INFORMATION SYSTEMS TECHNICIAN TRAINING SERIES, MODULE 02--COMPUTER SYSTEMS

COMPUTER OUTPUT Output from computer processing, the work that has been completed, may take the form of a printed document, magnetic tape, or magnetic disk or diskette. In all cases, you are responsible for and must ensure that all completed jobs run successfully. In addition, you are responsible for identifying and coordinating the various outputs for each job, and for initiating their correct distribution. OUTPUT PRODUCTS To determine whether a job (or system) ran successfully (to a normal EOJ) and that all processing steps were properly performed, you may have to review the computer console printout. This printout indicates such things as the number of input records read, the various input files updated, all error conditions (error messages) that the operator encountered during the run, and the resulting actions taken, the various output files created, and so on. Most of the time, the computer console printout will provide you with the answers you are looking for when it comes to reconciling processing discrepancies. For example, it will inform you of the reasons certain output products, tapes, diskettes, or report listings, were not produced. Possibly the operator selected an incorrect program option, or the input parameters were incorrect or incomplete before starting the job. In short, you are responsible and also accountable for every job you work on, from the time it is submitted by the user until its delivery back to the user. When checking the user’s output, you should once again refer to the run sheet and/or task folder to verify that all items requested were, in fact, produced. If the output is in the form of magnetic tape, disk, or diskette, be sure it is labeled properly, given the proper classification, and it is on the appropriate media (magnetic media that has been designated for mail-out or distribution only). When checking reports, make sure that they were run on the proper forms (size and type), that no pages are missing and the correct number of copies were printed, and that all print is legible and lined up properly. Once it is completed, you then package each copy of the report, along with any other output products and the original input, place it in the proper pickup area, and log the job out in the job control log. You may need to notify the user when the job is ready. 2-2 If, during the course of checking over the user’s output, you happen to come across something unusual or you find an error, by all means pull (reject) the job immediately, bring it to the attention of your superior, and notify the user of the delay. Even at this late stage, it is better to reject a job to correct any problems or discrepancies rather than release it, only to have it returned for rerun later. OPERATING ENVIRONMENT You work in air-conditioned environments that other AIS personnel (programmers, analysts, and so on) would probably consider intolerable. The coolness of the computer room or center is a constant source of discomfort. Computer rooms have to be kept at a constant and fairly cool temperature to ensure ideal operating conditions and prevent equipment failures. The humidity must also be controlled, for the protection of the equipment and storage media. This is accomplished by some sort of dehumidifier system. Although the requirements usually call for 70°F to 74°F, temperatures often range from 65°F to 70°F, and the humidity ranges between 30 to 60 percent. Fortunately for us, most minicomputers and microcomputers generate far less heat and humidity than mainframes during operation and, as a result, require only a minimal amount of cool air. You will be using a hypothermagraph to monitor the temperature and humidity of the computer room. There are several different models and styles of hypothermagraphs, each with its own specific operating requirements. Check the operator’s manual for the specifics of your equipment. The hypothermagraph uses a paper chart and marking pens to record the temperature and humidity. The chart is normally a 7-day graph showing the day and a number range. It uses two different colors, usually red for humidity and blue for temperature, to show the temperature and humidity on the chart. COMPUTER CONSOLE OPERATION CPUs aren’t the computers you may have seen in the movies with all the blinking lights, although their basic functional units are still the same. The CPU of today, regardless of its size, still contains an arithmetic-logic section, a control section, and an internal storage (memory) section, as we discussed in chapter 1. However, today’s CPU contains relatively fewer lights, switches, levers, and dials when compared to earlier models. So you may be thinking, but aren’t all these

bells, whistles, and lights necessary so that I can communicate with the CPU and its peripheral devices? They really aren’t. At one time, systems like the IBM 360 series were characterized by dials, switches, and lights that flickered on and off. And although most of the switches and lights were primarily used by the maintenance technician or customer engineer, an experienced computer operator could tell you the status of the system just by watching the movement of the lights. These operators were able to detect when a program was in a loop, when a peripheral device became disabled, or when the CPU went into await state. The operator used some switches to manipulate the logic of the program or to enter data into the system; other switches and dials to display the contents of registers or data stored within main memory; and still other switches to perform special functions, such as single-cycling the computer through the instructions of a program. Today, the communications mode between the operator and the CPU differs considerably from those earlier systems. We know the computer can communicate far more effectively with the operator (that’s YOU) through a CRT and console printer than it does through lights or display panels. Now, you are able to communicate with the computer by entering the necessary responses through the keyboard of the console. CONSOLE OPERATIONS Depending on the size of the computer system you are assigned to, there may be one or more system consoles used to monitor the system. The consoles include a CRT and a keyboard, and may have a console printer. As a console operator, you are ultimately responsible for controlling the entire system. You are responsible for initial program loading (IPLing) or booting the system; starting jobs; monitoring jobs; responding to messages; and, most importantly, making decisions and taking care of any problems that may arise with regard to hardware and software. You are also responsible for directing the activities of peripheral equipment operators to ensure accurate response to job/run stream requirements. You are constantly monitoring system operations to determine whether programs appear to be operating correctly. You must be familiar with and know how to use the various types of control languages and statements that are used with computers. Each system has a language designed to interact with the user’s application program and the computer’s operating system. These languages consist of control statements that are placed directly before the user’s program to direct the operating system in its functions. The format of the control language statements differs greatly from one system to another. You will learn the specific control language used on your computer on the job. In addition to console-related functions, you must maintain records required to supplement the console log, including problem documentation and actions that were taken, computer utilization logs, file identification, and so on. Console Keyboard The standard keyboard has the same alphabetic key arrangement as a typewriter with a 10-key numeric keypad to the right, with special function keys located on both sides of the alphabetic keyboard. The special function keys differ, depending upon the console keyboard. The function keys are usually a different color from the alphabetic and numeric keys. By providing you with special function keys, the manufacturer has made it easier and faster for you to perform routine functions. Depending upon the software being used, some console keyboards use the top row of keys (0-9) as command function keys. The command keys cause such functions as automatic skip, enter, update, move, copy, end of job (EOJ), delete. The operator’s guide usually provides documentation regarding each of the function keys. For the most part, console keyboard operations are relatively easy. Prompts are often displayed to help you in responding to messages, initiating jobs, and entering commands and data. Configuration Changes Computer system configuration changes take the form of both hardware and software changes. The addition of new hