore, when being assembled, they must be placed under a 20-pound tension, marked, and cut as a group to 12-22

Figure 12-27 — Method of attaching suspension lines at the link. assure equal distribution of the shock load. The 28 suspension lines counted at the links are actually 14 lines that are 75 feet 4 inches in length. These lines run continuously from link to link; that is, each line is secured to a connector link on one side of the canopy and runs up and over the canopy and down to a link on the opposite side. Type III nylon suspension line (with a minimum T/S of 550 pounds) is used on all main canopies and vane-type pilot chutes. This line consists of a loosely woven outer covering called a sleeve and several strong inner cords called the core. This core provides the greater portion of the strength of the suspension line. The suspension lines are attached to the connector links by tying a clove hitch, then a half-hitch, and completing the attachment with 2 (+½ or - ¼) inches of zigza g stitching. These lines are attached to the lift webs with removable connector links. One of the four removable connector links is shown in Figure 12-27. To prevent the canopy on the 28-foot parachute from slipping along the suspension lines, each line is anchored by zigzag stitching at several points to the radial seams through which it passes. One-half inch of slack is allowed in the vicinity of the skirt between the zigzag sewing points to relieve the strain during opening shock. Parachute Containers The parachute container is designed to house and protect the pilot chute, main canopy, and suspension lines. There are as many different styles of containers as there are parachutes. They all have the same basic opening procedures. There are four flaps: top, bottom, left, and right. These flaps are held closed by two or four ripcord pins inserted through locking cones. To open the parachute container, the ripcord pins must be removed either manually or automatically. This allows the flaps to open and the pilot chute to spring from the pack. The pilot chute then pulls the canopy out. Parachute Harness The harness is the part of the parachute that holds the parachute to the wearer. It is designed to absorb the largest part of the opening shock and has chest, leg, and back straps added to prevent the 12-23

Figure 12-28 — Harness hardware. jumper from falling free from the chute on the way down. Personnel parachute harnesses are made of 1¾-inch-wide nylon webbing that has a T/S from 6,000 to 8,700 pounds. The Navy uses two types of harnesses. The first is the quick-fit harness. It is made in three configurations: seat-type, back-type, and chest-type. The other type of harness is the integrated torso harness. It combines the harness, lap belt, and shoulder harness into one integrated garment. This harness improves the individual’s comfort and mobility; it is more secure and easier to put on and take off. It also reduces the number of exposed straps and overall bulk and weight. Ripcord The ripcord is a manual releasing device used to allow the container to open. It consists of locking pins attached to a length of 3/32-inch diameter corrosion-resistant steel cable. The ripcord handles are made of steel tubing in the shape of a cloverleaf or a trapezoid, and they are attached by passing the cable through a small hole drilled in the grip and then swaging a retaining ball or clamping a small sleeve onto the loose end of the cable. The pins are swaged in place and tested to withstand a pull of 300 pounds. Harness Hardware Parachute harness fittings (hardware) are small metal devices usually made of cadmium or chrome-plated steel. They are designed to join the parachute and harness and to afford easy and rapid adjustment of the harness to the wearer. The many types of parachute harness fittings include adapters, snaps, D-rings, V- rings, connector links, and Koch release adapters. Some of the more common types of these fittings and their T/S’s are illustrated in Figure 12-28. Adapters Two types of adapters are used with a regular quick-fit type harness. They are the regular harness adapter and the friction adapter. The harness adjuster adapter is used to adjust the harness to the wearer, and the friction quick-fit adapter has a grip slide bar that allows the wearer to make quick adjustments to the harness. 12-24

Figure 12-29 — Koch release adapter. Snaps There are several types of snaps used with parachutes. They are the plain harness snap, the quick-fit snap, and the quick-connector snap. The harness snap is a plain hook-shaped, spring-actuated guard that snaps over a V-ring to secure two parts of the harness together. The quick-fit snap is similar except that it has a grip slide bar. The quick-connector snap is similar to the harness snap and is used as a means to quickly attach the Navy chest-type parachute to the two D-rings on the Navy chest-type harness. Connector Links Connector links are fittings designed to join the parachute to the harness. The suspension lines are attached to the connector link on one side, and on the other side of the connector link the harness is attached. Koch Release Adapters Integrated torso suit harnesses are equipped with four Koch release adapters that attach to the fittings on the lap belts and risers of the integrated parachute assembly. Release fitting adapters are manufactured in two parts: male and female. The male portion of the adapter is attached to the torso suit harness, and the female portion is attached to the riser assembly of the parachute. Figure 12-29 shows the Koch parachute release adapters. Parachute Systems The modern high-performance aircraft used by the Navy make extreme demands of emergency escape devices. The most critical time for ejection from an aircraft is at low altitudes, especially during takeoffs and landings. The ultimate goal that engineers have been trying to achieve in seat performance is to safely eject the occupant at zero airspeed and at zero altitude, at low altitudes under a high speed, or under other adverse altitude conditions. The system discussed in this chapter gives the aircrewman that zero airspeed and zero altitude ejection. A/P28S-32 Emergency Parachute A/P28S-32 emergency parachutes are integral to the SJU-17 series of Aircrew Automated Ejection Seat Escape Systems.

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Figure 12-30 — A/P28S-32 emergency parachute assembly. Figure 12-31 — A/P28S-32 multicolored emergency parachute assembly. Description The A/P28S-32 emergency parachute assembly (Figure 12-30) is composed of an aero-conical canopy, withdrawal line, deployment sleeve, suspension line stowage tray, and forward and aft risers. These items are packed into a metal rigid container closed by a lid assembly. The multicolored (white, international orange, olive green, and sand shade) nylon canopy inflates to a 21-foot diameter and consists of 20 gores (Figure 12-31). The canopy is stowed in a deployment sleeve, which is attached to a withdrawal line. The withdrawal line is connected to the parachute deployment rocket motor when the assembly is installed on the seat. The canopy has two Le-Moigne slots that control direction and forward velocity. The Le-Moigne slots are located 180 degrees apart in gores 6 and 16, and they are locked in the closed position to ensure the parachute descends vertically upon initial opening. Pulling down the two handles between the risers unlocks a toggle securing the Le-Moigne slots in the closed position. Once tension is released from the steering lines, the Le-Moigne slots open and provide forward drive to the canopy. To turn the canopy, the aircrewman pulls down on the appropriate steering line handle. Pulling down the left hand (LH) steering line handle will close the LH slot, turning the canopy left and vice versa. Pulling down both steering line handles simultaneously will close both slots, decreasing the forward velocity of the canopy. Connector links are used to attach the suspension lines to the risers. The other end of the riser assemblies connect to canopy release fittings that connect with the male fitting of the aircrewman’s parachute restraint harness. The canopy is packed into the deployment sleeve assembly, which is then packed into the rigid container. The 12-26

Figure 12-32 — MT-2XX/SL ram air parachute assembly. Figure 12-33 — Main deployment system (free fall configuration). rigid container attaches to the ejection seat and serves as a headrest for the aircrewman. When seated in the ejection seat, the aircrew connects the canopy release fittings on the risers to the fittings on the parachute restraint harness assembly. MT-2XX/SL Ram Air Parachute Description The MT-2XX/SL is a Ram Air Parachute Assembly with a seven-cell, 370-square-foot canopy used as both a main and reserve. The main parachute assembly is convertible to either free fall or static line configuration (Figure 12-32). Main Deployment System (Free Fall Configuration) The main parachute assembly consists of a pilot parachute connected by a bridle to the seven-cell ram air canopy. A free fall deployment bag is used to house the canopy and suspension lines (Figure 12-33). The free fall deployment bag is packed in the main parachute compartment of the pack/harness assembly with the riser assembly attached to the pack/harness assembly using a three-ring release sys tem. A cutaway handle can be used to actuate the three-ring release system, disengaging the riser assembly from the pack/harness assembly. There are two ways to actuate the main parachute assembly:  Manually by using the main ripcord  Automatically by the automatic ripcord release The main pilot parachute has a 6¾-inch diameter crown, a 32-inch spiral spring, and is covered with a combination of nylon fabric and nylon mesh fabric. A 1- inch loop at the bottom of the main pilot 12-27

Figure 12-34 — Main deployment system (static line configuration). parachute is used to connect a 62-inch bridle to the main canopy assembly. The free fall deployment bag measures 17 inches by 9¾ inches and is constructed of nylon cloth. A grommet in the top of the free fall deployment bag allows the bridle to pass through the bag and attach to the canopy. The free fall deployment bag has attachment points for elastic stowage bands, which are used to lock the bag closed and stow suspension lines. Main Deployment System (Static Line Configuration) The main parachute assembly consists of a drogue/slider control line that runs through grommets installed in the center of the canopy and attaches to the slider on one end and to the drogue parachute on the top end (Figure 12-34). The inner deployment bag is used to house the canopy and drogue/slider control line. The outer deployment bag is used to house the inner deployment bag and suspension lines. A 14-foot 8- inch static line and outer deployment bag is used for deployment from the aircraft. The outer deployment bag is packed in the main parachute compartment of the pack/harness assembly with the riser assembly attached to the pack/harness assembly using a three-ring release system. A cutaway handle can be used to actuate the three-ring release system, disenga ging the riser assembly from the pack/harness assembly. The main parachute may be deployed by static line only. The main parachute assembly is deployed by a static line anchored to the aircraft. The outer deployment bag measures 16¾ by 10 inches and is constructed of nylon cloth. A grommet on the top of the outer deployment bag allows the drogue parachute to be secured to the static line. The outer deployment bag has attachment points for elastic stowage bands, which are used to lock the bag closed and stow suspension lines. A 1-inch loop at the bottom of the drogue parachute is used to connect the drogue/slider control line. The inner deployment bag measures 17 by 10 inches and is constructed of cotton cloth. A grommet on the top of the inner deployment bag allows the drogue/slider control line to pass through the inner deployment bag, pass through the center cell grommets and inner and outer buffer tubes on the canopy, and attach to the slider loop with a No. 6 connector link. The inner deployment bag has attachment points for 2-inch elastic stowage bands, which are used to lock the inner deployment bag closed and stow the drogue/slider control line.

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Figure 12-35 — Main and reserve canopy assembly. Main Canopy Assembly The main canopy assembly consists of a rectangular canopy constructed of nylon fabric with heat-set, stabilized, braided polyester suspension and steering lines; a slider for reefing; and four barrel nut-style connector links (rapide links) for connection to the main risers. The ram air can opy is a wing. It has upper and lower surface panels connected by a series of ribs. This construction forms a rectangular-shaped canopy with seven dual openings at the leading edge known as cells. Each cell is identified numerically, 1 through 7, as shown in Figure 12-35. The cells allow ram air pressure between the upper and lower control surfaces, giving the canopy its shape and glide characteristics. All inner ribs have three crossports cut into them to allow spanwise air flow (the center rib has only two crossports). The outer ribs and alternating ribs through the canopy (eight in all) have load- distributing tapes and attachment loops for suspension line attachment. The suspension lines are connected to alternate ribs at four chordwise attachment points on each rib. The lines attached to the leading edge are identified as the A lines. The lines attached just aft of the A lines are the B lines, and so on to the D lines. The lines attached to the trailing edge are the steering lines. Each set of lines along each rib (A, B, C, and D) is identified numerically 1 through 8, as shown in Figure 12-36; e.g., 1A, 1B, 1C, and 1D. The center A and B lines are continuous (lines 4A, 4B, 5A, and 5B). They run directly from the fourth A line attachment point down to and around the front left connector link and up to the B line attachment point. The fifth A and B lines run from the fifth A line attachment point down to and around the front right connector link and up to the fifth B line attachment point. The remaining A lines are attached directly to one of the front two connector links. The B lines are cascaded to the associated A lines. The C lines run directly to one of the two rear connector links, and the D lines are cascaded to associated C lines. This method of construction reduces weight, volume, and aerodynamic drag. 12-29

Figure 12-36 — Main and reserve canopy assembly (lines). Figure 12-37 — Pack/harness assembly (back). Two steering lines attached at the risers by guide rings are used to maneuver the canopy. Each steering line is formed by attaching five cascaded lines from the trailing edge of the canopy into one main steering line. Each steering line then runs directly to the back of the rear riser. A stabilizer panel is attached to each outboard side of the canopy, and the first and eighth line sets descend from those stabilizer panels rather than directly from the canopy lower surface. Slider The slider shown in Figure 12- 36 is used for reefing; it is made of nylon fabric and measures 27 by 28 inches. All sides are reinforced with webbing. Four number eight grommets are installed at each corner. The slider has a loop attached to the center used as an attachment point for the drogue/slider control line. Connector Link Four number six, barrel nut-style connector links (rapide links) are used to connect the suspension lines to the risers. Each connector link has a rated tensile strength of 7,150 pounds. Pack/Harness Assembly The pack and harness assemblies (Figures

12-37 and 12-38) are integral parts of each other. The pack is divided into two compartments for the main and reserve parachute assemblies, while the harness provides attachment points for the main and reserve ripcords, main risers, cutaway handle, and accessory attachment rings. The pack, constructed of parapack cloth, provides an upper (reserve) and lower (main) compartment for stowing parachute assemblies. Protective covers are 12-30

Figure 12-39 — Riser assembly. provided for the main risers, an automatic ripcord release pocket is located on the right side of the container, and the dual-purpose CYPRES Spandex pouch is located inside the reserve container. The harness is constructed of nylon webbing and is an integral part of the pack. The harness includes eight adjustment points, two leg straps with quick-ejector snap hooks, an adjustable chest strap, an adjustable belly band, two diagonal straps, and two main slings. Two accessory attaching rings, one on each upper main sling, are used to accommodate the rucksacks, containers, and weapons. The reserve parachute assembly attaches to the reserve risers. The risers include guide rings and steering line keepers for the stowage of excess steering line. The right and left main slings serve as attachment locations for the main and reserve ripcord pockets and the cutaway handle. Also located on the main sling are the RW-1 rings, used for attaching the main riser assembly to the pack/harness assembly. The main ripcord assembly consists of a stainless steel braided cable with two locking pins. The cable is secured to a curved ripcord handle with two swaged balls. The reserve ripcord assembly consists of a stainless steel braided cable with two locking pins. The cable is secured to a curved ripcord handle with two swaged balls. The cutaway handle consists of a nylon-covered cushion grip, and two plastic-coated cables. A 4½-inch length of hook and pile fastener is sewn to the cushion grip to secure the grip to the main ripcord grip pocket. Main Riser Assembly The main riser assembly (Figure 12-39) is constructed of nylon webbing. Each riser strap is 36 inches in length. The bottom end of each riser incorporates two rings, a grommet, and a locking loop. A fluted channel is sewn to the back of the rear riser strap for stowing the cutaway cable. The back of the rear riser also incorporates steering line keepers for stowing excess steering line as well as steering line toggle keepers for stowage of steering line toggles. Figure 12-38 — Pack/harness assembly (front). 12-31

Figure 12-40 — Reserve deployment system. Figure 12-41 — MC-6 main parachute. Reserve Parachute Assembly The reserve parachute assembly consists of a seven-cell ram air canopy, identical to the main canopy. The canopy is attached to the reserve risers and is packed in the upper compartment of the pack/harness assembly (Figure 12-36). The reserve parachute assembly can be actuated by three methods:  Manually by using the reserve ripcord  Automatically by the reserve static line upon release of the main parachute after pulling the cutaway handle  Automatically by the Military CYPRES (2) Automatic Activation Device Reserve Deployment System The reserve pilot parachute (Figure 12-40) consists of a 5¾-inch diameter crown and a 19-inch spiral spring and is covered with a combination of nylon fabric and large-hole nylon mesh fabric. A 2-inch- wide by 18-foot bridle is attached to the reserve pilot parachute with a Lark’s head knot, and the opposite end is sewn to the reserve deployment bag. Bridle assistor pockets are sewn on bridle. The reserve deployment bag, constructed of nylon fabric, measures 12 by 16 inches. The mouth of the bag has a guide channel, safety stow loop, and grommets for locking the bag closed. The suspension lines are stowed in the suspension line stowage pocket. MC-6 Static Line Parachute System Description The MC-6 Static-Line Parachute System is a two-part parachute system that composed both the MC- 6 main parachute and the T-11 reserve parachute. The MC-6 parachute system weighs 42 pounds and is capable of supporting 400 pounds. In a typical mission, aircrew can drop from as low as 500 feet above ground level (AGL), and at aircraft speeds between 130 to 150 knots indicated airsp eed (KIAS). The MC-6 system includes a main canopy assembly, a reserve canopy assembly, pack trays, a harness assembly, risers, a deployment bag, and a universal static line. MC-6 Main Parachute The MC-6 main parachute (Figure 12-41) is located on the back of the parachutist. Depending on the jumper’s total weight and drop altitude, its rate 12-32

Figure 12-42 — Pack tray assembly. Figure 12-43 — Harness assembly. Figure 12-44 — Riser assembly. of decent is between 14.5 to 18.5 feet per second. The main parachute has a forward speed of 10 knots and can complete a 360-degree turn in 5 seconds. Main Canopy The MC-6 main canopy has a 32-foot nominal diameter and is constructed of low-permeability nylon parachute cloth. The canopy consists of 28 gores consisting of four panels per gore with the exception of the four extended gores, which consist of seven horizontal and two vertical panels. The four extended gores are located on gores 4-5, 6-7, 21-22, and 23-24. When the jumper pulls either the left or right control line toggle, it closes the extended gores, which redirects the airflow through the opposite extended gores to provide turning capability. Six opening vents located on the front canopy gores 9,11,13,15,17, and 19 prevent the front of the canopy from collapsing, improving the forward drive and stability of the canopy. Three drive vents located on rear of the canopy with mesh netting sewn into gores 2, 26, and 28 allow for positive airflow through the canopy, which provides the canopy with its forward drive. There are 28 suspension lines that are 21 feet in length, made with nylon cord, and connected to the connector links from the suspension line attaching loops on the anti- inversion netting. Pack Tray Assembly The pack tray assembly (20 x 14 x 14 inches) (Figure 12-42) is constructed of duck textured nylon fabric and uses four pack closing flaps with each flap containing one grommet. Harness Assembly The harness assembly (Figure 12-43) is made of nylon webbing and consists of right and left upper main lift web assemblies and the lower saddle assembly. Riser Assembly The MC-6 uses two riser assemblies (Figure 12-44) with a 12-33

Figure 12-45 — Deployment bag. Figure 12-46 — Universal static line. finished length of 30 inches and a tensile strength of 5,500 pounds. The male fitting is permanently attached to the riser assembly. When attached to the canopy, the riser assemblies provide four individual risers. Deployment Bag The MC-6 main parachute is packed in a deployment bag (Figure 12-45). The deployment bag is constructed of 8.2- ounce sateen cloth. Universal Static Line (USL) The main static line (Figure 12-46) is a modified 15-foot universal static line (USL) that contains a curved pin inside a protective cover. The USL extension is 5 feet long. The USL snap hook is attached to either the universal static line modifie d (with curved pin) or the USL extension. T he static line protective sleeve keeps the static line from getting damaged during deployment. T-11 Reserve Parachute The T-11 reserve parachute (Figure 12-47) has been adapted for use with the MC-6 Static-line Parachute System. The T-11 shape is designed to resist malfunctions and to open rapidly, providing the benefit of minimum altitude loss. The T-11 reserve parachute is a chest-mounted ripcord center-pull reserve parachute. In an emergency situation, the T-11 reserve parachute may be deployed with either hand. The T-11 reserve parachute provides a rate of decent of 14 to 18 feet per second. Because the T-11 reserve deploys with its lower lateral band even with the hem of the main parachute, the risk of air stealing by a malfunctioned main parachute is reduced. Tests have proven to be highly successful with the reserve controlling the descent, even with a fully inflated main parachute. The T-11 reserve parachute has a lightweight construction that allows the reserve to align with the airflow at low speeds. In the case of a low-speed malfunction, such as some main canopy damage, the reserve will rise and inflate faster. 12-34

Figure 12-47 — T-11 reserve parachute. Figure 12-48 — Parachute canopy assembly.

G-12 Cargo Parachute Description The G-12 cargo parachute is a heavy-capacity parachute designed for the delivery of bulk-type platform loads. The G-12 cargo parachute assembly weights 128 pounds and is capable of supporting 2,200 pounds. The G-12 cargo parachute was designed for deceleration and stabilization of bulky-type platform loads and can be used for delivering fragile items. The canopy (Figure 12-48) consists of a 64-foot diameter flat-circular nylon canopy. It consists of 64 gores with 8 sections per gore and 64 suspension lines. The gores and suspension lines are numbered clockwise when viewed from the canopy vent (Figure 12-49). Two riser assemblies, each composed of four suspension risers, terminate in two riser attaching loops connected to a suspension clevis. Each of the eight suspension risers is connected to eight suspension lines by connector links. The deployment bag is of the locking-closure type. It measures 24 inches wide by 36 inches deep by 10 inches high and is used for packing the G-12 parachute. 12-35

Figure 12-49 — Suspension line and gore arrangement and numbering. The G-12 parachute uses a 15-foot-long static line, a 68-inch diameter nylon pilot chute, and a 111- inch-long deployment line. LIFE PRESERVERS Life preservers are worn by aircrew members on overwater flights. Their function is to keep survivors afloat until a raft can be reached or a rescue team arrives. Proper inspection, maintenance, and handling of life preservers are necessary to prevent any possible malfunction that could result in the loss of life.

WARNING Never wear a life preserver under any garment. Always wear a life preserver as the outermost garment when flying. Wearing a life preserver under any item of clothing or equipment may cause serious injury or death. 12-36

Figure 12-50 — LPU-32/P life preserver assembly. LPU-32/P Life Preserver Assembly

Description The LPU-32/P life preserver assembly (Figure 12- 50) is authorized for use by passengers and troops in helicopter or transport-type aircraft for sea survival situations. It is designed such that one size fits all. The LPU-32/P life preserver assembly consists of a life preserver yoke assembly and additional survival items, each of which must be ordered separately to make up the complete system. The LPU-32/P life preserver Assembly weighs approximately 4 pounds and provides a minimum of 40 pounds of buoyancy. It consists of flotation assembly, two inflators, and a casing cover assembly, which includes the belt assembly and the survival items pouch. Donning or doffing does not require removing personal effects, such as helmets or eyeglasses. The dual-cell, yoke-type flotation assembly is constructed of a heat-sealed, polyurethane-coated nylon cloth. A fire-retardant, aramid cloth casing protects the bladder. It is equipped with an oral inflation tube, a check valve, and a manifold stem assembly. The waist belt assembly consists of an adjustable belt made of nylon webbing, a nylon slide (loop-loc), a tri-glide, and side release. A 12-inch locally manufactured extension belt is authorized for use with winter garments, battle-dressed troops, or larger passengers. The LPU-32/P life preserver inflation assembly consists of two Type II 16 gram CO2 cylinders and inflators. Each inflator is connected and secured to the valve stem on the flotation assembly with a cap nut; gaskets prevent leaking between valve stem, inflator, CO2 cylinder, and cap nut. The manifold stem is equipped with a check valve to prevent leakage. The survival items pouch consists of fire-retardant aramid cloth (same as the casing), two pull slide fasteners, and two grommets for securing survival items. The survival items include a sea-dye marker, a whistle, and a chemical light with attached lanyard. The LPU-32/P is the preferred passenger life preserver on Naval fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. WARNING The LPU-32/P life preserver is not suitable for use by small children in Naval aircraft. 12-37

Figure 12-51 — LPU-34/P life preserver assembly. The LPU-32/P is manually inflated by pulling both of the beaded handles down. Survival items shall only be used as required by an emergency. In an emergency situation, the oral inflation tube should be used to top-off an inflated preserver, maintain inflation of a leaky preserver, or inflate a preserver when the CO2-actuated inflator malfunctions or fails. The oral inflation tube is also used to inflate a preserver with air during an inspection test, to deflate a preserver in preparation for packing, or to relieve excess pressure. To don the LPU-32/P life preserver, proceed as follows: 1. Unfasten LPU-32/P all the way and place over head. 2. Fasten buckle and adjust belt. Passengers in winter garments, battle-dressed troops, or larger passengers may require the use of a locally manufactured extension belt. 3. For passengers issued the LPU-32/P incorporated with a vertical adjustment strap for use with outer tactical vest (OTV) or modular tactical vest (MTV), adjust the vertical waist belt strap so the waist belt is below the OTV or MTV. For passengers not wearing the OTV or MTV, the vertical adjustment strap should be adjusted so the waist belt sits at the waist. 4. Fasten all the way up. 5. Inflate the preserver by pulling both beaded handles down or by using oral inflation valves.

LPU-34/P Low-Profile Flotation Collar Description The LPU-34/P low-profile flotation collar (LPFC) life preserver, shown in Figure 12-51, is equipped with two manually operated inflation devices. The LPU-34/P is designed as a constant wear item for use with compatible flight clothing and other crew equipment. It weighs 3¼ pounds and provides a minimum of 65 pounds of buoyancy. The LPU-34/P consists of an exterior cover assembly, inflation shell assembly, and a flotation assembly. The flotation assembly consists of two independent inflatable bladders, each of which is equipped with a manual inflation device and an oral inflation valve. The bladders are packed in a black cloth inflation shell assembly. Four straps on the inflation shell assembly pass through grommets on the exterior cover assembly to attach the LPU-34/P to the survival vest. A beaded handle that connects to an inflation device by lanyard is mounted on each side of the exterior NOTE Donning does not require removing helmet or other personal effects. The LPU-32/P is designed to be worn either way; there is no front or back. NOTE Either slide fastener on survival items pouch may be used to remove survival items, as required. 12-38

Figure 12-52 — LPU-36/P life preserver assembly. cover to initiate inflation of the life preserver. Two additional straps adjust a plastic buckle, which snaps across the wearer’s chest to help keep the LPU-34/P in position when worn. The black cloth inflation shell assembly contains the two inflatable bladders. The design of the shell assembly provides the shape for the flotation collar. The inflation valve stem and oral inflation tube of each bladder extend through openings in the shell assembly. A manual inflation device is secured to each valve stem by a cap nut, which also serves as a cap for the valve stem. When installed, each inflation device and its CO2 cylinder are wrapped in a protective cover. The oral inflation valve tubes, which are provided as backup to CO2 cylinder inflation, are retained by inserting the top of each tube in retainer loops attached to the inflation shell assembly. The LPU-34/P LPFC is designated for use by aircrew personnel operating aircraft that are not equipped with ejection seat systems. It is designed for constant wear with compatible flight clothing and equipment. The LPU-34/P is inflated by pulling the beaded handles in a natural downward motion. Each beaded handle is connected by a lanyard to the actuating lever of an inflation device. Pulling the handles initiates slide fastener separation on the exterior cover and causes the CO2 cylinder to be punctured, inflating the bladders. The slide fastener on the exterior cover continues to separate as the bladders inflate to provide head-out-of-water buoyancy.

In an emergency situation, the oral inflation tubes may be used to top off the inflated bladders, maintain inflation in a leaky bladder, or inflate a bladder if an inflation device malfunctions. The oral inflation tube may also be used to inflate the bladders during an inspection test or to evacuate air to perform packing. LPU-36/P Low-Profile Flotation Collar Life Preserver Description The LPU-36/P low profile flotation Collar (LPFC) life preserver, shown in Figure 12-52, is designed as a constant wear item for use with survival vests and other aircrew equipment. The LPU-36/P weighs 3¼ pounds and provides a minimum of 65 pounds of buoyancy. There are no survival items attached to the life preserver, and it does not interfere with removal of a non-integrated parachute harness. The LPU-36/P consists of multiple components compactly packed into an exterior cover assembly. The flotation NOTE The exterior cover must be manually opened prior to attempting to inflate the bladders with the oral inflation tubes. WARNING The LPU-36/P life preserver contains an automatic inflation device and is configured for use only in aircraft with ejection seat systems. 12-39

Figure 12-53 — LRU-23/P life raft assembly. assembly consists of two independent inflatable bladders, each with an FLU-8 (series) automatic/manual inflator and an oral inflation valve. The bladders are packed inside a black cloth inflation shell assembly. Four straps on the inflation shell assembly pass through grommets on the exterior cover assembly to attach the LPU-36/P to the modified torso harness or survival vest. Two additional straps adjust a plastic buckle that snaps across the wearer’s chest to keep the LPU-36/P in position when worn. The primary method of initiating inflation is the manual mode, pulling both beaded handles in a natural downward motion. Each beaded handle is connected by a lanyard to the actuating lever of the inflator. Pulling the handles initiates slide fastener separation on the exterior cover and causes the CO2 cylinders to be punctured, inflating the bladders. The slide fastener securing the exterior cover continues to separate as the bladders inflate. LIFE RAFTS Naval aircraft that make operational flights over water are required to carry enough life rafts to carry all the assigned crew plus passengers. Life rafts are manufactured in various sizes and configurations to meet the demands of all types of aircraft. Pneumatic life rafts are compact assemblies that can be stowed in a small area. They should be stowed so they are easy to get to, preferably near an emergency exit. Never stow a life raft under other equipment or cargo or near batteries. Protect them from sources of heat, such as heaters, engines, auxiliary power units, and electronic tubes. If the aircraft flight manual designates a storage place for rafts, this space should be used. Whenever possible, stow rafts in the same places in all aircraft of the same model. This allows new crewmen to know the location of the rafts and thus avoid confusion in the event of a ditching situation. One-Man Life Rafts One-man life rafts are used with various soft and hard types of survival kits. They are intended for use by aircrew members forced down at sea. They can also be used when forced down over land for crossing rivers and streams, or as a shelter. LRU-23/P Life Raft Assembly The LRU-23/P life raft assembly (Figure 12-53) is intended for use by aircrew personnel and is 12-40

Figure 12-54 — LRU-29/P22P sealed life raft assembly. stowed in individual seat survival kits. The LRU-23/P is designed to accommodate one person and provides insulation against low air and water temperatures. The LRU-23/P is manufactured by RFD Ltd. and is supplied by Martin-Baker Ltd. The three main components of the life raft are the flotation chamber, the double-layer floor, and the double-layer canopy. The components are constructed of dark blue, single-ply, polyurethane-coated nylon fabric and assembled using radio frequency welding techniques. This type of fabric and construction reduces the weight and bulk of the life raft, enhancing its adaptability for use in seat survival kits. LRU-29/P22P-20 Sealed Life Raft Assembly The LRU-29/P22P-20 sealed life raft assembly (Figure 12-54) is a vacuum packaged LRU-16/P one- person life raft. The LRU-16/P raft is re-designated after vacuum packaging by the manufacturer of the A/P22P-20 crew backpack assembly. The life raft is constructed of blue-colored, polyurethane- coated nylon fabric that is assembled using radio frequency welding techniques. The life raft comes with an inflatable floor and weather shield for insulation from the elements. A FLU-10 zero-leak inflator is included. Multiplace Rafts Multiplace life rafts vary in size and in the quantity of equipment they carry. The Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) has established survival equipment lists as standards to be used by all concerned. These lists provide the equipment necessary for effective 24-hour survival capability. LRU-12/A Life Raft Assembly The LRU-12/A life raft assembly (Figure 12-55) consists of an inflation assembly (carbon dioxide cylinder and inflation valve) and a four-man raft. Two types of carbon dioxide cylinders and four types of inflation valves are approved for service use. The life raft is made up of a two-compartment main tube; an inflatable seat attached to the main tube; a non-inflatable floor attached to the bottom of the main tube and inflatable seat; and a sea anchor, which is used to retard drifting. A lifeline, a righting line, a supply pocket, and a combination supply pocket and bailer are attached to the main tube. 12-41

Figure 12-55 — LRU-12/A life raft assembly.

Boarding and righting handles are attached to the main tube and the floor. Emergency survival equipment and raft accessories, stowed in accessory containers, are provided for the safety and survival of the aircrewmen. The lifeline also provides a means for securing the accessory containers to the life raft. Topping-off valves are located on the main tube and inflatable seat. The LRU-12/A life raft assembly is inflated by pulling the inflation assembly actuating handle, located under the carrying case end flap. The LRU-12/A life raft assembly (raft compartment installation) is automatically inflated and ejected after the raft compartment door has been released. After boarding, the inflatable seat should be inflated through the topping-off valves with the hand pump provided in the accessory container. The LRU-12/A life raft assembly can either be dropped to survivors or used by aircrewmen in the event of an aircraft ditching emergency. The raft is stowed in a readily accessible area inside the aircraft fuselage on applicable aircraft. Survival items are intended to provide a means for sustaining life, for aiding escape and evasion, and for suitable detec tion capability. Survival items may be packed in life rafts, droppable kits, and kits intended to be carried or worn by the aircrewmen, or they may be individually carried. 12-42

Figure 12-56 — Multiplace life raft. With a few minor exceptions, the equipment and survival items carried in the LRU-12/A life raft assembly differ from those carried in other rafts mainly in the quantity carried. Multiplace Life Rafts (MPLRs), LRU-30A/A (8-Man), LRU-31A/A (12-Man), AND LRU-32A/A (20-Man) Description The mulitplace life rafts (MPLRs) are intended for use by aircrewmembers and passengers forced down at sea (Figure 12-56). The newly configured MPLR LRU-30A/A (8- man), LRU-31A/A (12- man), and LRU-32A/A (20-man) consist of the life raft in a polymer tub with a cover, and webbing straps with frangible links. The tub cover has a clear window for verifying the CO2 bottle charge. The frangible links are designed to break at 180 pounds of force as the life raft expands when actuated. The tub assembly is stowed in a container that incorporates protective skids on the bottom for horizontal storage and at the end opposite the inflation pull handle for vertical stowage. The container is custom fitted to the tub, streamlining the overall package. This new configuration functions exactly as the old vacuum-bagged version. Only the packaging of the life raft and container has changed; the life rafts themselves are unchanged. Multiplace life rafts are authorized for all rotary and fixed-wing transport aircraft. Selection shall be based on mission, available storage space, and total number of crew and passengers carried. Additional consideration shall be made for the life raft inspection cycle. The LRU-30A/A, LRU-31A/A, and LRU-32A/A are inflated by pulling the inflation pull handle attached to the actuation/mooring line. The actuation/mooring line has a snap-hook attached to the bitter end for attachment to the aircraft or the person(s) launching the life raft. The newly configured MPLR has a shortened stroke to actuate the life raft. Pulling the inflation pull handle will fully inflate the life raft, boarding ramps, and canopy. The survival equipment container is tethered to the life raft and should be retrieved after entering the life raft. 12-43

Demonstrating the Use of Rafts Many ditching and water crashes occur in a rough sea or at night. Only complete familiarization with the use of survival equipment will give the aircrewman a chance of surviving under such adverse conditions. Therefore, intensive drills in the use of rafts and their associated equipment are essential for safety. The survival officer must be concerned with survival techniques and should see that a survival training program is set up in the parachute loft. In most cases, the chief in charge of the loft has the responsibility of setting up this training. As a PR, you will have many occasions to participate in this training and, in many instances, may be completely responsible for the carrying out of the program. Regardless of who is in charge and must shoulder the complete responsibility, it is the duty of every PR to be completely familiar with all phases of survival training and to be able to demonstrate the use of survival equipment. The multiplace egress trainer is a very effective system of training in water survival techniques. It is used to simulate an actual aircraft ditching and to teach the best escape procedure with full equipment.

Although such complete courses of training cannot be conducted in certain localities because of the lack of specialized equipment, the PR should make every attempt to give aircrewmen frequent practice in the actual use of the equipment. Discussions, demonstrations, and shop lectures are all helpful, but working with the actual raft equipment is the only way to acquire the knowledge essential to survival. In demonstrating the rafts use, the most important thing to stress is that the retainer lanyard snap must be firmly attached to the ring on the life vest before the raft is inflated. Inflate the raft as soon as possible so that personnel can get out of the water. The raft is inflated by pulling on the short-length cable attached to the CO2 cylinder valve. After several hours, the CO2 cylinder may be removed from the side of the raft. It tends to chafe the side of the compartment and acts as an anchor, causing the raft to orbit around it. Sometimes it is possible to back off the coupling between the cylinder and the manifold so that the cylinder releases from the mount. Once the cylinder has been removed, it is no longer useful in any way and should be thrown over the side. This, of course, is under actual emergency conditions; in a training demonstration, the cylinder should be saved and recharged for further use on the training equipment. In demonstrating their use, also give instructions on manual inflation of rafts. If nothing happens after the CO2 cable has been pulled, the carrying case should be pulled off and the raft unfolded so that the hand pump will be accessible. After the pump is removed, the first compartment to be inflated should be the seat. This will help keep the raft afloat so that the remaining compartment can be inflated with the pump. In attaching the pump, you must take care not to screw the pump too tightly into the valve. If it is too tight, it may freeze and become impossible to loosen without some type of wrench or pliers. CAUTION The LRU-30A/A, LRU-31A/A, and LRU-32A/A are not designed to be air dropped. The search and rescue model manager will develop procedures for dropping the MPLR in emergency situations. These procedures will be published in NATOPS when completed. 12-44

Figure 12-53 — LRU-23/P life raft assembly. assembly consists of two independent inflatable bladders, each with an FLU-8 (series) automatic/manual inflator and an oral inflation valve. The bladders are packed inside a black cloth inflation shell assembly. Four straps on the inflation shell assembly pass through grommets on the exterior cover assembly to attach the LPU-36/P to the modified torso harness or survival vest. Two additional straps adjust a plastic buckle that snaps across the wearer’s chest to keep the LPU-36/P in position when worn. The primary method of initiating inflation is the manual mode, pulling both beaded handles in a natural downward motion. Each beaded handle is connected by a lanyard to the actuating lever of the inflator. Pulling the handles initiates slide fastener separation on the exterior cover and causes the CO2 cylinders to be punctured, inflating the bladders. The slide fastener securing the exterior cover continues to separate as the bladders inflate. LIFE RAFTS Naval aircraft that make operational flights over water are required to carry enough life rafts to carry all the assigned crew plus passengers. Life rafts are manufactured in various sizes and configurations to meet the demands of all types of aircraft. Pneumatic life rafts are compact assemblies that can be stowed in a small area. They should be stowed so they are easy to get to, preferably near an emergency exit. Never stow a life raft under other equipment or cargo or near batteries. Protect them from sources of heat, such as heaters, engines, auxiliary power units, and electronic tubes. If the aircraft flight manual designates a storage place for rafts, this space should be used. Whenever possible, stow rafts in the same places in all aircraft of the same model. This allows new crewmen to know the location of the rafts and thus avoid confusion in the event of a ditching situation. One-Man Life Rafts One-man life rafts are used with various soft and hard types of survival kits. They are intended for use by aircrew members forced down at sea. They can also be used when forced down over land for crossing rivers and streams, or as a shelter. LRU-23/P Life Raft Assembly The LRU-23/P life raft assembly (Figure 12-53) is intended for use by aircrew personnel and is 12-45

Ground/Air Emergency Code Card 12-46 Figure 12-59 — GND/Air emergency code card. T he ground/air (GND/AIR) emergency code card (Figure 12-59) contains aircraft distress signals, aircraft acknowledgments, display signals, and body signals. Use these signals if communications equipment is not operable, no communication equipment is available, or if radio silence is required. RESCUE AND SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT When an aircrewman has to leave his or her aircraft in a hostile environment, survival items provide a means of sustaining life, attracting the attention of rescuers, and evading the enemy. Survival items may be packed in life rafts, droppable kits, and kits intended to be carried or worn by the aircrewman. Many of the items that are frequently carried by the aircrewman are discussed in the following text. Signaling Equipment and Devices The following items are used to attract the attention of a rescue team. With the proper knowledge, ability, and caution, these items can provide invaluable assistance in a survival situation.

Figure 12-60 — Dye marker. Dye Marker The dye marker shown in Figure 12-60 is an aniline dye powder in a sealed container. When placed in the water, it produces a bright fluorescent green color. It is used to attract the attention of rescue aircraft. The dye is exhausted from the package in 20 to 30 minutes and ceases to be a good target after 1 hour. The dye-exposed water area is visible at an approximate distance of 10 miles from an altitude of 3,000 feet. If rapid dispersion of the dye is desired, agitate the packet of dye vigorously in the water. Signaling Mirror The emergency signaling mirror is approximately 3 by 5 inches and consists of an aluminized reflecting mirror and a sighting device (Figure 12-61). It is used by personnel in rafts or on land to attract the attention of passing aircraft or ships by reflection, either in sunlight or in hazy weather. The reflections of this shatterproof mirror can be seen at a distance 3 to 5 times as great as those from which a raft can be sighted at sea. On a clear sunny day, the mirror reflects the equivalent of 8 million candlepower. Flashes from the mirror have been seen from a distance of 40 miles. A smaller mirror, measuring 2 by 3 inches, is also used in some kits. Past experience indicates that personnel may have difficulty using the mirror in a bobbing raft at sea. Signaling practice with the mirror should be encouraged as part of the training program for flight crews. Such practice reduces the difficulty in case of emergencies. Before using the mirror, read the instructions printed on its back (Figure 12-61).

Figure 12-61 — Signaling mirror. 12-47

Figure 12-62 — MK 79, Mod 0 illumination signal kit. Mk 79, Mod 0 Illumination Signal Kit The Mk 79 signal kit is supplied with one pencil-type launcher (Mk 31), seven Mk 80 screw-in cartridges, and a bandolier for storing the flares until use. Protective caps should be used over the primers of the cartridges when the bandolier is not in use. Each cartridge flare has a minimum duration of 4½ seconds and can be propelled upward to a height of 250 to 650 feet. When the launcher is stored in the survival vest, it should be in the COCKED position and empty (Figure 12- 62). Mk 124, Mod 0 Signal Flare The Mk 124, Mod 0 signal flare is intended to attract the attention of SAR aircraft and give them drift direction. To avoid being burned by sparks, the user must ignite the Mk 124, Mod 0 signal at arm’s length and no more than shoulder high. If the Mk 124, Mod 0 signal is being used at sea, hold it over the side of the life raft to prevent damage to the life raft from hot residue. The Mk 124, Mod 0 signal may be put out by dousing in water or snuffing in sand. Refer to NAVAIR 11-15-7 for precautions, handling, and storage procedures. The Mk 124, Mod 0 consists of an aluminum cylinder approximately 5 inches long and 1½ inches in diameter (Figure 12-63).

Figure 12-63 — MK 124, Mod 0 marine smoke and illumination signal. 12-48

Figure 12-64 — SDU-39/N distress light. Figure 12-65 — Medical first aid kits. SDU-39/N Distress Light The SDU-39/N light equips aircrew members and shipboard personnel with a high-intensity visual distress signal. The infrared filter and blue flash guard are used in conjunction with the SDU-39/N light for signaling purposes in combat areas (Figure 12-64). The SDU-39/N is commonly called a strobe light. It emits a high-intensity flashing light. This light is visible for great distances at night. The aircrewman should perform a daily inspection to ensure that the light is operative. The calendar inspection consists of activating the light for 2 minutes. If the light does not operate at 50 flashes per minute (±10 flashes) for the 2-minute duration, replace the battery. Repeat the procedure; if the light still does not operate, remove the light from service. You must perform this test both in total darkness and also in a lighted area. You should store the batteries for the SDU-39/N light in a cold area or refrigerator to prolong service life and dependability. To avoid accidental activation causing possible night blindness to the crewman, install the SDU-39/N light in the survival vest with the dome down and a protective cap installed over the switch. General Purpose Medical First Aid Kits Description Medical first aid kits provide first aid tre atment of common injuries and illnesses encountered in an aviation survival environment. They are intended for emergency use only and not to supplant usual sources of routine medical care. Medical first aid kits are intended for us e when medical assistance is required as a result of injury or infection. There are two types of medical first aid kits (Figure 12-65):  General purpose: aircraft panel mounted  Rigid case: for life rafts 12-49

Figure 12-66 — IFAK minor first aid kit. Figure 12-67 — IFAK pouch. Individual First Aid Kit (IFAK) The individual first aid kit (IFAK) provides first aid treatment of common injuries and has the capability to treat major injuries encountered in an aviation emergency survival environment. The IFAK is used for emergency use only and does not replace usual sources of routine medical care.

The IFAK is used to supplement the current panel-mounted first aid kit, it is not a replacement. It shall be mounted to the aircraft in accordance with applicable technical directives. The IFAK has two inserts: 1. A minor first aid kit ( Figure 12-66) is a Ziploc-type bag containing: 10 each bandage, adhesive; 1 each dressing, burn; 1 each providone-iodine solution; 1 bottle water purification tablets; 2 each bandage, gauze triangular; 5 each bandage adhesive (2x4). 2. A trauma insert is a vacuumed sealed pouch containing: 2 each bandage elastic (vacuumed sealed); 2 rolls bandage gauze (vacuumed sealed); 1 each tourniquet, one-handed; 2 each combat gauze (rolled or Z-folded). 3. The inserts are contained in a single tan-colored pouch (NIIN 01-539-2734) (Figure 12-67). WARNING Aircrew personnel shall be trained on the use of the IFAK trauma components by qualified medical personnel, and training will be documented in NATOPS. Training for Marine Corps aircrew personnel shall be in accordance with USMC Training and Education Command (TECOM). 12-50

Individual Aircrewman’s Survival Kit (SRU-31/P) The complete SRU-31/P kit consists of two parts. The first packet contains medical items that an aircrewman might need in an emergency situation. The local medical department has responsibility for the medical items that are contained in packet number one. Packet number two contains general survival items. They are also intended to be used only in an emergency situation. Packet one and packet two are contained in a carrying bag. Each packet can be replaced individually. Each item within a packet is packed in a transparent bag that is hermetically sealed and retained in place by means of hook-and-pile tape. Additional adhesive-backed discs of hook-and-pile tape are contained in the spare pocket of each container. Medical Packet The following items are contained in the medical packet of the SRU-31/P kit:  Soap—n on-perfumed, intended to avoid detection  Instruction card—provides general condensed instructions on use of survival items  Anti-diarrhea tablets—dosage rates listed on instruction card (expiration date of 4 years)  Pain killer (aspirin)— expiration date listed on foil packet; replace as required; dosage rate listed on instruction card  Surgical tape—ensure the package is intact and its sterile seal not damaged  Eye ointment—expiration date of 2 years  Water purification tablets— manufacturer’s date and applicable instructions listed on bottle  Bandage (elastic)— ensure package is intact and its sterile seal not damaged  Bandages (adhesive)  Insect repellent General Packet The following items are contained in the general packet of the SRU kit:  Metal matches— may cause spontaneous ignition through oxidation; should remain in its original sealed container (foil wrapped) until ready for use; all metal matches in polyethylene and open packets must be removed from service and discarded in a fireproof container  Mirror— signaling mirror described at the beginning of this chapter  Water bag— 1-quart capacity (belt loops provided for convenient carrying)  Signal panel— silver/orange paulin, imprinted with the ground-to-air emergency code (may also be used as a blanket for protection against unfavorable weather)  Mosquito headnet and mittens— provided for protection against insect bites  Chiclets— multi-flavored gum, designed to relieve tension  Multi-flavored candy— service shelf life is indefinite The packet also contains surgical tape, a water receptacle, wrist compass, razor knife, tweezers, and pins. 12-51

Figure 12-68 — Rations. Figure 12-69 — Bagged drinking water. Rations The rations carried by aircrew personnel are not intended for subsistence but as a source of quick energy when no other food is available. The food packet contains two packets of candy and gum, twine, and an instruction sheet. When you inspect any item that contains these rations, you should remove and replace any food packet that is older than 6½ years (Figure 12-68). Bagged Drinking Water Bagged drinking water, shown in Figure 12-69, is intended for use in emergencies when no other clean water is available. One bag of water supports a survivor for about 1 day. Bagged drinking water contains 4 ounces of drinking water and may be carried in this ready-to-use state. Bagged drinking water should be inspected upon issue and at intervals to coincide with the inspection schedule of the kit or assembly. Helicopter Rescue Devices The helicopter’s ability to land and take off in a small area and to hover over a spot lends itself very effectively to rescue work. A helicopter may make a rescue by employing one of three methods. The first is by hovering, the second by landing, and the third by making a low, slow pass with the rescue device hanging near ground level. The last is used mainly in hostile areas when the helicopter pilot does not wish to present the aircraft or the survivor as a stationary target for enemy gunners. The most common helicopter pickup by far is made by hovering.

CAUTION A static charge of electricity is built up in the helicopter and must be dissipated by grounding. Do NOT touch the rescue device until after it has contacted the ground or water to permit the discharge of static electricity and prevent electrical shock. 12-52

Research, development, testing, and evaluation of air rescue devices have been continuous since the helicopter became the primary rescue vehicle. The various types of rescue devices, their functions, and associated maintenance procedures are discussed in the sections that follow. All helicopter rescue devices must be scheduled into periodic maintenance under the direction and control of the maintenance/material control officer to which the equipment is assigned. Maintenance must be thorough at all times. No instance of careless treatment or willful neglect of aircrew personal protective equipment will be tolerated. The vital function of the equipment must be uppermost in the minds of all personnel concerned. Individual paralofts normally store and maintain all helicopter rescue devices, and checkout is on an individual basis. Because of the lack of individual identification of the rescue devices, it is impossible to match the Aviation Crew Systems History Card to the rescue device. All rescue devices should be locally serialized by individual paralofts to ensure positive control of inspection cycles performed on helicopter rescue devices. Rescue Strop The rescue strop (also known as the” horse collar” and rescue sling) is used to assist personnel performing rescue work from a helicopter over water or land. It is constructed with an international orange nylon casing, a retaining strap, stainless steel hardware, and closed-cell foam (Figure 12-70). The rescue sling is lowered on a hoist cable from a helicopter to the rescue swimmer and survivor. The sling is designed to accommodate one survivor at a time. Rescue Seat The rescue seat is a buoyant aluminum device consisting of a hollow flotation chamber and a three- pronged seat with prongs 120 degrees apart (Figure 12-71).

Figure 12-70 — Rescue strop. Figure 12-71 — Helicopter rescue seat. 12-53

Figure 12-72 — Rescue net. Figure 12-73 — TRISTAR harness assembly. Lead is inserted in the base of the assembly to minimize roll and to provide the proper degree of submergence of the seat in the water. A safety strap is provided to assist the survivor in remaining in the seat during hoisting to the helicopter. The flotation chamber and hoist bracket of the seat are bright orange. The lower seat assembly is yellow for high visibility. The helicopter rescue seat is intended for use in retrieving survivors and assisting the rescue swimmer in performing rescue operations when it is difficult to make a helicopter landing over land or water. During a rescue, the helicopter rescue seat is lowered on a hoist cable from a helicopter to the rescue swimmer and survivor. The rescue seat is designed to accommodate one person at a time.

Rescue Net The rescue net looks like a conically shaped birdcage with an opening on one side. The net weighs approximately 20 pounds and is bright orange for high visibility. To stabilize the net during use, a sea anchor is provided. A 10-foot sea anchor retaining line with two single snap hooks is also provided. One halyard snap hook permits complete removal of the sea anchor from the net, while the other snap hook permits shortening of the sea anchor to 5 feet to be used in moderate seas. During high seas, the 10-foot retainer line is used. The rescue net has a snap lock lower frame and three upper support ribs with sliding sleeves that form a rigid cage when the net is fully extended. Foam plastic floats are provided on the rigid upper frame of the net (Figure 12-72). The rescue net is used to assist the rescue swimmer performing rescue work from a helicopter over water or land. The rescue net may also be used to ferry or pick up cargo. TRISAR Harness Assembly The TRISAR harness, shown in Figure 12- 73, provides a slightly reclined seated position for rescuers that allow them total WARNING The sea anchor must not be used when personnel are hoisted out of the water. 12-54

Figure 12-74 — Rescue hook. Figure 12-75 — Hoist quick-splice plate. use of their hands. The flotation vest provides a minimum of 35 pounds of buoyancy. The flotation vest accommodates all required survival items and is available in five sizes. Rescue Hook The rescue hook consists of one large hook, an adjacent small hook, and a ring located at the bottom of both hooks. A bearing assembly is attached to the upper section, allowing the hook to rotate freely about its axis. The large hook supports 3,000 pound and is used to hoist personnel. The smaller hook supports 1,000 pounds and is used to hoist equipment. The ring at the bottom supports 1,500 pounds and is also used to hoist miscellaneous equipment. Both hooks have a spring-loaded latch to prevent inadvertent release of personnel or equipment (Figure 12-74). The rescue hook is attached to the hoist cable and is used to assist rescue personnel in performing rescue operations from a helicopter. The rescue hook can hoist personnel and/or equipment during both sea and land helicopter rescues. Hoist Quick-Splice Plate The hoist quick-splice plate is made of ¼-inch aluminum, 6⅝ inches in length, and 3 inches wide with the corners rounded off. The holes are grooved in places where the hoist cable rests and are beveled to prevent cable kink under load. A stainless steel clip, 1/32 inch thick, is attached to the plate with two 5/32-inch steel rivets. A rescue hook is attached to the plate with thimbles, swaging sleeve, and a length of hoist cable. The distance between the rescue hook and the plate is 6 inches (Figure 12-75). The hoist quick-splice plate is used when the hoist cable is cut or broken during a rescue operation. It is used when time is a factor and no other means are available for rescue. Cable Grip The cable grip (that opens and closes on the cable) and a shackle enable the cable grip to be attached to the crewman‘s safety belt to take the weight off the hoist assembly during a hoist failure. The cable grip is capable of supporting 1,000 pounds (Figure 12-76). The cable grip is an emergency condition device used by personnel performing rescue operations from a helicopter when the rescue hoist has a malfunction that renders the hoist inoperable. The cable grip is used for quick, temporary attachment to the hoist cable.

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Figure 12-76 — Cable grip. Pneumatic Rescue Hand Tool The pneumatic rescue hand tool is a cartridge-operated device. A chamber within the handle secures a 3,000 psi nitrogen gas cylinder that provides a very powerful force against the cutting blade. The case is made of nylon webbing, 12½ inches long and 5¾ inches wide at the top, tapering to 3¼ inches wide at the bottom. A 46-inch lanyard and baby swivel hook attached to the upper grommet are designed to attach to the pneumatic rescue hand tool (Figure 12-77). The pneumatic rescue hand tool is designed for the helicopter rescue crewman to use during air/sea rescue operations. The pneumatic rescue hand tool gives the crewman a readily available cable cutter and parachute harness webbing cutter. The tool can cut single strands of stainless steel cable up to 7/32 inch in diameter, as well as harness webbing of thickness up to and including ¼ inch and widths up to 1¾ inch, in single cuts. The pneumatic rescue hand tool, complete with case, should be readily available to the rescue crewman during rescue operations. Helicopter Rescue Equipment Bag The helicopter rescue equipment bag (P/Ns 261 and 1682AS100-1), also referred to as SAR bag or SAR curtain (Figure 12-78), is made of heavy -duty lightweight international orange denier nylon with labeled pockets for storage of rescue equipment. It can be folded or hung vertically with the equipment installed. When the rescue equipment is stowed in the SAR bag, it is used to assist the SAR crewman in the performance of his or her duties during the SAR mission. Each item of rescue equipment is stowed in a designated pocket of the SAR bag for easy access.

Figure 12-77 — Pneumatic rescue hand tool. Figure 12-78 — Helicopter rescue equipment bag. 12-56

End of Chapter 12 Aircrew Survival Equipment Review Questions 12-1. Flyer’s boots come in which of the following size ranges?

A. 4 narrow through 14½ extra wide B. 5½ wide through 13 regular C. 5½ narrow through 15½ narrow D. 6 regular through 16 wide

12-2. The CWU-62/P anti-exposure coverall is supplied in how many sizes?

A. 9 B. 10 C. 11 D. 12

12-3. What type of garment provides protection from the effects of high g-forces experienced by aircrew assigned to high-performance aircraft?

A. Anti-exposure B. Anti-g C. Survival vest D. Torso harness

12-4. Who was the first person credited for successfully jumping from an aircraft using a parachute?

A. Jodaki Kuparen to B. Albert Berry C. Arnold Appleby D. Andre-Jacques Garnerin

12-5. When did it become mandatory for all Army and Navy aircrew to wear the standard back-type parachute while in flight?

A. 1918 B. 1919

C. 1922 D. 1924

12-6. How much does the LPU-34/P series life preserver weigh, in pounds?

A. 3 B. 3¼ C. 4 D. 4½

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12-7. The LPU-34/P series life preserver has how many inflatable bladders?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

12-8. What is the buoyancy rating, in pounds, of a properly inflated LPU-32/P life preserver?

A. 32 B. 40 C. 50 D. 65

12-9. After how long does a dye marker cease to be a good target?

A. 1 hour B. 10 to 15 mi nutes C. 20 to 30 minutes D. 30 to 50 minutes

12-10. How far, in miles, can the dye marker be seen from an altitude of 3,000 feet?

A. 5 B. 8 C. 3 D. 10

12-11. What amount of candlepower is equivalent to the light a signaling mirror can produce?

A. 6 million B. 8 million C. 10 million D. 11 million

12-12. How many Mk 80 cartridges are in an Mk 79, Mod 0 signal kit?

A. 7 B. 8 C. 10 D. 12

12-13. How many feet can the Mk 80 signal flare travel when propelled upward?

A. 100 to 350 B. 150 to 40 0 C. 250 to 65 0 D. 350 to 750

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12-14. Each cartridge flare has a minimum duration of how many seconds?

A. 2½ B. 4½ C. 5¼ D. 6¼

12-15. For each 2-minute duration, how many times per minute is the SDU-39/N required to flash? A. 20 ±5 B. 30 ±10 C. 40 ±5 D. 50 ±10

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Figure 13-1 — Requirements for combustion. CHAPTER 13 CRASH RESCUE AND FIREFIGHTING Firefighting is a highly technical profession. Firefighting in and around crashed aircraft is a highly specialized field of firefighting. An individual willing to become a firefighter must possess the following qu alities: alertness, courage, dedication, agility, physical strength, and the ability to be an exacting team worker. The primary duty of the firefighter is saving life. If there is a fire aboard an aircraft with ordnance on board, there is potential for loss of life. If an ordnance cookoff occurred, the top priority would be to cool off the ordnance, while simultaneously laying a personnel rescue path and extinguishing the fire. During frequent drills and training sessions, it is important for you to actually use all equipment, extinguishing agents, and tools so you will learn their capabilities and limitations. LEARNING OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 1. Identify the four elements necessary to produce fire and recognize the characteristics associated with the different classes of fires. 2. Describe the characteristics of the different extinguishing agents. 3. Exp lain the various systems and equipment used for aircraft firefighting on board ships and shore activities. 4. Recognize the types of firefighting and rescue vehicles. 5. Identify the different hazards associated with aircraft fires and recognize aircraft fluid line identification markings. 6. State the various firefighting techniques based upon the existing emergency conditions. THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE Fire is the most common form of chemical reaction. The process of fire may be regarded as a chemical triangle (Figure 13-1). The three sides consist of fuel (combustible matter), heat, and oxygen. After extensive research, the presence of a fourth element has been identified. It is the chemical chain reaction (Figure 13-2) that takes place in a fire that allows the fire to both sustain itself and grow. This process of fire is now called the "fire tetrahedron." See Figure 13-3. The most common method of controlling or extinguishing a fire is to eliminate one or more of the sides of the tetrahedron. This can be accomplished by the following methods.  Smothering —removing the oxygen  Cooling —removing the heat  Starving —removing the fuel or combustible matter 13-1

Figure 13-2 — Chain reaction. Figure 13-3 — Fire tetrahedron and triangle. Two terms you need to understand about fires are the fire point and the flash point. The fire point of a substance is the lowest temperature at which its vapors can be ignited and will continue to burn. At this temperature, the vapor will ignite spontaneously in the air. Also, substances do not have to be heated to this ignition temperature throughout in order to ignite. The flash point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance gives off enough vapors to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the substance's surface. An ignitable mixture is a mixture within the explosive range. The mixture is capable of spreading a flame away from the source of ignition when ignited. For example, fuel will spontaneously ignite when a portion of it (or its vapors) is exposed to temperatures around 500 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (ignition temperature). It is capable of being touched off by a match or spark at temperatures down to -5 °F (fire point). It will also flash across the surface at temperatures from −5 °F down to −45 °F (flash point). From these examples, you can readily see that fuel has a low flash point and is easily ignited. Fuel is a constant fire hazard around aircraft. A spark, heat caused by friction, or an electrical discharge can supply enough heat to cause fuel to flash. Classes of Fire Different types of fires are combated by different means. It is important that you know how to identify the various types of fires and understand why each type must be combated in a specific way. 13-2

Class A Class A fires occur in combustible materials, such as bedding, mattresses, books, cloth, and any matter that produces an ash. All fires of this class leave embers, which are likely to rekindle if air comes in contact with them. Class A fires must not be considered extinguished until the entire mass has been cooled below its ignition temperature. Smothering (removing the oxygen) is not effective for class A fires because it does not lower the temperature of the smoldering embers below the surface. The extinguishing agents most effective for class A fires are solid water stream, both high- and low- velocity fog, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water immersion. Class B Class B fires occur with flammable liquid substances, such as gasoline, jet fuels, paints, grease, and any petroleum-based product. These and other combustible substances do not leave embers or ashes. Class B fires are extinguished by providing a barrier between the burning substance and oxygen necessary for combustion. Chemical and mechanical foams produce such a barrier and are known as permanent smothering agents, but their effect is only temporary. The application must be renewed if there is any danger of reigniting. The extinguishing agents recommended for combating class B fires are CO2, Purple-K-Powder (PKP), Halon 1211, and aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF).

Class C Class C fires are energized electrical fires that are attacked at prescribed distances by using nonconductive agents such as CO2 and Halon 1211. The most effective tactic is to de-energize the system and handle the fire as a class A fire. When fires are not deep seated, clean agents that pose no cleanup problem, such as Halon 1211 or CO2, are the preferred extinguishing agents.

Class D Class D fires occur with combustible metals, such as magnesium and titanium. Water in large quantities, such as high velocity fog, is the recommended extinguishing agent. When water is applied to burning class D materials, there may be small explosions. The firefighter should apply water from a safe distance or from behind shelter. Metal fires on board ships are commonly associated with aircraft wheel structures. EXTINGUISHING AGENTS Many materials may be used as firefighting agents. The primary agents discussed in the following paragraphs are the most extensively used aboard naval ships. Water Water is a cooling agent (Figure 13-4), and on board ship, the sea provides an inexhaustible supply. If the surface temperature of a fire can be lowered below the fuel's ignition temperature, the fire will NOTE Water by itself is NOT recommended for use on class B fires. WARNING Water in any form, particularly salt water, is dangerous when used on electrical equipment. 13-3

Figure 13-4 — Water. Figure 13-5 — AFFF. Figure 13-6 — CO2. be extinguished. Water is most efficient when it absorbs enough heat to raise its temperature to 212 °F (100 degrees Celsius [°C]) or boiling point. At this temperature, the seawater will absorb still more heat until it changes to steam. The steam carries away the heat, which cools the surface temperature. Water in the form of fog is very effective for firefighting purposes. Additionally, water fog can provide protection to firefighters from heat. However, the fog must be applied directly to the area to be cooled if its benefits are to be realized. Water in the form of a straight stream (also called solid stream) is used to reach into smoke-filled spaces or areas at a distance from the firefighter. When a straight stream is needed as an extinguishing agent, it should be directed into the seat of the fire. For maximum cooling, the water must come in direct contact with the burning material. A straight stream is best used to break up and penetrate materials. Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) AFFF is composed of synthetically produced materials similar to liquid detergents. These film-forming agents are capable of forming water solution films on the surface of flammable liquids (Figure 13-5). AFFF concentrate is nontoxic and biodegradable in diluted form. When proportioned with water, AFFF provides three fire-extinguishing advantages. 1. An aqueous film is formed on the surface of the fuel that prevents the escape of the fuel vapors. 2. The layer effectively excludes oxygen from the fuel surface. 3. The water content of the foam provides a cooling effect. The primary use of AFFF is to extinguish burning flammable or combustible liquid spill fires (class B). AFFF has excellent penetrating characteristics and is superior to water in extinguishing class A fires. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) CO2 is an inert gas and extinguishes fires by smothering them (Figure 13-6). CO2 is about 13-4

Figure 13-7 — Halon 1211. Figure 13-8 — PKP. 1.5 times heavier than air, which makes it a suitable extinguishing agent because it tends to settle and blanket the fire. CO2 is a dry, noncorrosive gas, which is inert when in contact with most substances and will not leave a residue or damage machinery or electrical equipment. CO2 is a nonconductor of electricity regardless of voltage and can be safely used in fighting fires that would present the hazard of electric shock. CO2 extinguishes the fire by diluting and displacing its oxygen supply. If gaseous CO2 is directed into a fire so that sufficient oxygen to support combustion is no longer available, the flames will die out. CO2 has limited cooling capabilities and may not cool the fuel below its ignition temperature. It is more likely than other extinguishing agents to allow reflash. Therefore, the firefighter must remember to stand by with additional backup extinguishers.

Halon 1211 Halon is a halogenated hydrocarbon (Figure 13-7). Halon 1211, known chemically as bromochlorodifluoromethane, is colorless and has a sweet smell. Halon attacks the fire by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction. Halon decomposes upon contact with flames or hot surfaces above 900 °F (482 °C). Halon 1211 is used for twin agent (AFFF/Halon 1211) applications on board flight and hangar deck mobile firefighting equipment. For flight and hangar deck firefighting procedures, you should refer to NATOPS, U.S. Navy Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Manual, NAVAIR 00-80R-14. Potassium Bicarbonate (Purple-K- Powder or PKP) Potassium bicarbonate (PKP) is a dry chemical principally used as a firefighting agent for flammable liquid fires (Figure 13-8). When PKP is applied to fire, the dry chemical extinguishes the flame by breaking the combustion chain. PKP does not have cooling capabilities on fire. PKP is highly effective in extinguishing flammable liquid (class B) fires. Although PKP can be used on electrical (class C) fires, it will leave a residue that may be hard to NOTE CO2 is not an effective extinguishing agent for fires in materials that produce their own oxygen supply, such as aircraft parachute flares, or fires involving reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium. 13-5

Figure 13-9 — Typical firehose station. clean. Also, when combined with moisture, it may corrode or stain the surfaces on which it settles. PKP does not produce a lasting inert atmosphere above the surface of a flammable liquid. Therefore, its use will not result in permanent extinguishing if ignition sources, such as hot metal surfaces or persistent electrical arcing, are present. Reflash of the fire will most likely occur. The ingredients used in PKP are nontoxic. However, the discharge of large quantities may cause temporary breathing difficulty and, immediately after the discharge, may seriously interfere with visibility. FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT In assisting the crash firefighters, you will use very specialized equipment. A crash crew must bring its equipment into action with every pump nozzle delivering at its maximum capacity. Firefighting equipment is discussed in the following paragraphs. Firemain System You must get acquainted with the firemain system throughout your ship. You should know the location of the firemain and the riser piping that carries water to the upper decks. You must be able to identify the plugs where hoses can be attached to the mains. You must know the location of all pumps, valves, and controls in the vicinity of your duty and berthing stations. Fireplugs have outlets either 1 1/2 or 2 1/2 inches in diameter. Some plugs are equipped with wye gates that provide two outlets, each 1 1/2 inches in size. In some cases, a reducing connection is used so that a 1 1/2-inch hose can be attached to a 2 1/2-inch outlet. Connected to the fireplugs and stored in adjacent racks are two lengths of either 1 1/2- or 2 1/2-inch diameter hose. The 1 1/2-inch hose is used on smaller ships and below decks on larger ships. This hose is made up in 50-foot lengths, with the necessary end couplings. All threaded parts of firehose fittings and couplings have standard threads and are easy to connect. Hoses and fittings 1 1/2 inches and below have standard pipe threads. Those 2 1/2 inches and over have standard Navy hose threads. Two people working together can quickly prepare a firehose. You can do the job alone if you place the hose on the deck and hold it down with your foot just behind the fitting. The pressure of your foot will cause the metal fitting on the end of the hose to point upward. In this position you can screw in the nozzle or other fitting. Firehose is usually located on a bulkhead rack near a fireplug. Nozzles, extensions called applicators, and spanner wrenches are stowed on the bulkhead near the hose See Figure 1 3-9. When two lines are located separately on the bulkhead, one is connected to the firemain and the other is left unconnected. 13-6

Figure 13-10 —AFFF hose reel. High-Capacity AFFF Systems An AFFF station consists of a 600-gallon AFFF concentrate tank, a single-speed injection pump or a two-speed AFFF pump, electrical controllers, valves, and necessary piping. Saltwater and AFFF flow is controlled by hydraulically operated valves, which are actuated by solenoid-operated pilot valves (SOPVs). The SOPVs are activated by electrical switches at user locations Primary Flight (Pri-Fly), Navigational Bridge (NAVBRIDGE), hose stations, and conflagration (CON-FLAG) stations. The injection pump system supplies the flush eck nozzles on the flight deck, and the deck edge nozzles on Carrier Vessel Nuclear (CVNs). The two-speed pump operates at 27 or 65 gallons per minute (gpm), depending upon the demand. The low-rate output will supply handlines and small sprinkler systems. High-demand systems, such as hangar bay sprinklers, are served by the high- speed output. On selected CVs, the two-speed pump supplies the deck edge nozzles. Hangar Deck AFFF Sprinkler System The AFFF sprinkler systems are installed in the overhead of the hangar deck. The sprinkler system is divided into groups that can be individually actuated. Each group is supplied from two risers— one from a port AFFF injection station and one from a starboard AFFF injection station. Controls to start and stop flow to individual sprinkler groups are located in the CONFLAG stations and along each side of the hangar deck near the related sprinkler group. Flight Deck AFFF Extinguishing System Flight decks have an AFFF firefighting system that consists of flush-deck, flush-deck cannon-type, and deck-edge nozzles installed in combination with the saltwater washdown system. AFFF from the concentrate tank is injected into the saltwater (injection point is on the 03 level just downstream of the saltwater control valve) via a positive displacement pump, usually 60 gpm. This injection pump serves the flush-deck and cannon-type nozzles. Deck edge nozzles may be served by the AFFF two-speed pump system or single-speed injection pump system. Controls for the flight deck fixed fire-extinguishing system are located in both Pri-Fly and on the NAVB RIDGE. The controls allow for selection of saltwater AFFF or system shutdown. AFFF Hose Reel Station Hangar bay AFFF hose outlets are located port and starboard near the AFFF injection stations from which they are supplied. A push-button control is located adjacent to each AFFF hose station. The station has a 1 1/2-inch hose reel and one 2 1/2- inch hose outlet (Figure 13-10). Flight deck AFFF hose outlets are located in catwalks and near the island. The station has one reel of 1 1/2-inch hose and/or one 2 1/2-inch hose outlet or two 2 1/2-inch hose outlets with hose and nozzle preconnected to each outlet. A push-button control, X50J phone circuit box, and E call button are located next to each AFFF hose station. There is emergency lighting at each hose reel station. The controls are located in Pri-Fly and on the NAVB RIDGE.

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Figure 13-11 — Variable-stream fog nozzle. Figure 13-12 — Crash and rescue toolkit. Portable Firefighting Equipment As you become more familiar with aircraft firefighting tactics and equipment, you will become more familiar with the many different types of portable equipment that the firefighter uses to combat and contain aircraft fires. Some of the equipment you will use is discussed in this section. Vari-Nozzles Vari-nozzles are used on all AFFF and saltwater hose lines. Flow rates are 250 gpm for all 2 1/2-inch hose lines. Nozzles on 1 1/2-inch AFFF hoses on flight and hangar decks are the 125-gpm units. Nozzles on the 1 1/2-inch saltwater lines and those used with AFFF in-line inductors are 95-gpm models. All nozzle gpm flow rates are based on 100-pounds per square inch (psi) pressure at the nozzle inlet. See Figure 13-11. Hoses The standard Navy firehose is a double-jacketed, synthetic fiber with a rubber or similar elastomeric lining. The outer jacket is impregnated to increase wear resistance. The impregnating material contains an orange-colored pigmentation for easy identification. Navy firehose comes in 50-foot lengths and has a maximum operating pressure of 270 psi. Optimum hose handling occurs between 90 and 150 psi. Pressure above 150 psi is hazardous because excessive nozzle reaction force may result in loss of nozzle control. Noncollapsible rubber hose for the AFFF hose reel system is available in 3/4-inch and 1 1/2-inch size. The length of these hoses varies in size depending upon application and location. Tools A firefighter's toolkit should contain the following tools:  Large claw tool; small claw tool  Crowbar  Parachute knife  Pliers; screwdriver  Wrench  Hacksaw; metal saw  Chisels  Flashlight  Carpenter's hammer; maul  Bolt cutters  Notched ax Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIRSYSCOM) developed what is called an aircraft toolkit (Figure 13-12) for crash trucks. The station fire chief must ensure that one of these kits is carried on each of 13-8

the crash trucks assigned to the firefighting crew. The kit consists of a canvas tool roll with pockets or holders for specified tools. The crash kit contains tools for forced entry. Firefighters use these tools in rescuing occupants trapped in aircraft. The kit contains three tapered, hard-rubber plugs and three hardwood plugs. These plugs are used to stop fuel tank leaks. Protective Clothing Aircraft firefighting/rescue protective clothing is a prime safety consideration for personnel engaged in firefighting and rescue work. Aluminized protective clothing offers protection to fire fighters because of its high percentage of reflectivity to radiant heat. Aluminized proximity fabrics have been adopted for use in the Navy Mishap/Rescue Program. It is important to point out that these garments are not classified as entry suits, but are known as proximity clothing to be worn with firefighters’ knee-length boots that have safety toes and soles. Care and Maintenance of Protective Clothing The heat-reflective ability of aluminized clothing is reduced when the clothing is stained or otherwise soiled. Therefore, you must give careful attention to the care and maintenance instructions for protective clothing. Some guidelines are as follows:  Store clothing on hangers with suitable hanging space to prevent aluminized fabrics from creasing or cracking. If the garment is folded, the folds should be loose. Do not sit on a folded garment.  Sponge off dirt and soot by using mild soap and water. Dry aluminum surfaces with a clean cloth. Rub gently to avoid removal of the aluminum.  Remove grease stains by using dry-cleaning solvents. Remove AFFF by sponging the clothing clean with mild soap and water. Hang the garment to dry in the open or in a place with good circulation. During firefighting operations, it is not always possible to prevent firefighting agents from getting on protective clothing. However, aluminized protective clothing that has been covered or spotted with agents will have less heat-reflecting ability than the suit normally would provide.

 Corrosive chemicals will react with the aluminum surface and may etch the metal. Clean the clothing with water and wipe it dry. Allow it to hang in a ventilated location at room temperature.  Replace garments when the aluminum wears off or when the fabric cracks or tears. Spraying worn clothing with aluminum serves no useful purpose and is a dangerous practice. Care of Facepiece The gold-coated facepiece is a heat-reflective shield. The facepiece is NOT a sun shield. This item should be kept in excellent condition to maintain the radiant-heat-reflective efficiency. When the gold surface of the facepiece becomes worn, scratched, or marred, 90 percent of the heat protection is lost, and you should immediately replace the facepiece. Other precautions you should take with facepieces are as follows: NOTE Isopropanol or perchloroethylene will react with the metal in proximity suits and may etch the aluminum surface. Clean the clothing with water and wipe dry. Allow the garment to hang in a ventilated location at room temperature. 13-9

Figure 13-13 — T-3000 aircraft firefighting rescue vehicle.  Keep the protective cover in place when you are carrying or storing the hood to minimize damage to the gold-coated surface. Remove it when using the hood.  For adequate protection, replace a worn gold-coated facepiece. When wearing the facepiece, make sure the gold surface is on the outside as marked on the edge.  Avoid touching or wiping the gold surface as much as possibl e.  Clean the facepiece, without removing it from the hood, by using a clean, soft cloth with mild soapy water, and then rinse and pat dry. AIRCRAFT FIREFIGHTING AND RESCUE VEHICLES The Navy uses different types of trucks. The use depends on the base, type of aircraft assigned, and anticipated types of fires. Some of the trucks used by the Navy are the Oshkosh T-3000 firefighting/rescue vehicle, and the P-25 shipboard firefighting truck. Oshkosh T-3000 The Oshkosh T-3000 (Figure 13-13) is a diesel-powered, six- wheel-drive truck with an automatic transmission. The operator controls consist of power-assisted steering, air or mechanical brakes, transmission range selector, and in-cab controls for operating the firefighting system. The water storage tank has a capacity of 3,000 the AFFF concentrate tank holds 420 gallons. The roof turret has a discharge rate of 600 to 1,200 gpm and an infinitely variable pattern from straight stream to fully dispersed. The bumper turret is electric joystick controlled with auto-oscillation. The discharge rate is 300 gpm, and it is also variable pattern. Two 15-feet, 1 3/4-inch preconnected handlines are provided, one per side. The handlines have a discharge rate of 95 gpm and have a pistol grip with variable pattern. A/S32P-25 Shipboard Firefighting Vehicle The P-25 shipboard firefighting vehicle (Figure 13-14) is a 4-wheel (2-wheel drive), 6-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, 24-volt, diesel-powered vehicle, with a hydrostatic drive system that transm its power to the rear wheels. Steering is performed by a single hydraulic cylinder and tie rod assembly that controls the front wheels. Dynamic vehicle braking is provided by the hydrostatic drive system. When the accelerator is released, the brakes automatically engage. Separate tanks within the vehicle chassis carry 750 gallons of water and 55 gallons of AFFF. Three 20-pound fire extinguishers containing Halon 1211 are stored on the right side of the vehicle. One nursing line 13-10

Figure 13-14 — A/S32P-25 shipboard firefighting and rescue vehicle. connection on each side of the vehicle provides AFFF mixture from the ship's system directly to the vehicle's water pump. The vehicle has seating for a crew of two. The driver compartment is located at the left forward end of the vehicle and contains the main control panel for activating the firefighting systems. AFFF can be sprayed from both the forward turret nozzle and handline hose reel nozzle. These nozzles operate independently and can be used simultaneously to make this vehicle ready for firefighting duty. AIRCRAFT FIRE HAZARDS Not every crash results in fire. The responsibility of the crash firefighter does not end when fire fails to occur. Serious actual and potential fire hazards may have been created, which you must eliminate or minimize without delay. The greater the damage to the aircraft is, the greater the possibility of fuel spillage. A spark or a hot engine part can ignite fuel vapors and set off a full-fledged fire. You should take every precaution to guard against accidental ignition. Personal laxity or unfamiliarity with ordinary preventive measures can allow a delayed fire to occur, which can endanger personnel. Flammable, Hazardous, and Fire-Accelerating Materials Accelerating materials carried on aircraft are of major concern to the aircraft rescue and firefighting crews. Aviation gasoline (AVGAS), jet fuels (JP-4, JP-5, and JP-8), engine oils, oxygen systems, and hydraulic fluids constitute problems in aircraft firefighting. Some of these fuels have restrictions as to where they can be used; for example, JP-4 is prohibited aboard ship due to its flash point.

Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS) The flash point (by closed cup method at sea level) of AVGAS is −50 °F (-−46 °C). The rate of flame spread has also been calculated to be between 700 and 800 feet per minute. CAUTION Under aircraft crash impact conditions where fuel-air mixtures or mists are created, all fuels are easily ignited. 13-11

JP-4 Fuel JP-4 jet fuel is a blend of gasoline and kerosene and has a flash point of−10 °F (−23 °C). The rate of flame spread has also been calculated to be between 700 and 800 feet per minute. JP-5 Fuel JP-5 fuel is a kerosene grade with a flash point of 140 °F (60 °C). The rate of flame spread has been calcula ted to be approximately 100 feet per minute. The lowest flash point considered safe for use aboard naval vessels is 140 °F (60 °C). Fuel Tanks When an aircraft crashes, the impact usually ruptures the fuel lines and fuel tanks. Ordinarily, all the fuel is not liberated at once. There is a source of fuel that is supplying the fire either from the rupture in the tank or from the loosened and ruptured fuel lines in the accessory section of the engine. The control of the fire around the fuselage section under these conditions presents a very complex problem. The top portion of the tank is more void of liquid than any other section of the tank. Because of the restraining cushion of the liquid itself, the explosive force will be directed upward instead of downward or on a horizontal plane. Fuel loads can vary from 30 gallons in small aircraft to approximately 50,000 gallons in large jet aircraft. Fuel tanks are installed in a variety of places within the aircraft structural framework or as a built-in part of the wing. Fuel tanks are often carried under the floor area in the fuselage of helicopters. You should refer to NATOPS, U.S. Navy Aircraft Emergency Rescue Information Manual, NAVAIR 00-80R-14-1, for the exact location of fuel tanks on a particular aircraft. Upon severe impact these tanks generally rupture and result in fire. Many naval aircraft are provided with external auxiliary fuel tanks located under the wings and fuselages. The aircraft manufacturers conducted a number of tests on external aircraft fuel tanks in which they were exposed to an enveloping fuel fire. These studies show that there were no deflagrations; however, the tanks did melt or rupture, releasing fuel onto the decks. The time to fuel tank failure (release of fuel) was dependent on the percent of fuel in the tank and ranged from 28 seconds for a 10-percent load to 3 1/2 minutes for a 100-percent load. There is so little difference in the heat of combustion of the various aircraft hydrocarbon fuels that the severity after ignition would be of no significance from the "fire safety" point of view. The firefighting and control measures are the same for the entire group of aviation hydrocarbon fuels. Oxygen Systems Oxygen systems on aircraft can present hazardous conditions to firefighters during an emergency. Liquid oxygen is a light blue liquid that flows like water and is extremely cold. It boils into gaseous oxygen at −297 °F (−147 °C) and has an expansion rate of approximately 860 to 1. Liquid oxygen is a strong oxidizer, and although it is nonflammable, it vigorously supports combustion. General Hazards During aircraft firefighting operations, personnel are constantly in harm’s way, from the actual firefighting operations to the salvage and cleanup operations. All components and material in or on the aircraft are considered hazardous to personnel. The following paragraphs discuss a few of the hazards that personnel need to be familiar with. 13-12

Anti-Icing Fluids Anti-icing fluids are usually a mixture of about 85-percent alcohol and 15-percent glycerin. While not as great as other aircraft hazards, you should remember that alcohol used in aircraft anti-icing systems burns with an almost invisible flame. The best method of control is by dilution with water. Class A Combustibles Class A combustibles in aircraft fires are best extinguished with AFFF. When aircraft cockpit and interior finish materials are burned or charred, they produce toxic gases. These gases include carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen cyanide. Therefore, it is necessary that firefighting and rescue personnel who enter an aircraft during a fire sequence be equipped with a self-contained breathing apparatus. Ordnance

Naval aircraft carry a wide variety of ordnance in support of their assigned missions. For more information on the characteristics and cookoff times of ordnance, refer to Chapter 8 of this manual and NATOPS, U.S. Navy Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Manual, NAVAIR 00-80R-14, Chapter 2. Flare Dispensers The SUU-44/SUU-25 flare dispensers carry eight Mk 45 or LUU-2 paraflares. When the flares are ejected from the dispenser and the tray separates, they must be considered fully armed. Once the tray separates from the flare, it ignites a fuse on the Mk 45 flare, which will fire within 5 to 30 seconds. The LUU-2 flare uses a simple mechanical timer instead of an explosive fuse. If ignited, the Mk 45 or LUU-2 candle should be extinguished by inserting a water applicator tip into the burning end of the candle, applying low-velocity fog. The flare will normally extinguish in less than 30 seconds. If a fog applicator is not readily available, an alternate method is to have a fully outfitted firefighter cut the shroud lines, pick up the flare by the cold end, and jettison it over the side or remove it to a clear area if ashore. Batteries Alkaline or nickel-cadmium batteries may get hot from internal shorting or thermal runaway. The overheated battery is hazardous to both aircraft and personnel. When an overheated battery is detected, the crash crew should open the battery compartment, check for the following conditions, and take the action indicated:

 When flame is present, use available extinguishing agent, such as Halon 1211 or CO 2.  When the battery is emitting smoke, fumes, or electrolyte in the absence of flame or fire, make sure the battery switch in the cockpit is in the OFF position. Remove the quick disconnect from the battery and, if possible, move the battery clear of the aircraft. Use water fog to lower the battery temperature. WARNING Halon 1211 or CO2 is an acceptable fire-extinguishing agent once a fire has developed. CO2 must not be directed into a battery compartment to effect cooling or to displace explosive gases. Static electricity generated by the discharge of the extinguisher could explode hydrogen or oxygen gases trapped in the battery compartment. 13-13

Composite Materials The following paragraphs discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using composite materials in aircraft construction.

Composite Materials Reinforced with Carbon/Graphite Fibers Composite materials that are reinforced with carbon/graphite fibers provide superior stiffness, a high strength-to-weight ratio, and ease of fabrication. As a result, this material is being used extensively in advanced aircraft, such as the F/A-18, to replace heavier metal components. Unfortunately, carbon or graphite fibers can be released into the atmosphere if their epoxy binder burns. Once free, these small, lightweight fibers can be transported up to several miles by air currents and, because of their high electrical conductivity, can damage unprotected electrical/electronic equipment. Until such time as more information is known, aircraft crash and firefighting units must attempt to extinguish fires involving carbon-fiber-reinforced composites as quickly as possible and to provide maximum containment of the aircraft debris. The containment and cleanup function is extremely important and must be treated as a special hazard prevention measure. Accordingly, the practices for extinguishing, containment, and cleanup, as stated in the NATOPS, U.S. Navy Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Manual, NAVAIR 00-80R-14, should be observed when an aircraft crash/fire incident occurs that involves any aircraft that contain carbon-graphite fiber composites. Any aircraft incident involving fire on these types of aircraft must be considered to have potential contamination hazards until positively identified to the contrary. Composite Materials Reinforced with Boron/Tungsten Fibers Composite materials reinforced with boron fibers also provide superior stiffness, a high strength-to- weight ratio, and ease of fabrication. This material is being used in advanced aircraft, such as the F/A-18 and F-35, to replace heavier metal components. Unfortunately, boron fibers can be released if their epoxy binder burns. Boron fibers pose less of a problem to unprotected electrical equipment than carbon or graphite fibers because boron fibers are much heavier and are less likely to become airborne. Also, boron fibers are much less electrically conductive. However, loose boron fibers are stiff and sharp and thus pose handling problems. The extinguishing, containment, and cleanup practices for boron fibers are the same as those previously outlined for carbon or graphite fibers. WARNING When approaching a battery that is in a thermal runaway condition, aircraft rescue and firefighting personnel must work in teams of two and must be attired in full protective clothing, with extinguishing agent available for instant use. WARNING Inhalation of composite fibers resulting from aircraft fires and/or aircraft material damage may be harmful to personnel. Respiratory protection must be worn when personnel are exposed to these potential hazards. 13-14

Aircraft Fire and Personnel Hazards Not every crash results in fire. The responsibility of the crash firefighter does not end when fire fails to occur. Serious actual and potential fire hazards may have been created, which must be eliminated or minimized without delay. The greater the damage to the aircraft is, the greater the possibility of fuel spillage. A spark or a hot engine part can ignite fuel vapors and set off a full-fledged fire. You must take all precautions to prevent accidental ignition. Personal laxity or unfamiliarity with ordinary preventive measures can cause a delayed fire, which can endanger personnel who would otherwise survive a disaster. Engine Accessory Section The most common source of crash fires is the engine compartment, particularly the accessory section. Take steps to prevent ignition of fuel vapors by hot exhaust stacks and collector rings. CO2 discharged through the cooling flaps, air scoop, or inspection doors is an effective precaution. CO2 will cause no damage to the engine or its accessories. Fuel Spills Fuel spills can be caused by ruptured fuel lines. These spills should be swept clear of the aircraft. Use water streams and follow up with a layer of foam to halt vaporization. An aircraft should NEVER be dragged or moved unnecessarily. There is great danger that friction will ignite the fuel. Selector Valve You should know the location of the fuel selector valve on as many types of aircraft as possible. In single-engine aircraft, this valve is usually found on the lower left-hand side of the cockpit. In multiengine aircraft, fuel selector valves for all engines are usually found on one panel. Turn the valve to OFF. It is the primary fuel cutoff valve. The valve is used to select various fuel tanks. In the OFF position, the valve completely separates the source of fuel from the engine. Battery Switch Turn the battery switch to OFF. This is the master electrical switch. It is the source of all power to the aircraft electrical system when the engine(s) are not running. Memorize the location of battery switches so you can turn the power off rapidly in emergencies. Disconnect the battery, if possible, as detonators and electrical recognition devices are connected ahead of the master switch. Turning the s witch off will not stop the flow of current to these devices.

Armament Turn gun switches to OFF so there is no chance of firing a gun accidentally. This is one of the first actions taken by firefighters to prevent fire at the crash scene. CAUTION When fighting a fire on an aircraft known to have loaded guns aboard, stay out of the area forward of the guns. If rockets or bombs are in the aircraft, stay clear of them, keep low to the deck, and keep the bombs or rockets cool with water fog or fog foam until they are declared safe. 13-15

Figure 13-15 — Fluid line identification application. Ejection Seat The ejection seat is not normally a fire hazard if fire is not already present. The ejection seat should be disarmed or made safe by qualified personnel. The greatest danger from an ejection seat comes during rescue operations when fire is present. Hydraulic System The hydraulic system of a crashed aircraft should be considered a potential hazard. The loss of hydraulic fluid/pressure can cause an unexpected movement of the aircraft. The landing gear can collapse or brakes can release, causing injury to personnel. Fluid Line Identification Many different types of liquids and gases are required for the operation of aircraft. These liquids and gases are transmitted through many feet of tubing and flexible hose. Both liquids and gases are called fluids, and tubing and flexible hose are referred to as lines. The term "fluid lines" is used in the following discussion. Each fluid line in an aircraft is identified by bands of paint or strips of tape around the line near each fitting. These identifying markers are applied at least once in each compartment. Various other information is also applied to the lines. In most instances, lines are marked by the use of tape or decals. On lines 4 inches and larger in diameter, steel tags may be used in place of tape or decals. On lines in engine compartments, where there is a possibility of tapes, decals, or tags being drawn into the engine intake, paint is usually used. Identification tape codes indicate the function, contents, hazards, direction of flow, and pressure in the fluid line. These tapes are applied according to MIL-STD- 1247. This military s tandard was issued to standardize fluid line identification throughout the Department of Defense. Figure 13-15 shows the application of these tapes as specified by this standard. The function of a line is identified by the use of a tape. The tape, approximately 1-inch wide, has words, colors, and geometric symbols printed on it. Functional identification markings, as shown in MIL-STD-1247, are the subject of international standardization agreement. The function of the line is printed in English across the colored portion of the tape. Three-fourths of the total width on the left side of the tape has a code color. Non-English-speaking people can troubleshoot or maintain the aircraft if they know the color code. The right-hand quarter of the functional identification tape contains a geometric symbol that is different for every function. This symbol ensures that all technicians, whether colorblind or non- English-speaking will be able to identify the line function. Figure 13-16 is a listing of functions and their associated colors and identification markings as used on tapes. Hazard tape shows the hazard associated with the contents of the line. Tapes used to show hazards are approximately 1/2-inch wide, with the abbreviation of the hazard associated with the fluid in the 13-16

line printed across the tape. There are four general classes of hazards found in connection with fluid lines (Table 13-1). Flammable material (FLAM) The hazard marking FLAM is used to identify all materials known as flammables or combustibles. Toxic and poisonous materials (TOXIC) A line identified by the word TOXIC contains materials that are extremely hazardous to life or health. Anesthetics and harmful materials (AAHM) AAHM identifies all materials that produce anesthetic vapors and all liquid chemicals and compounds that are hazardous to life and property. Physically dangerous materials (PHDAN) PHDAN identifies a line that carries material that is asphyxiating in confined areas or is under a dangerous physical state of pressure or temperature. For example, the line shown in Figure 13-15 is marked PHDAN because the compressed air is under a pressure of 3,000 psi.

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Figure 13-16 — Functional identification tape data.

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Table 13-1 — Hazards Associated with Various Fluids and Gases AIRCRAFT FIREFIGHTING TACTICS Aircraft firefighting, crash, and rescue techniques are well defined, but no two fire situations will be identical. Success will continue to depend on training, planning, leadership, and teamwork by both ship's company and air wing personnel. Supervisory personnel, fire parties, and squadron personnel should take advantage of every opportunity to drill and acquire knowledge of fixed and mobile firefighting equipment available to them. All personnel should become familiar with aircraft configuration, fuel load, weapons load, and firefighting techniques of assigned aircraft. The following paragraphs discuss procedures recommended for training purposes.

Accessory Section, Compressor Compartment, or Engine Compartment of Jet Fixed-Wing and Rotary-Wing Aircraft Fires in the accessory section, compressor compartment, or engine compartment of jet aircraft result from fuel being introduced into the area between the engine and fuselage, or between the engine and nacelle on engines carried in pods that come into contact with the heat generated by the engine. You must be familiar with these areas to be able to properly apply extinguishing agents. (For more CONTENTS HAZARD Air (under pressure) PHDAN Alcohol FLAM Carbon dioxide PHDAN Freon PHDAN Gaseous oxygen PHDAN Liquid nitrogen PHDAN Liquid oxygen PHDAN Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) FLAM Nitrogen gas PHDAN Oils and greases FLAM JP-4 FLAM Trichloroethylene AAHM CAUTION When AFFF is used as the fire suppression agent on an aircraft fire and the agent is directed at or ingested into the engine or accessory sections, the fire chief or senior fire official must notify the maintenance officer of the unit involved or, in the case of a transient aircraft, the supporting facility. 13-19

information, refer to NATOPS, U.S. Navy Aircraft Emergency Rescue Information Manual, NAVAIR 00-80R-14-1.) Halon 1211 or CO2 is the extinguishing agent used on these fires. However, when a fire in an aircraft cannot be extinguished with Halon 1211 or CO2, the use of AFFF to prevent further damage outweighs the disadvantages. Internal Engine Fires Internal engine fires usually result when residual fuel is dumped into the engine on shutdown. When starting equipment and qualified starting personnel are immediately available, these fires may be controlled by windmilling the engine. If this procedure fails or if the equipment and personnel are not available, an extinguishing agent must be directed into the engine. Halon 1211 or CO2 is the primary agent for internal fires. Application of Halon 1211 or CO2 must be accomplished at a distance so that the Halon 1211 or CO2 enters the fire area in gaseous form.

Aircraft Engine Fires Use the following procedures for extinguishing fires in high bypass turbofan engines: 1. Engine accessory section fire.  Halon 1211 or CO 2 may be introduced into the engine accessory section area through the access doors located on the aircraft engine cowling.  When the fire is under control, one firefighter in full protective clothing (hot suit) will open the engine cowling. An AFFF handline should be used to provide fire protection to the firefighter.

2. Engine fire in compressor section engine core.  Halon 1211 or CO 2 may be introduced into the engine intake, exhaust, or accessory section. CAUTION When CO2 or Halon 1211 is expelled directly into an engine, thermal shock may result, causing engine damage. High bypass turbofan engines require unique techniques to extinguish engine core fires. CAUTION The source of this fire will probably be burning titanium and can be identified by the sparking effect of this material when it is burning. This fire is potentially destructive and may possibly burn through the engine casing if immediate fire suppression measures are not taken. NOTE A screwdriver may be required to open the engine cowling due to the restrictions of proximity gloves. 13-20

 When the fire is under control, one firefighter in full protective clothing (hot suit) will open the engine cowling. An AFFF handline should be used to provide fire protection to the firefighter.  When the engine cowling is open, apply AFFF to both sides of the engine casing to complete extinguishing and provide additional cooling. Electrical and Electronic Equipment Fires In combating electrical fires, you must secure the source of electrical power. For combating class C fires, Halon 1211 or CO2 is the primary agent and should have no adverse effect on electrical or electronic components.

Tailpipe Fires When a fire occurs in the tailpipe of an aircraft during shutdown, the aircraft engine should be started by authorized personnel in order to attempt extinguishing through exhaust pressures. If this operation does not extinguish the fire, the following should be performed by the crash crew. 1. Direct fire-extinguishing agents Halon 1211 or CO2 into the tailpipe. 2. If fire is not extinguished by the above method, direct the stream of extinguisher agent into the intake duct.

Hot Brakes During a normal or an emergency landing, the landing gear is an item of considerable concern. With the added weight and landing speeds of modern aircraft, and because of the extreme braking required on shorter runways, overheated brakes and wheels are a common occurrence. You, as a firefighter, must have a thorough understanding of the hazards created by overheated brakes, as well as the techniques and equipment used with this type of emergency. Overheated aircraft wheels and tires present a potential explosion hazard because of built-up air pressure in the tires, which is greatly increased when fire is present. To avoid endangering the crews needlessly, all nonessential personnel should evacuate the area. The recommended procedure for cooling overheated wheel, brake, and tire assemblies is to park the aircraft in an isolated area and allow the assemblies to cool in the surrounding air. Using cooling agents, such as water, is not recommended unless absolutely necessary due to increased hazards to personnel near the overheated assembly. Most aircraft operating manuals for propeller-driven aircraft recommend that flight crews keep the propeller turning fast enough to provide an ample cooling airflow. Most major jet, propeller-driven, and turboprop aircraft now have fusible plugs incorporated in the wheel rims. These WARNING Halon 1211 may be used in a small electronics compartment to make the atmosphere inert, provided firefighters do not enter the compartment, or enter it with a self-contained breathing apparatus. Do NOT use CO2 to make the atmosphere in an electronics compartment inert, as it may produce a spark. WARNING Do NOT stand directly in front of the intake duct. 13-21

Figure 13-17 — Danger zones and attack zones in combating wheel fires. (Attack the fire from fore and aft—do not attack from the side). fusible plugs are designed to automatically deflate the tires. (Failure of fusible plugs to function properly has occurred.) Releasing the tire pressure reduces the pressure on the wheel, and thus eliminates the possibility of explosion. When responding to a wheel fire or hot brakes as a member of the emergency crew, you should approach the wheel with extreme caution in a fore or aft direction, never from the side in line with the axle. Peak temperatures may not be reached until 15 to 20 minutes after the aircraft has come to a complete stop. See Figures 13-17 and 13-18. 13-22

Figure 13-18 — Hot brakes danger areas. Wheel Assembly Fires The following types of fires and hazards may occur around an aircraft wheel assembly: 1. The heating of aircraft wheels and tires presents a potential explosion hazard, which is greatly increased when fire is present. The combination of increased stress on the brake wheel assembly, additional tire pressure, and the deterioration of components by heat may cause an explosion. This explosion is likely to propel pieces of the tire and/or metal through the air at high speeds.

2. Materials that may contribute to wheel assembly fires are grease, hydraulic fluid, beari ng lubricants, and tire rubber. a. Grease and bearing lubricant fires. When ignited, wheel grease fires can be identified by long flames around the wheel brake/axle assembly. These fires are usually small and should be extinguished quickly with Halon 1211 or water fog. CAUTION The use of CO2 for rapid cooling of a hot brake or wheel assembly is extremely dangerous. Explosive fracture may result because of the rapid change in temperature. 13-23

b. Rubber tires. Rubber from the tires may ignite at temperatures from 500 °F (260 °C) to 600 °F (315 °C) and can develop into an extremely hot and destructive fire. Halon 1211 or water fog should be used as early as possible to extinguish the fire. Reigniting may occur if the rubber sustains its autoignition temperature or if the rubber is abraded and the fire is deep-seated. c. A broken hydraulic line may result in the misting of petroleum-based fluids onto a damaged or hot wheel assembly. Upon ignition, misting fluid will accelerate a fire, resulting in rapid fire growth and excessive damage to the aircraft if it is not extinguished rapidly. The following safety information pertains to all aspects of wheel assembly firefighting operations:  Rapid cooling may cause an explosive failure of a wheel assembly.  When water fog is used on a wheel assembly fire, an intermittent application of short bursts (5 to 10 seconds) every 30 seconds should be used.  The effectiveness of Halon 1211 may be severely reduced under extremely windy conditions if the Halon cannot be maintained on the fire source.  You must take protective measures to prevent hydraulic fluid from coming into contact with the eyes. Seek medical attention immediately should the fluid come in contact with the eyes.  Positive-pressure, self-contained breathing apparatus must be worn in fighting fires associated with hydraulic systems.  Although Halon 1211 may extinguish hydraulic fluid fires, reigniting may occur because this agent lacks an adequate cooling effect.  Because heat is transferred from the brake to the wheel, agent application should be concentrated on the brake area. The primary objective is to prevent the fire from spreading upward into wheel wells, wing, and fuselage areas.

WARNING A broken hydraulic line that causes misting of petroleum- based fluids around an overheated brake assembly can cause a potentially dangerous and destructive fire. Intermittent application of water fog should be used to extinguish this type of wheel assembly fire. Rapid cooling of a hot inflated aircraft tire/wheel assembly presents an explosion hazard. Therefore, firefighting personnel must exercise good judgment and care to prevent injuries. The vaporized products of hydraulic fluid decomposition will cause severe irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract. 13-24

End of Chapter 13 Crash Rescue and Firefighting Review Questions 13-1. What is considered the fourth element necessary to sustain a fire?

A. Chemical chain reaction B. Fuel C. Heat D. Oxygen

13-2. What word is defined as the lowest temperature at which its vapors can be ignited and will continue to burn?

A. Exhaust point B. Fir e point C. Flash point D. Vapor point

13-3. At what temperature will fuel spontaneously ignite?

A. 300 °F B. 500 °F C. 700 °F D. 900 °F

13-4. Removing the fuel or combustible matter is doing what to a fire?

A. Cooling B. Feeding C. Smothering D. Starving

13-5. Water in what form is very effective for firefighting purposes?

A. Foam B. Fog C. Solid stream D. Straight stream

13-6. What fire-extinguishing agent is an inert gas and extinguishes fires by smothering them?

A. AFFF B. CO2 C. Halon 1211 D. PKP

13-25

13-7. What fire-extinguishing agent is a dry chemical principally used as a firefighting agent for flammable liquid fires?

A. AFFF B. CO2 C. Halon 1211 D. PKP

13-8. What fire-extinguishing agent is known chemically as bromochlorodifluoromethane, is colorless, and has a sweet smell?

A. AFFF B. CO2 C. Halon 1211 D. PKP

13-9. What size, in inches, are fireplug outlets?

A. 1¼ or 2¼ B. 1½ or 2½ C. 2¼ or 3¼ D. 2½ or 3½

13-10. How many gallons does a high-capacity AFFF system tank hold?

A. 200 B. 400 C. 600 D. 800

13-11. How many gallons per minute (gpm) flow from a 2 ½ inch vari-nozzle?

A. 150 B. 200 C. 250 D. 300

13-12. What firefighting vehicle is a diesel-powered, six-wheel-drive truck with an automatic transmission?

A. A/S32P- 25 B. A/S33P- 26 C. T-1000 D. T-3000

13-26

13-13. What firefighting vehicle is a 4-wheel (2-wheel drive), 6-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, 24-volt, diesel-powered vehicle, with a hydrostatic drive system that transmits power to the rear wheels?

A. A/S32P- 25 B. A/S33P- 26 C. T-1000 D. T-3000

13-14. How many feet per minute (fpm) is the rate of flame spread of aviation gasoline (AVGAS)?

A. 700 to 800 B. 8 00 to 900 C. 9 00 to 1000 D. 1 ,000 to 1,100

13-15. What is the flash point of JP-4?

A. −5 °F B. −5 °C C. −10 °F D. −10 °C

13-16. The time to fuel tank failure (release of fuel) is dependent on the percent of fuel in the tank and ranges from what amount of time?

A. 2 8 seconds for a 10-percent load to 3 1/2 minutes for a 100-percent load B. 38 seconds for a 10-percent load to 4 1/2 minutes for a 100-percent load C. 1 minute for a 10-percent load to 6 1/2 minutes for a 100-percent load D. 3 minutes for a 10-percent load to 8 minutes for a 100-percent load

13-17. At what temperature does liquid oxygen boil into gaseous oxygen?

A. −55 °F B. −155 °C C. −200 °F D. −147 °C

13-18. What are the primary agents used to extinguish internal engine fires?

A. A FFF or water B. Halon 1211 or CO 2 C. Halon 1211 or PKP D. PKP or CO 2

13-19. What are the primary agents used to extinguish electrical and electronic equipment fires?

A. PKP or water B. Halon 1211 or CO 2 C. Halon 1211 or PKP D. PKP or CO 2

13-27

13-20. What are the primary agents used to extinguish rubber tire fires?

A. PKP or water B. Halon 1211 or CO 2 C. Halon 1211 or PKP D. Halon 1211 or water fog

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13-29

APPENDIX I GLOSSARY ABOARD—In or on a ship, aircraft, or other means of transportation. ABORT—To cut short or break off an action, operation, or procedure with an aircraft, guided missile, or the like, especially because of equipment failure; for example, to abort a mission. A/C—Aircraft. ACCELERATION—A change in the velocity of a body, or the rate of such change with respect to speed or direction. ACCESSORY— A part, subassembly, or assembly designed for use in conjunction with or to supplement another assembly or unit; for example, the fuel control is an accessory for a turbojet engine. ACTUATOR—A mechanism for moving or controlling something indirectly. ADDITIVE—A substance added, in relatively small amounts, to improve another substance's physical properties or performance. AERODYNAMICS— The science that deals with the motion of air and other gaseous fluids and the forces acting on bodies in motion relative to such fluids. AFFF— Aqueous film-forming foam; also known as light water. AFT—Towards the rear of the ship, aircraft, or other object. AILERON—A movable control surface or device. One of a pair located in or attached to the wings on both sides of an aircraft. The primary purpose is to control the aircraft laterally or in a roll by creating unequal or opposing lifting forces on opposite sides of the aircraft. AIMD—Aviation Intermediate Maintenance Department. AIRFOIL— A structure or body, such as an aircraft wing or propeller blade, designed to provide lift/thrust when in motion relative to the surrounding air. AIRSPEED— The speed of an aircraft, missile, rocket, or the like, relative to the air through which it flies. ALLOY— A mixture with metallic properties composed of two or more elements, of which at least one is a metal. ALTIMETER—An instrument for measuring altitude. It uses the change in atmospheric pressure with altitude to indicate the approximate elevation above a given point. AMBIENT—Surrounding; adjacent to; next to. For example, ambient conditions are physical conditions of the immediate area, such as ambient temperature, ambient humidity, and ambient pressure ANGLE OF ATTACK—The angle at which a body, such as an airfoil or fuselage, meets a flow or air. ANNEAL—To heat and then cool. ANNUNCIATOR—Electrically controlled signal board or indicator. AI-1

ANODIZE—To subject a metal to electrolytic action, as the anode of a cell, in order to coat it with a protective film. ANTI-ICING—The prevention of ice formation upon an aircraft's surface or engines. APEX—The uppermost point. APRON—An area, ordinarily paved, for parking or handling aircraft. ASCEND—To move or rise upward. ASW—Antisubmarine warfare. ATMOSPHERE—The body of air surrounding the earth. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). ATTITUDE—The position or orientation of an aircraft, either in motion or at rest, as determined by the relationship between its axes and some reference line or plane or some fixed system of reference axes. AUTOMATIC PARACHUTE RIPCORD RELEASE—A barometrically controlled device that mechanically or by explosive force actuates the parachute ripcord assembly and causes the parachute container to open at a preset altitude. AUTOMATIC PILOT—A device or system that automatically controls the flight of an aircraft or guided missile. AVGAS—Aviation gasoline for reciprocating engines. AVIONICS—Electronics as applied to aviation. AXIS—An imaginary line that passes through a body, about which the body rotates or may be assumed to rotate; for example, the horizontal axis, the lateral axis, and the longitudinal axis about which an aircraft rotates. BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE—If a fluid flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, or narrowing of the tube, the velocity of fluid flowing through the constriction increases and the pressure decreases. BRU—Bomb Rack Unit. CAD—Cartridge Actuated Device. CANOPY—A covering; for example, a cockpit canopy is a transparent covering for a cockpit. CANTED DECK— The area of an aircraft carrier flight deck that is at an angle to the center line of the ship. The canted deck permits aircraft to be parked out of the way of landing aircraft. CELSIUS—The temperature scale using the freezing point as zero and the boiling point as 100, with 100 equal divisions between, called degrees. A reading is usually written in the abbreviated form, for example, 75 °C. This scale was formerly known as the Centigrade scale, but was renamed Celsius in recognition of Andrew Celsius, the Swedish astronomer who devised the scale. CHUTE—Abbreviated slang form of parachute. CNO—Chief o f Naval Operations. COCKPIT—A compartment in the top of an aircraft fuselage for the pilot and other crew members. AI-2

COWLING—A removable cover or housing placed over or around an aircraft component or section, especially an engine. DE-ICING—The breaking off or melting of ice from aircraft surfaces or fuel induction systems. DENSITY— The weight per unit volume of a substance. DESCENT—Relative to an aircraft, the downward movement, under control, from a higher to a lower altitude. DRAG—The force that tends to hold an aircraft back. Drag is caused by the disruption of the airflow about the wings, fuselage (body), and all protruding objects on the aircraft. DYE MARKER—A substance that, when placed in water, spreads out and colors the water im mediately to make a spot readily visible from the air. EJECTION SEAT—An emergency escape seat for propelling an occupant out and away from the aircraft by means of an explosive charge or rocket motor. ELEVATOR—As applied to aircraft, a control surface, usually hinged to a horizontal stabilizer, that is used to control the aircraft about its lateral axis. As applied to aircraft carriers, elevators are used to move aircraft between the flight deck and hangar deck. EMERGENCY KIT—A standard soft pack, high-speed soft pack, special kit, or rigid seat survival kit containing a raft and survival equipment needed by an aircrewman in case of emergency. EMPENNAGE—The tail section of an aircraft, including the stabilizing and control surfaces. ENERGY— The ability or capacity to do work. ETA—Estimated time of arrival. FACE CURTAIN—A sheet of heavy fabric, installed above an ejection seat, that is pulled down to trigger the ejection seat and to protect the pilot or crew member's face against wind blast. FAIRING—A part or structure that has a smooth, streamlined outline, used to cover a nonstreamlined object. FLAP— The tendency of a blade to rise with high-lift demands as it tries to screw itself upward into the air. FLASH POINT— The temperature at which a substance, such as oil or fuel, will give off a vapor that will flash or burn momentarily when ignited. FLIGHT CONTROL MECHANISM— The linkage that connects the control(s) in the cockpit with the flight control surface(s). FORCE—The action of one body on another tending to change the state of motion of a body acted upon. Force is usually expressed in pounds. FRC—Fleet Readiness Center. FUSELAGE—The main or central structure of an aircraft that carries the crew, passengers, or other load. FUZE— A term used for the mechanical or electrical device that initiates detonation of an explosive at a desired time. GBU—Guided Bomb Unit. AI-3

GORE—The portions of the canopy located between adjacent radial seams and the vent and skirt hem. It consists of cloth sections sewn together. GPS—Global Positioning System. GROMMET—A metal eye and washer used to reinforce a hole in material; for example, gromme ts on container side flaps. GSE—Ground Support Equipment. GUIDED WEAPON—A weapon whose course may be altered inflight by a guidance control unit. HARM—High-speed, Antiradiation Missile. HE—High Explosive. HORSEPOWER—A unit of power equal to the power necessary to raise 33,000 pounds 1 foot in 1 minute. HOVERING—Maintaining a position above a fixed spot on the ground. A helicopter has the ability to remain in one spot in the air with little or no movement in any direction. HUMIDITY—Moisture or water vapor in the air. HYDRAULICS—The branch of mechanics that deals with the action or use of liquids forced through tubes and orifices under pressure to operate various mechanics. INERTIA— The tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest, and a body in motion to continue to move at a constant speed along a straight line, unless the body is acted upon in either case by an unbalanced force. JDAM—Joint Direct Attack Munition. JETTISON—To throw or dump overboard; for example, to drop or eject fuel, tanks, or gear from an aircraft to lighten the load for emergency action. JSOW—Joint Standoff Weapon. LAG—The tendency of rotor blades to remain at rest during acceleration. LANDING GEAR—The components of an aircraft that support and provide mobility for the aircraft on land, water, or other surfaces. LATERAL AXIS—The pivot point about which the aircraft pitches. LAU—Launch Adapter Unit (aircraft installed launcher). LAUNCH—To release or send forth. For example, to launch aircraft from an aircraft carrier. LE AD—The tendency of rotor blades to remain in motion during deceleration. LEADING EDGE—The forward edge of an airfoil that normally meets the air first. LGB—Laser-Guided Bomb. LGTR—Laser Guided Training Round. LHA—Amphibious Assault Ship (General Purpose). LHD —Amphibious Assault Ship (Multipurpose). LIFT—The force that acts in an upward direction to support the aircraft in the air. It counteracts the effects of weight. Lift must be greater than or equal to weight if flight is to be sustained. AI-4

LOADING— An operation that installs or stores airborne weapons on or in an aircraft. LONGERON— A main structural member that runs along the length of an airplane body to the fuselage. LONGITUDINAL—The lengthwise dimension; for example, the longitudinal axis of an aircraft runs lengthwise from the nose to the tail. LOX—Liquid oxygen. MIM—Maintenance Instruction Manual. MOD—Model or Modification. MONOCOQUE—An aircraft structure in which the stressed outer skin carries all or a major portion of the torsional and bending stress. MRC—Maintenance Requirements Card. MSDS— Material Safety Data Sheet. MULTI-CLIMATE PROTECTION SYSTEM (MCPS)—A modular garment system composed of 12 pieces that can be mixed and matched to form 6 different individual layers. The garment system can be worn in conjunction with flight suits and aviation flight equipment in a broad range of climate conditions by adding or removing layers that provide flame resistance, moisture management, thermal wind, and water protection. NACELLE— A streamlined structure, housing, or compartment on an aircraft; for example, a housing for an engine. NAMP—The Naval Aviation Maintenance Program. NAS—Naval air station. NATO—North Atlantic Treaty Organization. NATOPS—Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures Standardization. NBC—Nuclear Biological Chemical. NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION— According to Newton's first law of motion (inertia), an object at rest will remain at rest, or an object in motion will continue in motion at the same speed and in the same direction, until an outside force acts on it. For an aircraft to taxi or fly, a force must be applied to it. It will remain at rest without an outside force. Once the aircraft is moving, another force must act on it to bring it to a stop. It will continue in motion without an outside force. This willingness of an object to remain at rest or to continue in motion is referred to as inertia. NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION— The second law of motion (force) states that if an object moving with uniform speed is acted upon by an external force, the change of motion (acceleration) will be directly proportional to the amount of force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object being moved. The motion will take place in the direction in which the force acts. Simply stated, this means that an object being pushed by 10 pounds of force will travel faster than it would if it were pushed by 5 pounds of force. A heavier object will accelerate more slowly than a lighter object when an equal force is applied. NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION— The third law of motion (action and reaction) states that for every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force). This law can be demonstrated with a balloon. If you inflate a balloon with air and release it AI-5

without securing the neck, as the air is expelled the balloon moves in the opposite direction of the air rushing out of it. OAT—Outside air temperature. PARACHUTE—A device that offers resistance to the air, thereby decreasing the velocity of a descending body to permit landing at a suitable rate of descent. PARACHUTE ASSEMBLY— A complete parachute, including the canopy assembly, container assembly, harness assembly, and riser/lift web assembly. PITCH— The rotational movement of an aircraft about its lateral axis. Pitch can best be described as the up and down motion of the nose of the aircraft. PRESSURE—The amount of force distributed over each unit of area. Pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). PYLON—A structure or strut that supports an engine pod, external tank, etc., on an aircra ft. RADAR—A device that uses reflected radio waves for the detection of objects. RADOME—A dome housing for a radar antenna on an aircraft. RAMAIR—Air forced into an air intake or duct by the motion of the intake or duct through the air. RATE OF DESCENT—The speed that a parachute descends through the air. The rate varies according to atmospheric pressure, weight of load, movement of air (updraft and down draft), and the size, design, and condition of canopy. RESCUE NET—A net that resembles a conically shaped birdcage with an opening on one side. The net weighs approximately 20 pounds and is bright yellow for high visibility. RESCUE SEAT— A buoyant aluminum device consisting of a hollow flotation chamber and a three-pronged seat with prongs 120 degrees apart. RESCUE STROP— A device used to assist personnel performing rescue work from a helicopter over water or land. Also known as the horse collar and rescue sling. RESERVE PARACHUTE— A chest-type parachute attached to the harness of a training or test parachute in addition to the back type. It has no pilot parachute. It is used in case the main parachute fails to open properly or sustains damage that will cause an unsafe rate of descent. RPM—Revolutions per minute. RUDDER— An upright control surface that is deflected to control yawing movement about the vertical axis of an aircraft. SAR—Search and Rescue. SE—Support equipment. All of the equipment on the ground needed to support aircraft in a state of readiness for flight. SELECTOR VALVE—A valve used to control the flow of fluid to a particular mechanism, as in a hydraulic system. SERVICING—The refilling of an aircraft with consumables such as fuel, oil, and compressed gases to predetermined levels, pressures, quantities, or weights. SLAM-ER— Stand-off Land Attack Missile – Expanded Response. SLIPSTREAM—The stream of air driven backward by a rotating propeller. AI-6

SPECIFIC GRAVITY—The ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of some standard substance, such as water. STRUT—A type of supporting brace; a rigid member or assembly that bears compr ession loads, tension loads, or both, such as a landing gear to transmit the load from the fuselage of the aircraft. TAB—A small auxiliary airfoil set into the trailing edge of an aircraft control surface and used to trim, to move, or to assist in moving the larger surface. TD— Target Detector. TENSION—A force or pressure that exerts a pull or resistance. THRUST—Th e forward-direction pushing or pulling force developed by an aircraft engine or rocket engine. TORQUE—A turning or twisting force. TOW—Tube Launched Optically Tracked Wire Guided Missile. TRAILING EDGE—The aft edge of an airfoil. The edge over which the airflow normally passes last. VELOCITY— The rate of motion in a particular direction. VERTICAL AXIS—The axis that runs from the top to the bottom of an aircraft. It runs perpendicular to both the roll and pitch axes. The movement associated with this axis is yaw. VISCOSITY—The internal resistance of a liquid that tends to prevent it from flowing. WAVE OFF—An act or instance of refusing an aircraft permission to land in an approach, requiring another attempt. Also, the signal given an aircraft in such refusal. WEIGHT—The force of gravity acting downward on the aircraft and everything in the aircraft, such as crew, fuel, and cargo. YAW—The rotational movement of an aircraft about its vertical axis. Yaw is best described as the change in aircraft heading to the right or left of the primary direction of an aircraft. AI-7

APPENDIX II REFERENCES

Chapter 1 Basic Military Requirements, NAVEDTRA 14325, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, February 2002. United States Naval Aviation 1910-1995, Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, Washington, DC, 1997. United States Naval Aviation 1996-2011, Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, Washington, DC, 2011. Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower and Personnel Classification and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068-F, Department of the Navy, Bureau of Naval Personnel, Washington, DC, July 2012. Chapter 2 Basic Military Requirements, NAVEDTRA 14325, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, February 2002. Naval Aviation Maintenance Program (NAMP), COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2 series, Naval Air Systems Command, Patuxent River, MD, May 2012. Aviation Maintenance Ratings, NAVEDTRA 14022, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, November 2003. Chapter 3 United States Naval Aviation 1910-1995, Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, Washington, DC, 1997. United States Naval Aviation 1996-2011, Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, Washington, DC, 2011. NOTE Although the following references were current when this NRTC was published, their continued currency cannot be assured. When consulting these references, keep in mind that they may have been revised to reflect new technology or revised methods, practices, or procedures; therefore, you need to ensure that you are studying the latest references. If you find an incorrect or obsolete reference, please use the Rate Training Manual User Update Form provided at the end of each chapter to contact the CNATT Rate Training Manager. AII-1

Fundamentals of Aviation and Space Technology, Institute of Aviation, University of Illinois, Savoy, IL, 1974. Chapter 4 Aviation Structural Mechanic (AM), NAVEDTRA 14315A, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, March 2011. General Manual for Structural Repair, NAVAIR 01-1A-1, Naval Air Technical Services Facility, Philadelphia, PA, November 2006. Chapter 5 Aviation Structural Mechanic (AM), NAVEDTRA 14315A, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, March 2011. Chapter 6 Aviation Structural Mechanic (AM), NAVEDTRA 14315A, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, March 2011. Chapter 7 Aviation Machinist’s Mate 3 & 2, NAVEDTRA 14008, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, January 2004. Chapter 8 Aviation Electrician’s Mate (AE), NAVEDTRA 14009A, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, March 2011. Aviation Electronics Technician 1 (Organizational), NAVEDTRA 14030, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, June 1993. Chapter 9 Aviation Ordnanceman, NAVEDTRA 14313A, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, March 2011. Chapter 10 Aviation Support Equipment Technician (AS), NAVEDTRA 14329, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, July 2002. Naval Aviation Maintenance Program (NAMP), COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2 series, Naval Air Systems Command, Patuxent River, MD, May 2012.

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Chapter 11 Aviation Boatswain's Mate H, NAVEDTRA 14353, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, November 2003. Aviation Maintenance Ratings, NAVEDTRA 14022, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, November 2003. Aircraft Signals, NATOPS Manual, NAVAIR 00-80T-113, Naval Air Systems Command, December 2001. CV NATOPS Manual, NAVAIR 00-80T-105, Naval Air Systems Command, May 2007. LHD/LHA/LPD NATOPS Manual, NAVAIR 00-80T-106, Naval Air Systems Command, May 2009. CVN FLIGHT/HANGAR DECK NATOPS Manual, NAVAIR 00-80T-120, Naval Air Systems Command, December 2010. Chapter 12 Aircrew Survival Equipmentman (PR), NAVEDTRA 14218A, Naval Education and Training Program Management Support Activity, Pensacola, FL, January 2012. Chapter 13 Aviation Boatswain's Mate H, NAVEDTRA 14353, Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC), Pensacola, FL, November 2003. Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Manual, NATOPS, U.S. Navy, NAVAIR 00-80R-14, Naval Sea Systems Command, May 2011. AII-3

APPENDIX III HAND SIGNALS

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APPENDIX IV Answers to End of Chapter Questions Chapter 1 – Mission and History of Naval Aviation

1-1. A 1-2. C 1-3. C 1-4. A 1-5. D 1-6. B 1-7. D 1-8. C 1-9. A 1-10. B 1-11. D 1-12. B 1-13. C 1-14. C 1-15. A

Chapter 2 – Organization of Naval Aviation

2-1. A 2-2. C 2-3. C 2-4. B 2-5. D 2-6. B 2-7. B 2-8. A 2-9. A 2-10. D 2-11. C 2-12. B 2-13. A 2-14. D 2-15. C 2-16. B 2-17. D 2-18. C 2-19. A 2-20. D 2-21. B 2-22. D 2-23. C 2-24. C 2-25. A 2-26. C 2-27. D 2-28. B 2-29. B 2-30. C 2-31. C 2-32. D 2-33. A 2-34. B 2-35. D 2-36. C 2-37. B 2-38. A 2-39. A

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Chapter 3 – Principles of Flight

3-1. C 3-2. B 3-3. A 3-4. D 3-5. C 3-6. D 3-7. B 3-8. A 3-9. B 3-10. C 3-11. D 3-12. A 3-13. D 3-14. B 3-15. A 3-16. B 3-17. A 3-18. B 3-19. A 3-20. C

Chapter 4 – Aircraft Basic Construction

4-1. D 4-2. D 4-3. C 4-4. C 4-5. B 4-6. A 4-7. A 4-8. C 4-9. D

Chapter 5 – General Aircraft Maintenance

5-1. B 5-2. D 5-3. D 5-4. B 5-5. C 5-6. D 5-7. A 5-8. D 5-9. A 5-10. D 5-11. B 5-12. D 5-13. C 5-14. B 5-15. B 5-16. D 5-17. D 5-18. C 5-19. B 5-20. D 5-21. A 5-22. A 5-23. A 5-24. B 5-25. A 5-26. B 5-27. C 5-28. D 5-29. B 5-30. C 5-31. A 5-32. C

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Chapter 6 – Aircraft Hardware

6-1. D 6-2. A 6-3. A 6-4. B 6-5. D 6-6. C 6-7. C 6-8. A 6-9. A 6-10. A 6-11. B

Chapter 7 – Aircraft Power Plants

7-1. B 7-2. C 7-3. A 7-4. D 7-5. B 7-6. C 7-7. A 7-8. D 7-9. C 7-10. B 7-11. B 7-12. C 7-13. B 7-14. A 7-15. D 7-16. B 7-17. D 7-18. A 7-19. B 7-20. B

Chapter 8 – Aircraft Avionics

8-1. D 8-2. A 8-3. A 8-4. C 8-5. B 8-6. C 8-7. B 8-8. B 8-9. D 8-10. C 8-11. A 8-12. C 8-13. B 8-14. A 8-15. C 8-16. B 8-17. D 8-18. C

AIV-3

Chapter 9 – Aircraft Ordnance

9-1. C 9-2. D 9-3. B 9-4. D 9-5. B 9-6. A 9-7. C 9-8. C 9-9. D 9-10. D 9-11. A 9-12. B 9-13. A 9-14. D 9-15. A 9-16. A 9-17. A 9-18. B 9-19. D 9-20. B 9-21. A 9-22. B 9-23. C 9-24. B 9-25. C 9-26. C 9-27. B 9-28. A 9-29. C 9-30. B 9-31. D 9-32. B 9-33. C

Chapter 10 – Support Equipment

10-1. B 10-2. C 10-3. D 10-4. B 10-5. C 10-6. A 10-7. C 10-8. D 10-9. D 10-10. A 10-11. B 10-12. B

AIV-4

Chapter 11 – Line Operations and Safety

11-1. A 11-2. C 11-3. B 11-4. D 11-5. A 11-6. C 11-7. A 11-8. D 11-9. B 11-10. D 11-11. B 11-12. A 11-13. C 11-14. A 11-15. D 11-16. D 11-17. A 11-18. B 11-19. B 11-20. B 11-21. C 11-22. D 11-23. C 11-24. D 11-25. B

Chapter 12 – Aircrew Survival Equipment

12-1. A 12-2. D 12-3. B 12-4. D 12-5. D 12-6. B 12-7. B 12-8. A 12-9. A 12-10. D 12-11. B 12-12. A 12-13. C 12-14. B 12-15. D

Chapter 13 – Crash Rescue and Firefighting

13-1. A 13-2. C 13-3. B 13-4. D 13-5. B 13-6. B 13-7. D 13-8. C 13-9. B 13-10. C 13-11. C 13-12. D 13-13. A 13-14. A 13-15. C 13-16. A 13-17. D 13-18. B 13-19. B 13-20. D

AIV-5

Index-1 INDEX

A Aerodynamics, physical laws affecting, 3-1 to 3-2 Aerographer's Mate (AG), 1-15 Air Traffic Controller (AC), 1-15 Aircraft aboard carriers, securing, 11-12 to 11-15 Aircraft avionics, 8-1 to 8-23 active, 8-19 airborne auxiliary power units (APU), 8-4 airborne communications equipment, 8-13 to 8-14 aircraft storage batteries, 8-1 to 8-3 airspeed and mach number indicator, 8-6 to 8-7 alternating current (ac) systems, 8-3 to 8-5 altimeter, 8-6 altitude indicator, 8-11 antisubmarine warfare equipment (ASW), 7-19 to 7-20 applications of radar, 8-17 battery safety precautions, 8-2 carrier aircraft electrical power 8-5 communications and navigation equipment, 8-13 to 8-18 echo principles, 8-16 to 8-17 electronic countermeasures, 8-19 emergency electrical power, 8-3 to 8-4 emergency power generators, 8-3 to 8-4 engine instruments, 8-8 to 8-10 exhaust gas temperature indicator, 8-8 fuel pressure indicator, 8-7 fuel quantity indicator, 8-9 gyro compass, 8-12 gyroscopes, 8-11 to 8-12 horizontal situation indicator, 8-12 hydraulic pressure indicator, 8-7 to 8-8 identification friend or foe (IFF), 8-18 to 8-19 lead-acid battery, 8-1 to 8-2 long-range communications, 8-13 magnetic anomaly detection (MAD), 8-20 magnetic (standby) compass, 8-12 navigational computers, 8-15 to 8-16 navigational equipment, 8-14 to 8-16 navigational instruments, 8-12 oil pressure indicator, 8-7 passive, 8-19 pitot-static system, 8-5 to 8-6 pressure indicating gauges, 8-7 radar, 8-16 to 8-18 rate of climb, 8-7 servicing system, 8-5 short-range communications, 8-13 to 8-14 sonobuoys, 8-19 to 8-20

Index-2 tachometer, 8-9 tactical air navigation system (TACAN), 8-14 turbine inlet temperature 8-8 turn and bank indicator, 8-12 use in fire control, 8-18 use in tactical air control, 8-18 vertical scale indicator, 7-9 to 7-10 Aircraft basic construction, 4-1 to 4-23 arresting gear, 4-14 bending, 4-20 catapult equipment, 4-15 compression, 4-20 fixed-wing aircraft, 4-1 to 4-15 flight control surfaces, 4-6 to 4-11 fuselage, 4-1 to 4-3 fuselage, 4-16 landing gear, 4-12 to 4-14 main rotor assembly, 4-17 to 4-18 materials of construction, 4-22 to 4-23 metallic materials, 4-22 to 4-23 nonmetallic materials, 4-23 pylon, 4-18 rotor head, 4-18 rotary wing, 4-17 rotary-wing aircraft, 4-15 to 4-19 secondary flight controls, 4-10 shear, 4-20 specific action of stresses, 4-20 to 4-21 stabilizers, 4-5 to 4-6 structural stress, 4-19 to 4-20 tail landing gear, 4-16 to 4-17 tail rotor assembly, 4-18 to 4-19 tension, 4-20 torsion, 4-21 varying stress, 4-21 wings, 4-4 to 4-5 Aircraft carrier, organization of an, 2-14 to 2-20 air department, 2-16 to 2-17 aircraft intermediate maintenance department (afloat), 2-19 to 2-20 carrier air wing, 2-15 to 2-17 dental department, 2-18 engineering department, 2-18 medical department, 2-18 navigation department, 2-18 operations department, 2-16 supply department, 2-18 weapons department, 2-18 Aircraft drawings, 5-6 Aircraft handling, air station, 11-19 to 11-20 Aircraft hardware, 6-1 to 6-31

Index-3 aircraft bolts, 6-7 to 6-10 aircraft electrical hardware, 6-23 to 6-25 blind rivets, 6-3 bonding, 6-25 camloc fasteners, 6-14 to 6-15 connectors, 6-24 cotter pins, 6-29 countersunk head rivets, 6-4 dzus fasteners, 6-15 electrical connectors, 6-24 flat head pins, 6-19 flexible connectors/clamps, 6-15 general safety wiring methods, 6-29 to 6-30 machine screws, 6-13 miscellaneous fasteners, 6-15 nonself-locking nuts, 6-11 nuts, 6-10 to 6-12 plain washers, 6-14 rivets, 6-1 to 6-5 rivnuts, 6-5 safety methods, 6-29 safety wiring, 6-30 safetying of nuts and bolts, 6-11 screws, 6-13 self-locking nuts, 6-11 self-tapping screws, 6-13 snap rings, 6-15 solid rivets, 6-1 special washers, 6-14 Aircraft hardware—Continued structural screws, 6-13 taper pins, 6-14 terminals, 6-24 threaded fasteners, 6-15 turnbuckles, 6-21 to 6-22 and 6-30 turnlock fasteners, 6-14 to 6-15 washers, 6-14 wire and cable, 6-24 Aircraft hoisting slings, 5-26 to 5-27 Aircraft jacking, 5-30 to 5-32 Aircraft ordnance, 9-1 to 9-77 20-mm automatic aircraft guns, 9-55 to 9-58 air launched guided missiles, 9-25 to 9-33 aircraft bomb-type ammunition, 9-2 aircraft fire-extinguisher cartridge, 9-64 aircraft laid mines, 9-17 to 9-18 Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM), 9-38 to 9-39 ADU-299 missile launcher adapter, 9-55 antitank bomb cluster, 9-19 to 9-21 bomb ejector racks, 9-68 to 9-72 bomb racks, 9-64 to 9-72

Index-4 cartridges and cartridge-actuated devices (CADs), 9-63 to 9-64 CCU-45/B impulse cartridge 9-64 guided missile launchers, 9-45 to 9-55 full-scale practice bombs, 9-23 to 9-24 fuzing, 9-31 Harpoon, 9-33 to 9-35 high and low explosives, 9-3 High-Speed Antiradiation Missile (HARM), 9-39 to 9-40 identification and marking of ordnance, 9-5 impulse and delay cartridges, 9-64 laser guided bombs, 9-14 to 9-16 LAU-7 guided missile launcher, 9-46 to 9-48 LAU-115 guided missile launcher, 9-49 LAU-116 guided missile launcher, 9-50 LAU-117 guided missile launcher, 9-51 LAU-118 guided missile launcher, 9-51 LAU-127 guided missile launcher, 9-52 M279 guided missile launcher, 9-53 to 9-54 Maverick, 9-39 miscellaneous cartridges, 9-64 Mk 1 Mod 3 impulse cartridge, 9-64 Mk 19 Mod 0 impulse cartridge, 9-64 Mk 79 Mod 0 illumination signal kit, 9-60 to 9-62 Mk 80 (series) general-purpose bombs, 9-8 to 9-9 Mk 97 Mod 0 impulse cartridge, 9-64 MK 108 Mod 1 Illumination Signal Kit 9-62 to 9-63 Mk 124 Mod 0 marine smoke and illumination signal, 9-60 personnel escape device cartridges, 9-64 practice bombs, 9-22 to 9-24 pyrotechnics, 9-58 to 9-62 Sidewinder, 9-35 to 9-36 Sparrow, 9-32 to 9-33 subcaliber practice bombs, 9-22 terminology, 9-1 to 9-4 TOW missile launcher 9-54 to 9-55 Aircraft power plants, 7-1 to 7-17 engine identification, 7-13 to 7-17 ANA Bulletin No. 306M designation system, 7-13 to 7-15 accessory section, 7-12 Brayton cycle, the, 7-12 to 7-13 component controls, systems, and sections, 7-10 to 7-12 engine noise, 7-16 to 7-17 exhaust area, 7-16 fuel control, 7-10 gas turbine engines, 7-3 to 7-7 ignition system, 7-10 intake ducts, 7-16 jet propulsion engines, 7-2 to 7-12 lubrication system, 7-10 to 7-11 manufacturer's symbol, 7-13 and 7-15 MIL-STD-1812 designation system, 7-15 to 7-16

Index-5 model indicator, 7-16 model numbers, 7-14 power plant safety precautions, 7-16 special designations, 7-14 rocket engines, 7-1 to 7-3 type indicator, 7-15 to 7-16 type symbols, 7-13 Aircrew survival equipment, 12-1 to 12-59 anti-g coverall, 12-15 to 12-16 antiexposure coverall, 12-10 canopy, 12-22 cranial helmet assembly, 11-3 distress light (strobe), 12-49 flight boots, 12-4 flight clothing, 12-1 to 12-17 flight coveralls (cold weather), 12-3 to 12-4 flight coveralls (summer weight), 12-2 to 12-3 flight gloves, 12-4 flotation assembly, 12-36 to 12-40 individual survival kit, 12-51 to 12-53 integrated torso harness suit, the, 12-28 helicopter rescue strop, 12-53 helmet, 11-3 HGU-84/P helmet, 12-5 to 12-6 Life preservers, 12-36 Life preserver assembly LPU-32/P, 12-37 to 12-38 Life preserver assembly LPU-34/P, 12-38 to 12-39 Life preserver assembly LPU-36/P, 12-39 to 12-40 Mk 79 Mod 0 illumination signal kit, 12-48 Mk-124 Mod 0 marine smoke and illumination signal, 12-48 multiplace life rafts, 12-41 to 12-43 one-man life raft, 12-40 to 12-41 parachutes, 12-17 to 12-35 parachute container, 12-23 parachute harnesses, 12-23 to 12-24 personal survival equipment, 12-46 to 12-56 pilot chute, 12-21 rescue, 12-59 rescue equipment, 12-53 to 12-56 rescue net, 12-54 signaling mirror, 12-47 survival items, 12-51 Aircraft survival equipment—Continued suspension lines, 12-22 twelve-man life raft, 12-43 water bag, 12-52 Aircrew survival equipmentman, (PR), 1-19 Airfoil, the 3-3 to 3-4 Airman duties, 1-19 Airman rate, history of the, 1-12 Analysis methods, 5-45

Index-6 Aviation boatswain's mate, aircraft handling (ABH), 1-14 Aviation boatswain's mate, fuels (ABF), 1-14 Aviation boatswain's mate, launching and recovery equipment (ABE), 1-14 Aviation electrician's mate (AE), 1-15 Aviation electronics technician (AT[I] and AT[O]), 1-17 to 11-18 Aviation machinist's mate (AD), 1-15 Aviation maintenance administrationman, (AZ), 1-18 Aviation ordnanceman (AO), 1-17 Aviation ratings, 1-13 Aviation structural mechanic (AM), 1-16 Aviation structural mechanic, safety equipment (AME), 1-16 Aviation support equipment technician (AS), 1-17 Axle jacks, 5-30

B Batteries, aircraft storage, 8-1 to 8-3 battery safety precautions, 8-2 battery (lead-acid), 8-1 to 8-2 battery (nickel-cadmium), 8-2 Beech Aircraft Texan, T-6, 2-31 Bell Cobra, AH-1, 2-29 Bell Huey, UH-1, 2-29 Bell Jet Ranger, TH-57, 2-30 Boeing Clipper, C-40, 2-27 Boeing Poseidon, P-8, 2-25 Boeing Osprey, V-22, 2-30 Bolts, aircraft, 6-7 to 6-10 Bomb, body, 9-6 Bomb, fin assemblies, 9-10 to 9-13 Bomb, fuzing, 9-6 Bomb ejector rack, 9-68 to 9-72 Bomb rack, 9-64 to 9-72 Bomb-type ammunition, aircraft, 9-2 Bombs, Mk 80 (series) general-purpose, 9-7 to 9-13 Bombs, practice, 9-22 to 9-23 full-scale practice bombs, 9-23 to 9-24 subcaliber practice bombs, 9-22 Boots, flight, 12-4 Brayton cycle, the, 7-17 to 7-18 B-1 maintenance platform, 10-14 to 10-15 B-4 maintenance platform, 10-15

C CADs (cartridges and cartridge-actuated devices), 9-63 to 9-64 Carrier divisions, 2-19 to 2-20 Cartridges miscellaneous, 9-64 Catapult launching, 11-6 Chain of command, naval aviation, 2-1 CO2 fire extinguisher, 13-4 to 13-5 Communications and navigation equipment, 8-13 to 8-14 Computers, navigation, 8-15 to 8-16

Index-7 Cotter pins, 6-29 Coverall, antiexposure, 12-10 Coveralls, anti-g, 12-15 to 12-16 Cranes, crash and salvage, 10-4 to 10-5 Crash rescue and firefighting, 13-1 to 13-28 aircraft firefighting and rescue vehicles, 13-10 to 13-11 aircraft fire hazards, 13-11 to 13-13 armament, 13-15 battery switch, 13-15 carbon dioxide, 13-4 to 13-5 chemical foam (AFFF), 13-4 chemistry of fire, 13-1 to 13-2 classes of fire, 13-2 to 13-3 CO2 fire extinguisher, 13-4 to 13-5 dry chemical (PKP), 13-5 to 13-6 engine accessory section, 13-15 ejection seat, 13-16 extinguishing agents, 13-3 to 13-6 fire-fighting equipment, 13-6 to 13-9 fire-fighting techniques, 13-19 to 13-24 firemain system aboard ship, 13-6 fluid line identification, 13-16 to 13-18 fuel spills, 13-15 Halon 1211, 13-5 hot brakes, 13-21 to 13-23 hydraulic system, 13-16 operating vehicles, 11-1 to 11-2 ordnance, 13-13 Oshkosh T-3000 firefighting truck, 13-10 P-25 truck 13-10 to 13-11 protective clothing, 13-9 to 13-10 safety precautions, 11-18 to 11-19 seat-ejection, 13-16 selector valve, 13-15 tools, 13-8 to 13-9 water, 13-3 to 13-4 wheel fires, 13-21 to 13-22 Crash and salvage equipment, 10-4 to 10-5 A/S32A-35A (CVCC) aircraft crash handling and salvage crane, 10-4 A/S32A-36A (AACC) amphibious assault ship crane, 10-5

D Designations, guided missile and rocket, 9-27 Diagrams, 5-11 Directing taxiing aircraft, 11-6 to 11-7

E Echo principles, 8-16 to 8-17 Electrical failures, 5-18 Electrical power, emergency, 8-3 Electrical system hardware, aircraft, 6-23 to 6-25

Index-8 Electronic countermeasures, 8-19 Emergency recovery equipment, 11-9 to 11-10 Engine identification, 7-13 to 7-16 Engine instruments, 8-8 to 8-10 Equipment color and marking of, 11-3 to 11-5 Equipment, types of, 10-1 to 10-15 handling equipment, 10-1 to 10-3 servicing equipment, 10-7 to 10-12 Exhaust gas temperature indicator, 8-8 Explosives, high and low, 9-3 Extinguishing agents, 13-3 to 13-6 carbon dioxide, 13-4 to 13-5 chemical foam (AFFF), 13-4 dry chemical (PKP), 13-5 to 13-6 Halon 13-5 water, 13-4 to 13-5

F Fasteners, threaded, 6-15 Fire, chemistry of, 13-1 to13-3 Fire hazards, aircraft, 13-11 to 13-13 Fire-extinguisher cartridge, aircraft, 9-64 Fire-fighting and rescue vehicles, aircraft, 13-10 to 13-11 Firefighting equipment, 13-6 to 13-9 Firefighting techniques, 13-19 to 13-24 Firemain system aboard ship, 13-6 Fixed wing aircraft, 3-5 to 3-6 Flat head pins 6-19 Flexible connectors/clamps, 6-15 Flight clothing, 12-1 to 12-16 Flight coveralls (summer weight), 12-2 Flight, forces affecting, 3-4 drag, 3-4 lift, 3-4 thrust, 3-4 weight, 3-4 Flotation assembly, 11-3 Fluid contamination, 5-43 to 5-44 Fluid line identification, 13-16 to 13-18 Fluid sampling, 5-38 to 5-39 Forklift truck, 10-7 Fuel pressure indicator, 8-7 Fuel quantity indicator, 8-9 Fuels, types and identifying characteristics of various, 13-11 to 13-12

G Gas turbine engines, 7-3 to 7-7 General aircraft maintenance, 5-1 to 5-52 aircraft jacking, 5-30 to 5-32 aircraft drawings, 5-6 aircraft hoisting slings, 5-26 to 5-27

Index-9 analysis methods, 5-45 axle jacks, 5-30 diagrams, 5-11 electrical failures, 5-18 fluid contamination, 5-43 to 5-44 fluid sampling, 5-38 to 5-39 general hazards, 5-34 to 5-35 inorganic solid contamination, 5-43 interpretation of drawings, 5-8 jacking procedures, 5-35 to 5-38 lubrication, 5-19 lubricants, 5-19 to 5-25 methods of application, 5-21 maintenance practices, 5-40 to 5-41 maintenance procedures, 5-39 to 5-40 meaning of lines, 5-6 metallic contamination, 5-43 occupational awareness, 5-3 organic contamination, 5-42 particulate contamination, 5-41 to 5-42 portable oil diagnostic system, 5-46 to 5-47 preoperational inspection, 5-33 quality assurance (QA), 5-2 sampling points, 5-44 to 5-45 testing and operational checks, 5-17 tool containers, 5-1 tool control program, 5-1 troubleshooting aircraft systems, 5-13 troubleshooting procedures types of contamination, 5-41 wire rope, 5-28 to 5-29 work center responsibilities, 5-3 General hazards, 5-34 to 5-35 Global positioning system (GPS), 8-14 to 8-15 Glossary, AI-1 to AI-7 Gloves, flight, 12-4 to 12-5 Grumman Hawkeye, E-2, 2-26 Grumman Greyhound, C-2, 2-26 Grumman Prowler, EA-6B, 2-24 Guided missile and rocket designations, 9-27 Guided missile launchers, 9-45 to 9-55 Guided missiles, air-launched, 9-25 to 9-33 Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM), 9-38 to 9-39 Harpoon, 9-33 to 9-35 High-Speed Antiradiation Missile (HARM), 9-39 to 9-40 Maverick, 9-39 Sidewinder, 9-35 to 9-36 Sparrow, 9-32 to 9-33 Guns, 20-mm automatic aircraft, 9-55 to 9-58 Gyro compass, 8-12 Gyroscopes, 8-11 to 8-12

Index-10

H Hand signals, 11-10 and 11-23 HARM (High-Speed Antiradiation Missile), 9-39 to 9-40 Helicopter handling, 11-21 Helicopter rescue strop, 12-53 Helmet(s), 12-5 to 12-6 Horizontal situation indicator, 8-12 Hydraulic jacks, 10-14 Hydraulic pressure indicator, 8-7 to 8-8 Hydraulic power supply, 10-10

I IFF (identification friend or foe), 8-18 to 8-19 Illumination devices, hand-held, 9-58 to 9-63 Impulse and delay cartridges, 9-64 Inorganic solid contamination, 5-43 Interpretation of drawings, 5-8

J Jacking procedures, 5-35 to 5-38 Jet propulsion engines, 7-2 to 7-12 gas turbine engines, 7-3 to 7-7 rocket engines, 7-1 to 7-3

L Landing gear, fixed-wing aircraft, 4-12 to 4-13 Landing gear group, rotary-wing aircraft, 4-16 Laser guided bombs, 9-14 to 9-16 Leadership, 1-20 Life preservers, 12-36 Life preserver assembly LPU-32/P, 12-37 to 12-38 Life preserver assembly LPU-34/P, 12-38 to 12-39 Life preserver assembly LPU-36/P, 12-39 to 12-40 Life rafts, 12-40 to 12-43 multiplace life rafts, 12-41 to 12-43 one-man life raft, 12-40 to 12-41 Lockheed Hercules, C-130, 2-27 Lockheed Martin Lightning, F-35, 2-23 Lockheed Orion, P-3, 2-25 Lubrication, 5-19 Lubricants, 5-19 to 5-25 methods of application, 5-21

M MAD (magnetic anomaly detection), 8-20 Magnetic (standby) compass, 8-12 Maintenance practices, 5-40 to 5-41 Maintenance procedures, 5-39 to 5-40 Maintenance requirements, 10-15 to 10-16 Maintenance platforms, 10-14 to 10-15

Index-11 McDonnell-Douglas Goshawk, T-45, 2-31 McDonnell-Douglas Harrier II, AV-8, 2-24 McDonnell-Douglas Hornet, F/A-18, 2-23 Meaning of lines, 5-6 Metallic contamination, 5-43 Metallic materials, 4-22 to 4-23 Mines, aircraft laid, 9-17 to 9-18 Mk 62, 9-17 Mk 65, 9-18 Mission of naval aviation, 1-1 to 1-2 history of naval aviation 1-2 to 1-12 description of aviation ratings, 1-14 to 1-19 historic events of naval aviation, 1-2 to 1-12 history of the airman rate, 1-12 history of naval aviation, 1-2 to 1-12 leadership, 1-20 major naval aviation battles, 1-2 to 1-12 military and professional requirements, 1-20 Navy training courses, 1-20 sources of information, 1-20 studying for advancement, 1-20 training, 1-19 to 1-20 Motion, laws of, 3-1 to 3-2 Newton's first law of motion, 3-1 Newton's second law of motion, 3-1 Newton's third law of motion, 3-2 Multiengine aircraft handling, 11-20 to 11-21

N Naval Aircrewman (AW), 1-18 Aircrewman Mechanical (AWF) , 1-18 Aircrewman Operator (AWO), 1-18 Aircrewman Tactical Helicopter (AWR), 1-18 Aircrewman Helicopter (AWS), 1-18 Aircrewman Avionics (AWV), 1-18 Naval air facility, 2-9 Naval air station (NAS) organization, 2-3 to 2-9 administration department, 2-4 air operations department, 2-5 comptroller department, 2-4 dental department, 2-5 fleet readiness center, 2-6 to 2-8 medical department, 2-5 Naval aviation depots, 2-9 public works department, 2-5 security department, 2-4 to 2-5 supply department, 2-5 weapons department, 2-5 Naval aviation, history of, 1-2 to 1-12 Naval aviation, the mission of, 1-1 to 1-2 Navigational instruments, 8-12

Index-12 Nitrogen service unit (NAN-4), 10-12 Nonmetallic materials, 4-23 Nuts, 6-10 to 6-11 nonself-locking nuts, 6-11 self-locking nuts, 6-11

O Occupational awareness, 5-3 Oil pressure indicator, 8-7 Ordnance, aircraft, 9-1 to 9-77 Ordnance, identification and marking of, 9-5 Organic contamination, 5-42 Organization of naval aviation, 2-1 to 2-31 administration department, 2-4 air department, 2-16 to 2-18 air operations department, 2-5 aircraft intermediate maintenance department (afloat), 2-19 to 2-20 aircraft squadron departments, 2-12 to 2-14 carrier air wing, 2-15 to 2-17 carrier divisions, 2-19 to 2-20 carrier squadrons, 2-9 to 2-10 commanding officer (CO), 2-11 composite squadrons, 2-10 comptroller department, 2-4 dental department, 2-5 dental department, 2-18 designation and types of naval aircraft, 2-21 to 2-31 engineering department, 2-18 executive officer (XO), 2-11 maintenance administration, 2-13 maintenance/material control officer, 2-12 maintenance officer, 2-11 Organization of naval aviation—Continued medical department, 2-5 medical department, 2-18 naval air facility, 2-9 naval air station (NAS) organization, 2-3 to 2-7 naval aviation chain of command, 2-2 naval aviation depots, 2-9 navigation department, 2-18 noncombatant squadrons, 2-10 operations department, 2-12 organization of a squadron, 2-10 to 2-14 organization of an aircraft carrier, 2-14 to 2-20 patrol squadrons, 2-10 public works department, 2-5 quality assurance/analysis, 2-7 security department, 2-4 to 2-5 supply department, 2-5 supply department, 2-18 types of divisions, 2-13

Index-13 types of squadrons, 2-9 to 2-10 typical carrier schedule, 2-20 weapons department, 2-5 and 2-18 Oxygen servicing unit, 10-11

P Parachute container, 12-23 Parachute harnesses, 12-23 to 12-24 Parachutes, 12-17 to 12-35 Particulate contamination, 5-41 to 5-42 Personnel escape device cartridges, 9-64 Pilot chute, 12-21 Pitot-static system, 8-5 to 8-6 airspeed and mach number indicator, 8-6 to 8-7 altimeter, 8-6 rate of climb, 8-7 Plane-handling crews, 11-4 Portable oil diagnostic system, 5-46 to 5-47 Power generators, emergency, 8-3 to 8-4 Preoperational inspection, 5-33 Principles of flight, 3-1 to 3-8 airflow around an airfoil, 3-3 to 3-4 airfoil, the, 3-3 to 3-4 airfoil terminology, 3-3 Bernoulle's principle, 3-2 directional control, 3-7 drag, 3-4 forces affecting flight, 3-4 hovering, 3-7 lateral axis, 3-5 laws of motion, 3-1 to 3-2 lift, 3-4 and 3-6 to 3-7 longitudinal axis, 3-5 Newton's first law of motion, 3-1 Newton's second law of motion, 3-2 Newton's third law of motion, 3-2 physical laws affecting aerodynamics, 3-1 to 3-2 rotational axes, 3-5 to 3-6 thrust, 3-4 torque reaction, 3-7 to 3-8 weight, 3-4 vertical axis, 3-5 Protective clothing, 13-9 to 13-10 Pyrotechnics, 9-58 to 9-62

Q Quality assurance (QA), 5-2

R Radar, 8-16 to 8-18 References, AII-1 to AII-3

Index-14 Rescue equipment, 12-53 to 12-56 Rivets, blind, 6-3 Rivets, solid, 6-1 dimpled rivets, 6-2 plain rivets, 6-2 raised cross rivets, 6-2 raised dashes rivets, 6-2 raised teat rivets, 6-2 Rivnuts, 6-5 Rocket engines, 7-1 to 7-3 Rotational axes, 3-5 lateral axis, 3-5 longitudinal axis, 3-5 vertical axis, 3-5 Rotor head, 4-18

S Safety precautions, general flight deck, 11-18 Safety precautions, power plant, 7-16 Sampling points, 5-44 to 5-45 Schedule, typical carrier, 2-20 Schools, Navy, 1-13 Screws, 6-13 self-tapping screws, 6-13 structural screws, 6-13 Shipboard fire-fighting vehicle, A/S32P-25, 10-5 to 10-6 Sikorsky Sea Hawk, H-60, 2-28 Sikorsky Sea Stallion, H-53, 2-28 Snap rings, 6-19 Sonobuoys, 8-19 to 8-20 Spotting aircraft, 11-9 Squadron, organization of a, 2-10 to 2-14 aircraft squadron departments, 2-12 to 2-13 commanding officer (CO), 2-11 executive officer (XO), 2-11 maintenance administration, 2-13 maintenance/material control officer, 2-12 maintenance officer, 2-11 quality assurance analysis, 2-l3 types of divisions, 2-13 to 2-14 Squadrons, types of, 2-9 to 2-10 carrier squadrons, 2-9 to 2-10 composite squadrons, 2-10 patrol squadrons, 2-10 Structural stress, 4-19 to 4-20 bending, 4-20 compression, 4-20 shear, 4-20 tension, 4-20 torsion, 4-21 varying stress, 4-21

Index-15 Support equipment, 10-1 to 10-20 A/M24M-5 static frequency converter, 10-9 A/M26U-4 (NAN-4) nitrogen servicing unit, 10-12 A/M32C-21 air-conditioner, 10-13 A/M32C-23 Large-Land-Based Air-Conditioner, 10-13 A/M27T-14 electrical hydraulic portable power supply, 10-10 A/M27T-15 diesel hydraulic portable power supply, 10-11 A/S32A-31A aircraft towing tractor, 10-1 A/S32A-32 tow tractor, 10-2 A/S32A-35A (CVCC) aircraft crash and salvage crane, 10-4 A/S32A-36A (CVCC) aircraft crash and salvage crane, 10-5 A/S32A-45 mid-range tow tractor (MRTT), 10-3 A/S32A-48 large land-based tow tractor, 10-3 A/S32M-19, heavy maintenance crane (HMC), 10-6 A/S32P-25 shipboard fire-fighting vehicle, 10-5 A/U26U-1 oxygen servicing unit, 10-11 catapult launching, 11-6 cold weather procedures, 11-14 to 11-15 general safety precautions for handling aircraft aboard carriers, 11-18 to 11-19 hazards of SE, 11-2 helicopter handling, 11-22 helicopter tie-down and securing procedures, 11-22 heavy weather procedures, 11-13 to 11-14 hydraulic jacks, 10-14 landing procedure, 11-7 to 11-8 launching procedure, 11-6 to 11-7 maintenance requirements, 10-15 MSU-200NAV Air Start Unit, 10-9 multiengine aircraft handling 11-20 to 11-21 NC-10C mobile electric power plant, 10-8 normal weather conditions, 11-13 operating equipment around aircraft, 11-1 to 11-2 plane-handling crews, 11-4 preoperational maintenance, 10-15 qualifications for operating SE, 10-16 to 10-17 recovery, 11-8 securing aircraft aboard carriers, 11-12 securing aircraft ashore, 11-21 servicing equipment, 10-7 to 10-12 (SHH) shipboard helo handler, 10-2 spotting aircraft, 11-9 TMU 70 low-loss, closed-loop, liquid oxygen storage tank, 10-12 Survival equipment, personal, 12-46 to 12-56

T TACAN (tactical air navigation system), 8-14 Tachometer, 8-9 Tail rotor assembly, 4-18 to 4-19 pylon, 4-18 rotary rudder blades, 4-17 to 4-18 rotary rudder head, 4-18

Index-16 Taper pins, 6-19 Testing and operational checks, 5-17 Tool containers, 5-1 Tool control program, 5-1 Tractors, 10-1 Training, 1-19 to 1-20 Training courses, Navy, 1-20 Troubleshooting aircraft systems, 5-13 Troubleshooting procedures, 5-13 Turbine inlet temperature indicator, 8-8 Turn and bank indicator, 8-12 Turnbuckles, 6-21 to 6-22 Turnlock fasteners, 6-14 to 6-15 Camloc fasteners, 6-14 to 6-15 Dzus fasteners, 6-15 Types of contamination, 5-41

V Vertical axis, 3-5 Vertical scale indicator, 7-9 to 7-10

W Washers, 6-14 ball socket washers, 6-14 countersunk plain washers, 6-14 special washers, 6-14 tapper pin washers, 6-14 Wire rope, 5-28 to 5-29 Work center responsibilities, 5-3

End of Book Questions Chapter 1 Mission and History of Naval Aviation Introduction

1-1. In what year was the Navy first interested in airplanes as a naval weapon?

A. 1888 B. 1898 C. 1910 D. 1911

1-2. Who staged the first demonstration of the new flying machine?

A. Glenn brothers B. Wright brothers C. Ely brothers D. Curtiss brothers

1-3. Eugene Ely first flew a biplane from a wooden platform off of what ship?

A. USS Pennsylvania B. USS Langley C. USS Birmingham D. USS Jupiter

1-4. What was the name of the Navy's first angled deck aircraft carrier?

A. USS Antietam B. USS Pennsylvania C. USS Langley D. USS Lexington

1-5. What was the first operationally equipped jet plane in history to fly faster than 1,000 mph?

A. F9F-2/5 Panther B. FJ-1 Fury C. F8U-1 Crusader D. F2H-1 Banshee

1-6. In 1959, four naval aviators were selected as prospective astronauts for what space project?

A. Apollo B. Gemini C. Saturn D. Mercury

1-7. Who was the first American and naval aviator to go into space?

A. Neal Armstrong B. Alan B. Shepard Jr. C. Edwin Aldrin D. Michael Collins

1-8. What major battle in 1942 was the first of opposing ships NOT making contact with each other?

A. Iwo Jima B. Coral Sea C. Midway D. Guadalcanal

1-9. In October 1943, the Navy accepted its first helicopter. What designation was assigned to that helicopter?

A. F6F B. YR-4B C. PB4Y D. DTBM

1-10. The Westinghouse 19A jet engine was developed for the Navy in what year?

A. 1943 B. 1953 C. 1963 D. 1973

1-11. What rating makes visual and instrumental observations of weather and sea conditions?

A. AB B. AC C. AZ D. AG

1-12. What rating packs and rigs parachutes and life rafts?

A. AG B. AW C. PR D. AO

1-13. Which of the following tasks is performed by the ABH rating?

A. Direct the movement and spotting of aircraft B. Rig, inspect, and proof-load cables and fittings C. Operate catapult launch and retract panels D. Operate aviation fueling systems

1-14. What rating maintains and repairs gasoline engines and associated automotive systems?

A. AM B. AS C. AE D. AT

1-15. In what total number of service ratings is the Aviation Boatswain's Mate (AB) divided?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

1-16. Which of the following ratings operates, maintains, and performs maintenance on aviation fueling and lubricating oil systems?

A. ABE B. ABF C. ABH D. AWF

1-17. What year was the Airman rate established?

A. 1938 B. 1948 C. 1956 D. D966

1-18. What year was the paygrades E-8 and E-9 (senior and master chief petty officer) established?

A. 1911 B. 1942 C. 1948 D. 1958

1-19. What year was the Naval Aviation Museum established at the Naval Air Station, Pensacola, Florida?

A. 1942 B. 1952 C. 1962 D. 1972

1-20. What ship conducted contingent operations during the Iranian hostage crisis?

A. USS Saratoga B. USS Lexington C. USS Kitty Hawk D. USS Washington

1-21. How many service ratings is the AW rate made up of?

A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7

1-22. Which of the following rates performs intermediate-level maintenance on aviation electronic components?

A. AM B. AT(I) C. AT(O) D. AWO

1-23. Which Battle in 1942 caused the Japanese to abandon their attempt to land at Port Moresby?

A. Champlain B. Guadalcanal C. Midway D. Coral Sea

1-24. Which of the following ratings, fit and maintain oxygen masks, flight clothing, and anti-exposure suits?

A. AME B. PR C. AT D. AM

End of Book Questions Chapter 2 Organization of Naval Aviation Mission and History of Naval Aviation

2-1. Who is the senior officer in the Department of the Navy?

A. AMO B. CNO C. CO D. MMCO

2-2. What officer is next in the chain of command after the executive officer?

A. CO B. DO C. MO D. SO

2-3. What person is next in the chain of command after the division Chief?

A. AMO B. CO C. DCPO D. DO

2-4. What is the highest level of maintenance performed at a naval air station?

A. Depot B. Intermediate C. Organizational D. Scheduled

2-5. What department is responsible for preventing sabotage, espionage, theft, and fire?

A. Administration B. Comptroller C. Human Resources D. Security

2-6. What department is responsible for mail distribution, communications, and maintenance of personnel files?

A. Admin B. Comptroller C. Human Resources D. Security

2-7. What department consists of utilities, transportation, and engineering?

A. Admin B. Comptroller C. Public works D. Supply

2-8. What department’s primary purpose is preventing defects?

A. Admin B. Air operations C. Quality assurance D. Security

2-9. What level of maintenance is performed by a squadron?

A. Depot B. Intermediate C. Organizational D. TBM

2-10. What level of maintenance is performed at a Naval Air Facility (NAF)?

A. Organizational and intermediate B. Organizational and depot C. Intermediate and depot D. Scheduled and organizational

2-11. What type of squadron’s mission is strike fighter?

A. VP B. VFA C. VAQ D. VAW

2-12. What type of squadron provides training to new pilots?

A. VP B. VT C. VX D. VR

2-13. What type of squadron’s mission is airborne early-warning?

A. HS B. HSM C. VFA D. VAW

2-14. What officer in the maintenance department is responsible for production?

A. CO B. MO C. MMCO D. DO

2-15. In what division is the power plants branch?

A. Maintenance admin B. Aircraft C. Avionics D. Line

2-16. In what division is the plane captains’ branch?

A. Maintenance admin B. Aircraft C. Avionics D. Line

2-17. In what division is the airframes branch?

A. Maintenance admin B. Aircraft C. Avionics D. Line

2-18. In what department is responsible for readiness and tactical efficiency of the squadron?

A. Operations B. Quality assurance C. Safety D. Target

2-19. In what department is the avionics/armament division?

A. Administrative B. Maintenance C. Safety D. Target

2-20. In what department is Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures (NATOPS)?

A. Administrative B. Maintenance C. Safety D. Target

2-21. In what division is the electronics branch?

A. Admin B. Aircraft C. Avionics/Armament D. Line

2-22. What division on an aircraft carrier is responsible for the maintenance of arresting gear?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

2-23. What division on an aircraft carrier is responsible for aircraft crash, fire, and rescue?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

2-24. What division on an aircraft carrier is responsible for the handling of all aircraft on the flight deck?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

2-25. What division on an aircraft carrier is responsible for operation and upkeep of the carrier’s aviation fuel system?

A. V-1 B. V-2 C. V-3 D. V-4

2-26. What department is responsible for all machinery, propulsion, ventilation, water supply, piping systems, electrical systems, and electronic devices on board the ship?

A. Air B. AIMD C. Dental D. Engineering

2-27. What department is responsible to the CO for the safe navigation and piloting of the aircraft carrier?

A. Air B. AIMD C. Engineering D. Navigation

2-28. In what AIMD division is powerplants?

A. IM1 B. IM2 C. IM3 D. IM4

2-29. In what AIMD division is QA?

A. IM1 B. IM2 C. IM3 D. IM4

2-30. In what AIMD division is SE?

A. IM1 B. IM2 C. IM3 D. IM4

2-31. In what AIMD division is avionics?

A. IM1 B. IM2 C. IM3 D. IM4

2-32. In what AIMD division is airframes?

A. IM1 B. IM2 C. IM3 D. IM4

2-33. What period of an aircraft carrier cycle is the ship checked for satisfactory operation of machinery, equipment, and systems?

A. Deployment B. Repair and refitting C. Shakedown D. Yard

2-34. What period of an aircraft carrier cycle is the carrier refitted and re-supplied?

A. Deployment B. Home port C. Shakedown D. Tactical

2-35. What is the designation of a transport aircraft?

A. C B. E C. F D. T

2-36. What is the designation of a research aircraft?

A. C B. E C. T D. X

2-37. What is the designation of a tanker aircraft?

A. A B. E C. K D. T

2-38. What is the designation of a cold weather aircraft?

A. L B. P C. Q D. R

2-39. Who is the manufacturer of the P-8 Poseidon?

A. Boeing B. Grumman C. Lockheed D. North American

2-40. Who is the manufacturer of the C-40 Clipper?

A. Boeing B. Grumman C. Lockheed D. North American

2-41. Who is the manufacturer of the UH-1 Huey?

A. Beech B. Bell C. Grumman D. Lockheed

2-42. Who is the manufacturer of the C-130 Hercules?

A. Beech B. Bell C. Lockheed D. North American

2-43. Which of the following aircraft was manufactured by McDonnell-Douglas?

A. AV-8 Harrier B. E-2 Hawkeye C. T-34 Mentor D. T-6 Texan

2-44. Which of the following aircraft was manufactured by Beech?

A. AV-8 Harrier B. E-2 Hawkeye C. T-34 Mentor D. T-45 Goshawk

2-45. Which of the following aircraft was manufactured by Grumman?

A. AV-8 Harrier B. E-2 Hawkeye C. T-34 Mentor D. T-6 Texan

2-46. What is the design number of the Orion?

A. C-2 B. C-12 C. P-3 D. P-8

2-47. What is the design number of the Sea Stallion?

A. H-53 B. H-57 C. F/A-18 D. F-35

2-48. What is the design number of the Greyhound?

A. AV-8 B. AH-1 C. C-2 D. E-2

2-49. What is the design number of the Jet Ranger?

A. AV-8 B. AH-1 C. H-57 D. H-60

2-50. What aircraft is armed with the M61A1 (20 mm) gun?

A. F/A-18 B. F-35 C. C-12 D. C-130

2-51. What aircraft is armed with the GAU-22 25 mm gun?

A. F/A-18 B. F-35 C. C-12 D. C-130

2-52. What aircraft was originally designed based on a French engine concept, which was adopted and improved upon by the British?

A. AV-8 B. C-12 C. C-130 D. F/A-18

2-53. What aircraft has a 24-foot revolving radar dish for tracking, detecting, or directing targets?

A. AV-8 B. AH-1 C. C-2 D. E-2

2-54. What aircraft can be armed with 2 x 7.62 mm M60 machine guns, or 2 x 7.62 mm GAU-17/A machine guns?

A. AV-8 B. EA-6 C. UH-1 D. T-6

2-55. What aircraft’s primary mission is to provide intermediate and advanced strike fighter training?

A. AV-8 B. EA-6 C. T-45 D. T-6

End of Book Questions Chapter 3 Principles of Flight

3-1. What is the definition of motion?

A. The act or process of changing place or position B. The act or process of achieving inertia C. The overcoming of force D. The resistance to force

3-2. Which of the following terms refers to Newton's first law of motion?

A. Force B. Action and reaction C. Inertia D. Gravity

3-3. On a fixed wing aircraft, which of the following components (or more applicable/appropriate wording; not sure what all alts have in common) is an example of an airfoil?

A. Landing gear B. Nose C. Rotor blade D. Wing

3-4. What is the front edge or surface of the airfoil?

A. Camber B. Chord line C. Leading edge D. Trailing edge

3-5. What is the imaginary straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil?

A. Camber B. Chord line C. Leading edge D. Trailing edge

3-6. What is the rear edge or surface of the airfoil?

A. Camber B. Chord line C. Leading edge D. Trailing edge

3-7. What is the curve of departure from a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil?

A. Camber B. Chord line C. Leading edge D. Trailing edge

3-8. What force acts in an upward direction to support the aircraft in the air?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-9. What force acts downward on the aircraft?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-10. What force tends to hold an aircraft back?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-11. What force is developed by the aircraft’s engines?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Weight

3-12. What axis is the pivot point about which an aircraft rolls?

A. Lateral B. Longitudinal C. Upward D. Vertical

3-13. What axis runs from the top to the bottom of an aircraft?

A. Lateral B. Longitudinal C. Upward D. Vertical

3-14. What axis is the pivot point about which the aircraft pitches?

A. Lateral B. Longitudinal C. Upward D. Vertical

3-15. What movement is associated with the vertical axis?

A. Pitch B. Roll C. Turn D. Yaw

3-16. What movement is associated with the lateral axis?

A. Pitch B. Roll C. Turn D. Yaw

3-17. What movement is associated with the longitudinal axis?

A. Pitch B. Roll C. Turn D. Yaw

3-18. What component provides motion on an aircraft?

A. Engine B. Landing gear C. Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) D. Wing

3-19. What reaction happens when the helicopter’s main rotor turns in one direction, and the body of the helicopter rotates in the opposite direction?

A. Drag B. Lift C. Thrust D. Torque

3-20. What component does the pilot tilt to control the direction of flight in a helicopter?

A. Main rotor B. Pedal C. Tail D. Wing

3-21. By what method is lift changed on a helicopter?

A. By increasing the drag B. By decreasing the drag C. By increasing the angle of attack D. By decreasing the angle of attack

3-22. What term is defined as maintaining a position above a fixed spot on the ground?

A. Angle of attack B. Hovering C. Lift D. Thrust

3-23. Changing the angle of attack cause the aircraft to pivot on what axis?

A. Horizontal or lift B. Lateral or pitch C. Longitudinal or roll D. Vertical or yaw

3-24. When you lower the right wing of the aircraft and the left wing rises, on what axis will the aircraft pivot?

A. Horizontal or lift B. Lateral or pitch C. Longitudinal or roll D. Vertical or yaw

End of Book Questions Chapter 4 Aircraft Basic Construction

4-1. What advantage does the helicopter has over conventional aircraft?

A. Lift and control are independent of forward speed B. Lift and control are dependent on forward speed C. Speed and forward flight are dependent on roll D. Lift and speed are dependent on roll

4-2. What aircraft structure is designed to transmit engine loads, stresses, and vibrations to the aircraft structure?

A. Fuselage B. Landing gear C. Nacelle D. Tires

4-3. On a semimonocoque fuselage, what component absorbs the primary bending loads?

A. Engine mounts B. Fuselage C. Landing gear D. Longerons

4-4. What is the main structure on an aircraft to which all other units attach?

A. Engine mount B. Fuselage C. Nacelle D. Wing

4-5. How many classes is the monocoque fuselage divided into?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

4-6. Fighter and small aircraft fuselages are usually constructed in how many sections?

A. Two or less B. Two or more C. Three or less D. Three or more

4-7. What is a nacelle’s primary use?

A. Houses the engine B. Houses the landing gear C. Houses the stabilizer D. Houses the wing

4-8. What is used to operate the rudder on all types of aircraft?

A. Pedals B. Speed brakes C. Trim tabs D. Landing gear

4-9. What is used to give the aircraft extra lift?

A. Pedals B. Speed brakes C. Trim tabs D. Wing flaps

4-10. What is used to reduce the speed of an aircraft?

A. Pedals B. Speed brakes C. Trim tabs D. Wing flaps

4-11. In what manner is most aircraft landing gear actuated?

A. Electrically B. Hydraulically C. Manually D. Pneumatically

4-12. What does a snubber on the arresting gear of an aircraft meter?

A. Electricity B. Fire C. Hydraulic fluid D. Water

4-13. What allows the aircraft to be secured to the carrier deck for full-power turnup of the engine prior to takeoff?

A. Holdback assembly B. Lateral C. Snubb D. Tie down chain

4-14. What does the main landing gear of a helicopter consist of?

A. Forward and aft double-wheel assemblies B. Left and right double-wheel assemblies C. Forward and aft single-wheel assemblies D. Left and right single-wheel assemblies

4-15. How many degrees can a tail wheel on a helicopter rotate?

A. 180 B. 360 C. 120 D. 320

4-16. What provides deicing to an H-60 main rotor blade?

A. Heater coil B. Electronic pressure C. Hydraulic pressure D. Heater mat

4-17. What stress on an aircraft is created when force is moved toward each other to squeeze the material?

A. Bending B. Compression C. Shear D. Tension

4-18. What stress is caused by stretching or pulling at an aircraft?

A. Bending B. Compression C. Shear D. Tension

4-19. Cutting a piece of paper with a pair of scissors is an example of what stress?

A. Bending B. Compression C. Shear D. Tension

4-20. What stress is a result of a twisting force?

A. Bending B. Compression C. Tension D. Torsion

End of Book Questions Chapter 5 General Aircraft Maintenance

5-1. Ensuring that tools are procured and issued in a controlled manner consistent with the approved tool control plan is the responsibility of what officer?

A. The maintenance officer B. The material control officer C. The quality assurance officer D. The assistant maintenance officer

5-2. Which of the following reports should be used to report poor quality tools to FLEMATSUPPO?

A. EI B. HMR C. CAT I QDR D. CAT II QDR

5-3. Upon task assignment, you must record the tool container number on what copy of the VIDS/MAF?

A. Copy 1 B. Copy 2 C. Copy 3 D. Copy 5

5-4. Who is responsible for training work center personnel in the use of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)?

A. The safety officer B. The division officer C. The work center supervisor D. The maintenance control chief

5-5. What system/program is used to acquire, store, and disseminate data on hazardous materials procured for use?

A. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) B. Navy Occupational Health and Safety (NAVOSH) C. Hazardous Material Information program (HMIP) D. Hazardous Material Information System (HMIS)

5-6. What section of a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) identifies personal protective equipment required?

A. Section II B. Section V C. Section VII D. Section VIII

5-7. What safety term is used to indicate an operating procedure, practice, or condition, etc., that is essential to emphasize?

A. NOTE B. WARNING C. CAUTION D. ALERT

5-8. What type of drawing is used to show details of parts, components, and other objects?

A. Pictorial B. Orthographic C. Block D. Exploded View

5-9. Efficient troubleshooting of an electrically controlled hydraulic system may require you to use a multimeter for which of the following reasons?

A. Check frequency B. Check voltage and continuity C. Relieve the AE of solving the problems D. To read the electrical portion of a schematic

5-10. After conducting a visual inspection and an operational check, what troubleshooting step should be next?

A. Locate the trouble B. Isolate the trouble C. Correct the trouble D. Classify the trouble

5-11. You are troubleshooting a malfunction and conducting the final operational check. What is the minimum number of times the affected system must be actuated?

A. 5 B. 7 C. 3 D. 10

5-12. How many basic categories of malfunctions are there?

A. 5 B. 2 C. 4 D. 3

5-13. What is the total number of common methods used to apply lubricants?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

5-14. Flush lubrication fittings are used for which of the following reasons?

A. To prevent interference with moving parts B. To reach areas that are normally easy access C. To reach areas that are normally hard to access D. To lubricate areas that do not require much lubrication

5-15. To determine the type of lubricant and equipment to be used in a given area of an aircraft, you should refer to which of the following publications?

A. MIM only B. MRC only C. Both 1 and 2 above D. COMNAVAIRFORINST 4790.2 (series)

5-16. How many forms of lubricants are there?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

5-17. Why are lubricants necessary in aircraft components?

A. To cool parts B. To minimize friction C. To prevent corrosion D. To prevent wear

5-18. What document should you consult for safety precautions for a specific lubricant?

A. NAVAIR 01-1A-509 B. Aircraft MRC C. Aircraft MIM D. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

5-19. Which of the following is never a type of aircraft lifting sling?

A. Wire rope B. Snatch cable C. Fabric webbing D. Structural steel

5-20. To find load testing and inspection information on aircraft lifting slings, you should consult what publication?

A. NAVAIR 01-1A-17 B. NAVAIR 01-1A-20 C. NAVAIR 17-1-114 D. NAVAIR 17-15E-52

5-21. A group of wires twisted together is known by what name?

A. A wire rope B. A strand C. A cable D. A core

5-22. In reference to a cable, what does the term "bird cage" mean?

A. A kink that has been pulled through in order to straighten a cable B. A cable that is manufactured to look like a bird cage C. A cable that is improperly stored D. A neatly coiled cable

5-23. You should examine and lubricate all lifting slings at least how often?

A. Once a week B. Twice a week C. Once a month D. Twice a month

5-24. Hoisting restrictions for a specific type of aircraft can be found in which of the following publications?

A. NAVAIR 01-1A-8 B. NAVAIR 01-1A-17 C. NAVAIR 15-02-500B D. Applicable MIM

5-25. What are the two types of aircraft jacks used by the Navy?

A. T-bar and camel B. Hand carried and T-bar C. Horseshoe and camel D. Axle and airframe (tripod)

5-26. Aircraft jacks are serviced with what type of fluid?

A. General-purpose oil B. Synthetic oil C. Aircraft hydraulic fluid D. Support equipment hydraulic fluid

5-27. A tripod jack consists of what total number of basic assemblies?

A. 3 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8

5-28. A leg extension kit for a variable height tripod jack will increase its effective height by what total amount of inches?

A. 6 B. 12 C. 18 D. 24

5-29. You are using three tripod jacks to jack an aircraft aboard a ship. What is the minimum number of tie-down chains that will be attached to all the jacks?

A. 3 B. 9 C. 12 D. 18

5-30. During jacking operation, the tie-down chain preload is too high when which of the following conditions exists?

A. The jack safety valve bypasses fluid B. The first stage locknut does not turn C. The tensioning grip cannot be rotated by hand D. The jack baseplate is seated flush with the deck

5-31. Special inspections for tripod jacks are required at what intervals?

A. Every 13 weeks B. Every 10 weeks C. Every 8 weeks D. Every 7 weeks

5-32. What is the maximum acceptable hydraulic fluid particulate level for naval aircraft?

A. Class 3 B. Class 5 C. Class 6 D. Class 10

5-33. What is the maximum acceptable hydraulic fluid particulate level for support equipment (SE)?

A. Class 3 B. Class 5 C. Class 6 D. Class 10

5-34. What is the primary use for MIL-PRF-46170D hydraulic fluid?

A. Extremely low surrounding temperatures B. Preservative hydraulic fluid C. Principal hydraulic fluid used in military aircraft D. Support equipment only

5-35. What is the first step in periodic fluid surveillance?

A. Analyze fluid sample B. Certify cleanliness C. Obtain fluid sample D. Replace filter

5-36. What is the size of particulate matter measured in?

A. Centimeter B. Millimeter C. Megahertz D. Microns

5-37. What does the presence of air in a hydraulic system cause?

A. Abraded synthetic rubber seals B. Spongy response during system operation C. Undesired oxidation D. Rust-like corrosion

5-38. What does the presence of water in a hydraulic system cause?

A. Abraded synthetic rubber seals B. Spongy response during system operation C. Undesired oxidation D. Tight response during system operation

5-39. What is a physical point in a hydraulic system from which small amounts of hydraulic fluid are drawn to analyze it for contamination?

A. Fluid sampling point B. Fluid system point C. Fluid contamination point D. Fluid access point

5-40. Most fleet equipment is calibrated so that the smallest particle counted has an effective diameter of how many microns?

A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7

End of Book Questions Chapter 6 Aircraft Hardware

6-1. What position of a rivet identification code identifies the length of the rivet?

A. First B. Second C. Third D. Fourth

6-2. A 5056 rivet is used to join magnesium alloy materials because of which of the following factors?

A. Tensile strength B. Cold working C. Heat resistance D. Corrosion resistance

6-3. Which of the following characteristics is NEVER a factor in the classification of solid rivets?

A. Size B. Color C. Material D. Head shape

6-4. Which of the following precautions should you take when using a ® (pin) rivet?

A. Never use them on thick sheets B. Never use them on aluminum alloys C. Never use them with an aluminum collar D. Never use them where the grip length is less than the shank diameter

6-5. What type of rivet is used for fastening thick-gauge sheets of metal together?

A. Solid B. Blind C. Shear D. Structural

6-6. When space on one side is too restricted to properly use a bucking bar, what type of rivet should you use?

A. Flat B. Solid C. Blind D. Hi-Shear®

6-7. What type of fastener is used in an application for which a high strength, interference-free fastener is required?

A. Jo-Bolt® B. Lock-bolt C. Hi-Lok® D. Rivnut

6-8. What type of fastener has high strength and is used in applications for which access to only one side of the material is available?

A. Jo-Bolt® B. Lock-bolt C. Hi-Lok® D. Rivnut

6-9. Which of the following characteristics describes a rivnut?

A. Solid B. Square C. Oblong D. Hollow

6-10. What type of rivnut must be used on sealed floatation or pressurized compartments?

A. Open-end B. Closed-end C. Groove shanked D. Externally threaded

6-11. Which of the following fasteners has a shear and tensile strength equal to or greater than the requirements of AN or NAS bolts?

A. Lock-bolt B. Turnlock C. Rivnut D. Airloc

6-12. What metal is used in the construction of the threaded pins of Hi-Lok® fasteners?

A. Titanium B. Stainless C. Anodized 2024-T6 aluminum D. Cadmium-plated alloy steel

6-13. Which of the following is NEVER a head style of a Jo-Bolt®?

A. 100-degree flush B. Diamond recessed C. Hexagon protruding D. 100-degree flush millable

6-14. What type of fastener is used on panels that are removed and reinstalled frequently for maintenance repairs?

A. Hi-Lok® B. Jo-Bolt® C. Turnlock D. Structural

6-15. What distance must the stud of a Camloc fastener be turned to release it without permitting re- engagement?

A. One-half turn clockwise B. One-fourth turn clockwise C. One-half turn counterclockwise D. One-fourth turn counterclockwise

6-16. Which of the following parts is used only on heavy-duty Dzus fasteners?

A. Pin B. Stud C. Spring D. Grommet

6-17. When you install a hose between two duct sections, what is the maximum allowable gap, in inches, between the duct ends?

A. 1/4 B. 3/8 C. 3/4 D. 7/8

6-18. A V-band coupling requires what minimum number of turns of safety wire?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

6-19. A flat-head pin used in a tie-rod terminal should be secured with what device?

A. Cotter pin B. Sheet spring nut C. Self-locking nut D. Safety wire

6-20. Aircraft nuts are divided into what two general groups?

A. Self-locking and nonself-locking B. Metal insert and fiber insert C. High temperature and common D. Ferrous and nonferrous

6-21. Which of the following nuts is an example of an all-metal self-locking nut?

A. Wing B. Flexloc C. Elastic stop D. Internal wrenching

6-22. Which of the following types of nuts is designed to be used with cotter pins or safety wire?

A. Check B. Plate C. Castle D. Barrel

6-23. When an assembly is frequently removed, which of the following types of nuts should be used?

A. Wing B. Shear C. Klincher D. Sheet spring

6-24. What three types of screws are most commonly used in aircraft construction?

A. Machine, structural, and self-tapping B. Brazier-head, round-head, and common C. Self-tapping, Phillips, and common D. Structural, machine, and pan-head

6-25. Which of the following types of screws are as strong as bolts of the same size?

A. Setscrews B. Machine screws C. Structural screws D. Self-tapping screws

6-26. Flush-head screws are available in what degree(s) of head angles?

A. 82° only B. 82° and 100° only C. 82°, 100°, and 125° only D. 82°, 100°, 125°, and 145°

6-27. When replacing an original screw in a structure, you should never use which of the following screws?

A. Setscrew B. Machine screw C. Structural screw D. Self-tapping screw

6-28. Aircraft cables have the center core twisted in one direction and the outer core in the opposite direction for what reason?

A. To make the cable rigid B. To make the cable stiffer C. To minimize the stretch or set D. To allow the strands to expand when cut

6-29. A piece of 7 x 19 cable has what total number of wires?

A. 133 B. 26 C. 19 D. 7

6-30. Terminal fittings are generally attached to the ends of cables by what method?

A. Swaging B. Welding C. Splicing D. Soldering

6-31. The size of a cable is determined by which of the following factors?

A. Lay B. Tension C. Diameter D. Strength

6-32. The turnbuckle is used to make what type of cable adjustments?

A. Minor adjustments to cable length only B. Minor adjustments to cable tension only C. Minor adjustments to cable length and tension D. Adjustments to cable threads

6-33. Adjustable connector links are used in what type of cable assemblies?

A. Very long B. Very short C. Thin D. Stretch

6-34. How many different types of cable guides are used throughout an aircraft?

A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Five

6-35. A fairlead may be used to minimize cable whipping and what other action?

A. Sticking B. Binding C. Slacking D. Vibration in long cable runs

6-36. A grommet is manufactured from what material?

A. Rubber B. Aluminum C. Copper D. Felt

6-37. What device is used on cables or rods that must move through a pressurized bulkhead?

A. O-ring B. Grommet C. Pressure seal D. Back-up ring

6-38. What device changes cable direction and allows a cable to move with minimum friction?

A. Pulley B. Sector C. Quadrant D. Bell crank

6-39. A connector assembly consists of how many different parts?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

6-40. What device provides a means of fastening a wire to a terminal stud?

A. Connector B. Bonding wire C. Terminal D. Static discharger

6-41. What type of terminal is generally recommended for use on naval aircraft?

A. Crimped B. Soldered C. Twist-on D. Fused

6-42. What type of terminal is usually used in emergencies only?

A. Crimped B. Soldered C. Twist on D. Fused

6-43. What type of connection is used to connect all metal parts of an aircraft to complete an electrical unit?

A. Terminal B. Static C. Bonding D. Fused

6-44. What component allows for the continuous satisfactory operation of onboard navigation and radio communication systems?

A. Bonding wires B. Connectors C. Terminals D. Static dischargers

6-45. What factor accounts for the majority of all fastener problems?

A. Fatigue failure B. Improper material C. Cross-threading D. Corrosive breakdown

6-46. Cotter pins are used to secure which of the following devices?

A. Bolts only B. Nuts only C. Screws only D. Bolts, nuts, and screws

6-47. What type of safety wire is used in high-temperature areas?

A. Bailing B. Brass C. Annealed copper D. Annealed, corrosion-resistant

6-48. What type of safety wire is used on valves and levers used for emergency operation of aircraft equipment?

A. Copper B. Brass C. Bailing D. Corrosion-resistant

6-49. How many different methods are used for safetying a turnbuckle?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

6-50. How many times, if any, can a turnbarrel lock clip be reused?

A. One time B. Two times C. Three times D. It cannot be reused

6-51. How many pieces of safety wire are used when securing a turnbuckle using the wire-wrapped method?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

6-52. When you use the wire-wrapped method on a turnbuckle, each wire is wrapped how many times around the shank?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

End of Book Questions Chapter 7 Aircraft Power Plants

7-1. What engine does NOT draw air from the outside to fuel the combustion process?

A. Gas turbine B. Rocket C. Turboprop D. Turboshaft

7-2. How many types of jet propulsion engines are there?

A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8

7-3. How many major components make up a turbojet engine?

A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7

7-4. How many types of gas turbine engine are there?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

7-5. Which of Newton’s laws of motion explains the operation of jet propulsion?

A. First B. Third C. Fifth D. Seventh

7-6. What component is an opening in the front of the aircraft that allows outside air to enter the engine?

A. Inlet duct B. Compressor C. Combustion chamber D. Turbine

7-7. Which of the following types of aircraft uses a turbojet engine?

A. H-57 B. F/A-18 C. T-6 D. C-130

7-8. What component is attached to the rear of the turbine assembly and is a tapered, cylinder- shaped outlet for the gases?

A. Inlet duct B. Compressor C. Combustion chamber D. Exhaust cone

7-9. What component is made up of a series of rotating blades and a row of stationary stator vanes?

A. Inlet duct B. Compressor C. Combustion chamber D. Exhaust cone

7-10. How many igniter plugs are usually on an engine?

A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5

7-11. What section of a turbojet engine drives the compressor and accessories by extracting some of the energy and pressure from the combustion gases?

A. Inlet duct B. Compressor C. Combustion chamber D. Turbine

7-12. What engine was developed to provide the power requirements for aircraft of greater size, carrying capacity, range, and speed?

A. Rocket B. Turboprop C. Turborotor D. Turboshaft

7-13. How many major sections make up a turboprop engine?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

7-14. What section of a turboprop engine consists of an axial-flow compressor, a combustion chamber, a multi-stage turbine, and an exhaust?

A. Power B. Reduction C. Torquemeter D. Tail

7-15. What assembly on a turboprop engine lowers the engine rpm within the range of efficient propeller rpm?

A. Power B. Reduction C. Torquemeter D. Tail

7-16. What type of engine has a high power-to-weight ratio and is widely used in helicopters?

A. Rocket B. Turbojet C. Turboprop D. Turboshaft

7-17. What control system on a gas turbine engine assists in cooling the engine?

A. Accessory B. Ignition C. Fuel control D. Lubrication

7-18. What component on an engine is the heart of the gas fuel system?

A. Accessory section B. Ignition system C. Fuel control D. Exhaust cone

7-19. For what do gas turbine engines use high voltage and a spark of high heat intensity?

A. Cooling B. Ignition C. Thrust D. Shutdown

7-20. How many different types of ignition systems are used on gas turbine engines?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

7-21. What type of lubricant is used in all gas turbine engine lubrication systems?

A. AMS oil B. Synthetic oil C. Hydraulic fluid D. Synthetic hydraulic fluid

7-22. What section on a gas turbine engine is usually mounted beneath the compressor?

A. Fuel control B. Accessory C. Ignition D. Lubrication

7-23. What cycle is used to describe the gas turbine engine’s cycle?

A. Amber B. Braxton C. Brayton D. Camber

7-24. In the ANA Bulletin No. 306m Designation System, the number 30 is used for what branch of service?

A. Army B. Coast guard C. Air Force D. Navy

7-25. What symbol is used for a turbojet engine?

A. A B. J C. K D. T

7-26. What symbol is used for a turboprop engine?

A. A B. J C. K D. T

7-27. How many designation systems are used to identify aircraft power plants?

A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8

7-28. What letter preceding the basic designation signifies a special designation?

A. A B. B C. X D. Z

7-29. What is the engine manufacturer symbol for United Aircraft of Canada Ltd.?

A. AD B. BA C. CA D. CP

7-30. What is the engine manufacturer symbol for AiResearch Division, Garrett Corp.?

A. BA B. GA C. LD D. MD

7-31. Without ear protection, persons exposed to sound intensities above what dB may suffer hearing damage?

A. 110 B. 120 C. 130 D. 140

7-32. What area on an aircraft produces the two most serious hazards, the high temperature and the high velocity of the tailpipe?

A. Exhaust B. Intake C. Landing gear D. Main rotor

7-33. What area on an aircraft develops enough suction to pull in an individual?

A. Exhaust B. Intake C. Landing gear D. Main rotor

7-34. Keeping aircraft and power plants in top operating condition is the principal function of what type of personnel?

A. Admin B. Maintenance C. Medical D. Security

7-35. In the MIL-STD-1812 engine designation system, what number is used by the Navy?

A. 100 B. 200 C. 300 D. 400

End of Book Questions Chapter 8 Aircraft Avionics

8-1. What maintains the battery in a charged state?

A. APU B. Alternator C. Electrolyte D. Generator

8-2. What provides a reserve source of electrical power for selected electrical systems?

A. APU B. Alternator C. Battery D. Generator

8-3. What are batteries usually enclosed in?

A. Grounded metal housing B. Ungrounded metal housing C. Grounded plastic housing D. Ungrounded plastic housing

8-4. What hazard is caused by spraying CO2 into a battery compartment?

A. The static electricity generated by the discharge of the extinguisher could explode the gases trapped in the battery compartment. B. The temperature generated by the discharge of the extinguisher could freeze the gases trapped in the battery compartment. C. The heat generated by the discharge of the extinguisher could burn the gases trapped in the battery compartment. D. The water generated by the discharge of the extinguisher could liquefy the gases trapped in the battery compartment.

8-5. What is the principal hazard in working with lead-acid batteries?

A. Burns B. Explosion C. Heat D. inhalation

8-6. What converts ac power to dc power?

A. Alternator B. APU C. Rectifier D. Generator

8-7. What rating maintains the pitot-static system and most aircraft instruments?

A. AB B. AD C. AE D. AT

8-8. What amount of power is provided by the aircraft carrier electrical servicing system?

A. 200 Hz B. 400 Hz C. 600 Hz D. 800 Hz

8-9. What system is based on a radar wave transmission beamed toward the earth behind the aircraft?

A. Doppler B. INS C. TACAN D. UPS

8-10. What provides ground service and emergency power?

A. APU B. Carrier servicing system C. Generator D. Rectifier

8-11. What converts mechanical energy into electrical energy?

A. Battery B. Carrier servicing system C. Generator D. Rectifier

8-12. The pitot-static system consists of a pitot-static tube and how many indicators?

A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7

8-13. What indicator shows the height of the aircraft above sea level?

A. Airspeed B. Altimeter C. Rate-of-climb D. Tachometer

8-14. What instrument shows the speed of the power section of a gas turbine engine?

A. Airspeed B. Altimeter C. Rate-of-climb D. Tachometer

8-15. What indicator shows the pilot the relative position of the aircraft compared to the earth's horizon?

A. Altimeter B. Angle of attack C. Attitude D. Airspeed

8-16. What range of frequencies are airborne long-range communications sets normally operated in?

A. 3 MHz to 30 MHz B. 30 MHz to 3 GHz C. 6 MHz to 40 MHz D. 40 MHz to 6 GHz

8-17. What new and complex group of electronic navigational equipment is now in use in naval aviation?

A. Doppler B. Navigation computers C. GPS D. TACAN

8-18. What radio navigational set provides slant range and relative bearing to a transmitting ground (surface) station?

A. Doppler B. GPS C. TACAN D. UPS

8-19. What is an automatic aid to navigation that is independent of outside references?

A. Doppler B. INS C. TACAN D. UPS

8-20. What system works on the echo principle?

A. RADAR B. Sonobuoys C. TACAN D. WC

8-21. A surfaced or snorkeling submarine is not likely to be detected by an aircraft's radar. The reason is the submarine's ECM detects the aircraft's radar at a greater distance than the aircraft can detect the submarine. What helps solve the submarine detection problem?

A. RADAR B. Sonobuoys C. TACAN D. WC

8-22. The highly directional characteristics of what system make it suited for directing fire control?

A. ECHO B. IFF C. RADAR D. TACAN

8-23. What method other than visual recognition must be used for early identification of the target?

A. ECHO B. IFF C. RADAR D. TACAN

8-24. What is an expendable electronic listening device dropped into water from carrier-based and land-based patrol aircraft?

A. Gyroscopes B. IFF C. MAD D. Sonobuoys

8-25. What equipment uses the principle that a metallic submarine disturbs the magnetic lines of force of the earth?

A. Gyroscopes B. IFF C. MAD D. Sonobuoys

End of Book Questions Chapter 9 Aircraft Ordnance

9-1. What is military material (such as combat weapons of all kinds) and the ammunition and equipment required for its use called?

A. Ammunition B. Ordnance C. Propellant D. Pyrotechnics

9-2. What ammunition contains compositions that produce illumination?

A. Cartridge activated device (CAD) B. Propellant C. Pyrotechnics D. Warhead

9-3. What is the term for actual size ammunition items with working mechanisms used for training exercises but having no explosive materials?

A. CAD B. Chemical ammunition C. Guided missile D. Inert ordnance

9-4. What is the part of ammunition containing the materials intended to inflict damage?

A. Cartridge activated device (CAD) B. Propellant C. Pyrotechnics D. Warhead

9-5. Which of the following is an unmanned vehicle designed as a weapon that travels above the surface of the earth?

A. Airborne stores B. Guided missile C. Incendiary D. Warhead

9-6. What type of ammunition is intended for operational use?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

9-7. What type of ammunition is specifically designed or modified for use in exercises?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

9-8. What type of ammunition and components contain no explosive material?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

9-9. What type of ammunition is used for training personnel in all aspects of a familiarization program?

A. Inert B. Practice C. Non-service D. Service

9-10. What type of ordnance is painted yellow?

A. Armor-defeating B. Marking C. High explosive D. Toxic

9-11. What type of ordnance is painted grey with a dark green band?

A. Armor-defeating B. Marking C. High explosive D. Toxic

9-12. What type of ordnance is painted light blue?

A. Illuminating B. Irritant C. Low explosive D. Practice

9-13. What is the average reaction time of a MK 82 unprotected?

A. 3 + 30 B. 10 + 00 C. 12 + 18 D. 14 + 15

9-14. What type of bombs have two suspension lugs threaded into lug inserts on the bomb body, contain high-explosive filler, and is identified by yellow-stenciled nomenclature on the bomb?

A. MK 80/BLU 100 B. MK 100/BLU 80 C. MK 176/BLU 82 D. MK191/BLU 88

9-15. What is the shortest reaction time of a BLU-117 thermally protected?

A. 3 + 30 B. 8 + 45 C. 12 + 18 D. 14 + 15

9-16. Which of the following types of bomb is used in most bombing operations?

A. General-purpose (GP) bombs B. Special purpose bombs C. Cluster bombs (CBU) D. Low-collateral damage bomb (LOCO)

9-17. A bomb body is shipped with a plastic plug installed in the nose and tail fuze wells to prevent what occurrence?

A. The explosive filler from spilling out B. Static charge build-up C. Accidental arming D. Damage to the internal threads from moisture entering the fuze wells

9-18. When shipping bombs, what type of pallet is used?

A. Metal B. Nylon C. Plastic D. Wood

9-19. How do laser-guided bombs detect a target?

A. Laser beam illumination B. Remote guidance C. Laser-guided bombs do not detect targets D. Programmed target data

9-20. Long-range missiles are usually capable of traveling what minimum number of miles?

A. 100 miles B. 200 miles C. 300 miles D. 400 miles

9-21. Speeds from Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2 are referred to by what term?

A. Subsonic B. Transonic C. Supersonic D. Hypersonic

9-22. Speeds above Mach 5.0 are referred to by what term?

A. Subsonic B. Transonic C. Supersonic D. Hypersonic

9-23. A service missile is usually referred to as which of the following types of missile?

A. A practice missile B. A tactical missile C. A dummy missile D. A training missile

9-24. What is the communications link between the pilot and the weapon?

A. AAA-9 B. AN/AE-12 C. AN/AWW-13 D. AR/AWW-13

9-25. Which of the following guided missile launchers is a complete launching system used with AIM-9M (series) missiles?

A. LAU-7 B. LAU-115 C. LAU-116 D. LAU-118

9-26. What launchers are capable of launching the AIM-9X?

A. LAU-7 and LAU-118 B. LAU-7 and LAU-127 C. LAU-115 and LAU-117 D. LAU-117 and LAU-118

9-27. All versions of Hellfire missiles in the Navy and Marine Corps inventory are carried on what type of guided missile launcher?

A. LAU-117 and LAU-118 B. LAU-118 and LAU-127 C. M-272/M-299 D. All the answers are correct

9-28. How is an M61A1/A2 automatic gun (1) driven and (2) controlled?

A. (1) Electrically (2) pneumatically B. (1) Hydraulically (2) electrically C. (1) Electrically (2) electrically D. (1) Hydraulically (2) pneumatically

9-29. At what prescribed rate can an M61A1/A2 gun fire M50 series ammunition?

A. 2,000 to 6,000 rpm B. 2,000 to 4,000 rpm C. 4,000 to 6,000 rpm D. 4,000 to 7,200 rpm

9-30. What components are the primary parts of an M61A1/A2 automatic gun?

A. Barrels, housing assembly, and muzzle clamp assembly B. Housing assembly, muzzle clamp assembly, and clearing sector assembly C. Barrels, rotor assembly, and housing assembly D. Muzzle clamp assembly, rotor assembly, and barrels

9-31. A hand-manipulated signaling device is used for all EXCEPT which of the following signaling purposes?

A. Identification B. Countermeasure C. Warning D. Distress

9-32. When fired, the star ejected from an Mk 80 Mod 0 signal burns for what minimum amount of time?

A. 4.5 seconds B. 10.5 seconds C. 4.5 minutes D. 10.5 minutes

9-33. Before loading a signal into an Mk 31 Mod 0 signal projector, you should first take what action?

A. Inspect the signal for damage B. Make sure the signal projector is cocked C. Clear all personnel from the immediate area D. Make sure the signal projector is not cocked

9-34. When a Mk 25 Mod 2 marker is in the water, what liquid serves as an electrolyte to produce a current in the battery?

A. Fresh water B. Oil C. Seawater D. Acid

9-35. What type of CAD is used primarily for release and ejection of stores from an aircraft?

A. CCU-44/C B. CCU-45/B C. Mk 19 Mod 0 D. Mk 97 Mod 0

9-36. What type of CAD is used as a power source to actuate a helicopter cable cutter?

A. CCU-44/C B. CCU-45/B C. Mk 19 Mod 0 D. Mk 97 Mod 0

9-37. What type of bomb rack is installed on the wing stations of the P-3 aircraft and is used with the aircraft wing store launcher assembly, which is modified to launch a Harpoon missile?

A. BRU-14/A B. BRU-12/A C. BRU-15/A D. BRU-32/A

9-38. What type of bomb rack is designed for fixed mounting in a bomb bay of a P-3 aircraft and can be used to carry, arm, and release a weapon?

A. BRU-11 B. BRU-12 C. BRU-14 D. BRU-32

9-39. What type of bomb rack can carry weapons/stores of between 10 and 28 inches in diameter weighing up to 2,600 pounds?

A. BRU-11 B. BRU-12 C. BRU-24 D. BRU-32

9-40. What type of bomb rack allows carriage of two smart weapons (up to 1,000-pound class) on a single aircraft station?

A. BRU-12 B. BRU-14 C. BRU-55 D. BRU-65

End of Book Questions Chapter 10 Support Equipment

10-1. What are the two types of SE?

A. Aircraft handling equipment and preoperational equipment B. Aircraft handling equipment and aircraft servicing equipment C. Aircraft servicing equipment and aircraft preoperational equipment D. Aircraft servicing equipment and aircraft stationing equipment

10-2. What SE is a highly maneuverable, low-profile, towbarless helicopter handling vehicle that replaces the current hangar bay spotting dolly and attaches to and lifts a helicopter's single-tail landing gear?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A-32 C. SHH D. HSS

10-3. What SE is a shipboard firefighting vehicle, 4-wheel (2-wheel drive), 6-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, 24-volt, diesel-powered vehicle with a hydrostatic drive system that transmits power to the rear wheels?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A-32 C. A/S32P-25 D. A/S32P-48

10-4. What SE is an aircraft towing tractor, also called "The Spotting Dolly," and is designed to tow, turn, and position aircraft within the confines of an aircraft carrier hangar deck?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A-32 C. A/S32A-45 D. A/S32A-48

10-5. What SE is a mid-range tow tractor with a 4-cylinder, diesel-powered, 3-speed automatic transmission, liquid cooled, rear-wheel-drive tractor designed for towing aircraft weighing up to 80,000 pounds?

A. A/S32A-31A B. A/S32A-32 C. A/S32A-45 D. A/S32A-48

10-6. What SE is an aircraft crash handling and salvage, self-propelled, 4-wheel drive, 6-cylinder, liquid-cooled, turbocharged, diesel electric-powered vehicle mounted on 6 pneumatic rubber tires?

A. A/S32A-35A B. A/S32A-32 C. A/S32A-45 D. A/S32A-48

10-7. What SE is used to replenish oxygen storage cylinders and emergency bailout oxygen systems, which are installed in aircraft?

A. A/M26U-4B B. A/M32C-23 C. A/U26U-1 D. TMU-70

10-8. What SE is a shipboard mobile electric power plant (MEPP) designed to provide 115-VAC, 3- phase, 400-Hz or 28-VDC electrical power for aircraft aboard ship?

A. A/S32A-35A B. A/S32A-32 C. A/S37A-3 D. A/S32A-48

10-9. All support equipment you operate will have what type of card specific to the SE?

A. Non-operational B. Operational C. Post-operational D. Pre-operational

10-10. What phase of the SE training program do you receive training from AS ratings at the support equipment school sponsored by FRC/AIMD?

A. 4 B. 3 C. 2 D. 1

10-11. What phase of the SE training program covers the operation or use of the support equipment on a specific type of aircraft?

A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5

10-12. Who can submit a misuse or abuse form regardless of the command to which the person is attached?

A. Anyone in the AS rating B. Anyone witnessing the misuse or abuse C. Only a supervisor D. Only the safety officer

10-13. Who has the responsibility to revoke your yellow license under the condition that you intentionally misuse or abuse support equipment?

A. AMO B. CO C. DO D. XO

10-14. How long is your "yellow license" good for from the date issued for each specific type of support equipment and aircraft?

A. 2 years B. 3 years C. 4 years D. 5 years

10-15. If you transfer to a new outfit with different types of aircraft, your license is not valid. You must requalify under what phase of training for the new types of aircraft and be issued a new license?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

10-16. Who performs preoperational maintenance?

A. Organizational and intermediate administrative personnel B. Organizational and intermediate maintenance personnel C. Intermediate and civilian administrative personnel D. Intermediate and civilian maintenance personnel

End of Book Chapter 11 Line Operations and Safety

11-1. What is the speed limit on runways, taxiways, parking areas, ramps, and work areas?

A. 2 mph B. 5 mph C. 7 mph D. 10 mph

11-2. When aircraft are towed, the towing speed should never be faster than the slowest person can walk or exceed ……. mph.

A. 2 B. 5 C. 7 D. 10

11-3. What color are most support equipment painted?

A. Blue and/or white with reflective tape strips on the side. B. Yellow and/or red with reflective tape strips on the corners. C. Yellow and/or white with reflective tape strips on the corners. D. White and/or blue with reflective tape strips on the side.

11-4. What type of life preserver is worn on the flight deck?

A. MJ-1 B. MJ-2 C. MK-1 D. MK-2

11-5. What color are danger areas, including intakes/exhaust and front/rear pintels for attaching tow bars, painted?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. Yellow

11-6. What color flight deck jersey does the arresting gear crew wear?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. Yellow

11-7. What color flight deck jersey does the aviation fuel crew wear?

A. Blue B. Purple C. Red D. White

11-8. What color flight deck jersey does the Liquid Oxygen (LOX) crew wear?

A. Blue B. Purple C. Red D. White

11-9. What color flight deck jersey does the aircraft handling crew and chock men wear?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. White

11-10. What color flight deck jersey do ordnance personnel wear?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. White

11-11. How many hours before the launch is flight quarters usually sounded?

A. 1 to 2 B. 2 to 3 C. 4 to 5 D. 5 to 6

11-12. How many minutes before launch time do flight crews perform their final checks to start the engines upon the signal from primary fly control (PRI-FLY)?

A. 15 B. 20 C. 25 D. 30

11-13. Who has control for all flight deck lighting, landing spot lighting, flight deck floodlights, the stabilized glide slope indicator (SGSI), and the flight deck rotary beacon/

A. Flight deck control B. Hangar deck control C. Maintenance control D. Primary fly control (PRI-FLY)

11-14. Who is involved in FOD walkdown?

A. All air department personnel B. Flight deck personnel C. Maintenance personnel D. Support equipment personnel

11-15. Which of the following is part of the emergency recovery equipment used for the emergency arrestment (stopping) of an aircraft that cannot make a normal (pendant) arrested landing?

A. Arresting hook B. Barricade C. Catwalks D. Number 3 wire

11-16. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: arms above head in vertical position with palms facing inward?

A. Affirmative (all clear) B. Negative (not clear) C. Proceed to next marshaler D. This way

11-17. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: arms down, fists closed, thumbs extended inwards, swing arms from extended position inwards?

A. Affirmative (all clear) B. Insert chocks C. Install down locks D. Remove chocks

11-18. What director hand signal is mandatory when directing aircraft?

A. Cut engine B. Disconnect ground electric power C. Emergency stop D. Hot brakes

11-19. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: either arm and hand level with shoulder, hand moving across the throat, palm down; hand is moved sideways, arm remaining bent, other arm pointing to engine?

A. Cut engine B. Disconnect ground electric power C. Slow down engine D. Start ground electric power

11-20. What is the meaning of the following day time aircraft hand signal: describe large figure eight with one hand and point to the area with the other hand?

A. Cut engine B. Disconnect ground electric power C. Fire D. Engage nosegear steering

11-21. The aft flight deck is checked by who before aircraft can land?

A. Aircraft handling officer B. Arresting gear officer C. Catapult officer D. Flight deck control officer

11-22. What color wand is used by an aviation fuels checker?

A. Amber B. Green C. Red D. White

11-23. What color wand is used by a hook runner?

A. Amber B. Green C. Red D. White

11-24. What color wand is used by a plane captain?

A. Blue B. Green C. Red D. White

11-25. What is the meaning of the following day time helicopter hand signal: arms extended horizontally sideways, palms downward?

A. Hover B. Move downward C. Move upward D. Move to left

11-26. What is the meaning of the following day time helicopter hand signal: waving of arms over the head?

A. Land B. Lower wheels C. Remove blade tiedowns D. Wave off

11-27. During cold weather procedures jury struts and crew station covers are …….

A. Mandatory. B. Optional. C. Necessary. D. Recommended.

11-28. During cold weather procedures what type of support equipment may be fitted with snowplow blades?

A. Forklift B. NC-10 C. Spotting dolly D. Tow tractor

11-29. What is designed for towing aircraft that have nose or tailwheel axle holes?

A. ALBAR B. TD-1A C. TD-1B D. Wheel chock

11-30. What is used to tie down aircraft aboard ship?

A. ALBAR B. TD-1A/B C. TD-22C D. Wheel chock

End of Book Questions Chapter 12 Aircrew Survival Equipment

12-1. What is the first priority of flight clothing?

A. Camouflage B. Comfort C. Evasion D. Protection

12-2. At what temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, does the summer flyer’s coverall begin to char?

A. 300 to 600 B. 400 to 700 C. 700 to 800 D. 900 to 1,000

12-3. Flyer’s boots come in which of the following size ranges?

A. 4 narrow through 14½ extra wide B. 5½ wide through 13 regular C. 5½ narrow through 15½ narrow D. 6 regular through 16 wide

12-4. The CWU-62/P anti-exposure coverall is supplied in how many sizes?

A. 9 B. 10 C. 11 D. 12

12-5. At what water temperature is the anti-exposure suit required to be worn?

A. 32 °C or below B. 40 °C or below C. 50 °F or below D. 60 °F or below

12-6. The multi-climate protection system is made up of how many pieces?

A. 6 B. 8 C. 10 D. 12

12-7. What is the limit of speed a human can endure in a straight and level flight in an aircraft?

A. No limit B. 5 g’s C. 7 g’s D. 12 g’s

12-8. What type of garment provides protection from the effects of high g-forces experienced by aircrew assigned to high-performance aircraft?

A. Anti-exposure B. Anti-g C. Survival vest D. Torso harness

12-9. Who was the first person credited for successfully jumping from an aircraft using a parachute?

A. Jodaki Kuparento B. Albert Berry C. Arnold Appleby D. Andre-Jacques Garnerin

12-10. When did it become mandatory for all Army and Navy aircrew to wear the standard back-type parachute while in flight?

A. 1919 B. 1924 C. 1922 D. 1918

12-11. What is the second step of the five-step ejection sequence of the MK GRU-7?

A. Controller drogue deploys. B. Drogue gun fires. C. Initial ejection. D. Stabilizer drogue deploys.

12-12. By how many methods can the reserve parachute assembly be actuated?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

12-13. How much does the LPU-34/P series life preserver weigh, in pounds?

A. 3 B. 3¼ C. 4 D. 4½

12-14. The LPU-34/P series life preserver has how many inflatable bladders?

A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four

12-15. What is the buoyancy rating, in pounds, of a properly inflated LPU-32/P life preserver?

A. 32 B. 40 C. 50 D. 65

12-16. What is the maximum number of personnel the LRU-16/P life raft can hold?

A. One B. Two C. Four D. Six

12-17. After how long does a dye marker cease to be a good target?

A. 1 hour B. 10 to 15 minutes C. 20 to 30 minutes D. 30 to 50 minutes

12-18. How far, in miles, can the dye marker be seen from an altitude of 3,000 feet?

A. 3 B. 5 C. 8 D. 10

12-19. What amount of candlepower is equivalent to the light a signaling mirror can produce?

A. 6 million B. 8 million C. 10 million D. 11 million

12-20. How many Mk 80 cartridges are in an Mk 79, Mod 0 signal kit?

A. 7 B. 8 C. 10 D. 12

12-21. How many feet can the Mk 80 signal flare travel when propelled upward?

A. 100 to 350 B. 150 to 400 C. 250 to 650 D. 350 to 750

12-22. What is the maximum number of personnel the LRU-12A life raft assembly can hold?

A. One B. Three C. Four D. Six

12-23. What type of casing is the rescue strop constructed of?

A. International orange nylon B. International red nylon C. International red canvas D. International orange canvas

12-24. What material is inserted in the base of rescue seat?

A. Aluminum B. Foam C. Lead D. Nitrogen

12-25. How many pounds does the rescue net weigh?

A. 10 B. 20 C. 25 D. 30

12-26. How many times per minute for each 2-minute duration is the SDU-39/N required to flash?

A. 20 ±5 B. 30 ±10 C. 40 ±5 D. 50 ±10

End of Book Questions Chapter 13 Crash Rescue and Firefighting

13-1. The process of fire is regarded as what type of triangle?

A. Chemical B. Combustion C. Fuel D. Oxygen

13-2. What is considered the fourth element necessary to sustain a fire?

A. Chemical chain reaction B. Fuel C. Heat D. Oxygen

13-3. What word is defined as the lowest temperature at which its vapors can be ignited and will continue to burn?

A. Exhaust point B. Fire point C. Flash point D. Vapor point

13-4. What term is defined as the temperature at which the substance gives off enough vapors to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the substance's surface?

A. Exhaust point B. Fire point C. Flash point D. Vapor point

13-5. At what temperature will fuel spontaneously ignite?

A. 300 °F B. 500 °F C. 700 °F D. 900 °F

13-6. Removing the fuel or combustible matter is doing what to a fire?

A. Cooling B. Feeding C. Smothering D. Starving

13-7. What class of fire occurs in combustible materials, such as bedding, mattresses, books, cloth, and any matter that produces an ash?

A. A B. B C. C D. D

13-8. What class of fire is an energized electrical fire?

A. A B. B C. C D. D

13-9. Water in what form is very effective for fire-fighting purposes?

A. Foam B. Fog C. Solid stream D. Straight stream

13-10. What fire-extinguishing agent is an inert gas and extinguishes fires by smothering them?

A. AFFF B. CO2 C. Halon 1211 D. PKP

13-11. What class of fire occurs with flammable liquid substances?

A. A B. B C. C D. D

13-12. What class of fire occurs with combustible metals?

A. A B. B C. C D. D

13-13. What fire-extinguishing agent is a dry chemical principally used as a firefighting agent for flammable liquid fires?

A. AFFF B. CO2 C. Halon 1211 D. PKP

13-14. What fire-extinguishing agent is known chemically as bromochlorodifluoromethane, is colorless, and has a sweet smell?

A. AFFF B. CO2 C. Halon 1211 D. PKP

13-15. What size, in inches, are fireplug outlets?

A. 1¼ or 2¼ B. 1½ or 2½ C. 2¼ or 3¼ D. 2½ or 3½

13-16. How many gallons does a high-capacity AFFF system tank hold?

A. 200 B. 400 C. 600 D. 800

13-17. How many gallons per minute (gpm) flow from a 2 ½ inch vari-nozzle?

A. 150 B. 200 C. 250 D. 300

13-18. What firefighting vehicle is a diesel-powered, six-wheel-drive truck with an automatic transmission?

A. A/S32P-25 B. A/S33P-26 C. T-1000 D. T-3000

13-19. What firefighting vehicle is a 4-wheel (2-wheel drive), 6-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, 24-volt, diesel-powered vehicle, with a hydrostatic drive system that transmits power to the rear wheels?

A. A/S32P-25 B. A/S33P-26 C. T-1000 D. T-3000

13-20. How many feet per minute (fpm) is the rate of flame spread of aviation gasoline (AVGAS)?

A. 700 to 800 B. 800 to 900 C. 900 to 1000 D. 1,000 to 1,100

13-21. What is the flash point of JP-4?

A. − °F B. −5 °C C. −10 °F D. −10 °C

13-22. The time to fuel tank failure (release of fuel) is dependent on the percent of fuel in the tank and ranges from what amount of time?

A. 28 seconds for a 10-percent load to 3 1/2 minutes for a 100-percent load B. 38 seconds for a 10-percent load to 4 1/2 minutes for a 100-percent load C. 1 minute for a 10-percent load to 6 1/2 minutes for a 100-percent load D. 3 minutes for a 10-percent load to 8 minutes for a 100-percent load

13-23. At what temperature does liquid oxygen boil into gaseous oxygen?

A. −55 °F B. −155 °C C. −200 °F D. −147 °C

13-24. What are the primary agents used to extinguish internal engine fires?

A. AFFF or water B. Halon 1211 or CO2 C. Halon 1211 or PKP D. PKP or CO2

13-25. What are the primary agents used to extinguish electrical and electronic equipment fires?

A. PKP or water B. Halon 1211 or CO2 C. Halon 1211 or PKP D. PKP or CO2

13-26. What are the primary agents used to extinguish rubber tire fires?

A. PKP or water B. Halon 1211 or CO2 C. Halon 1211 or PKP D. Halon 1211 or water fog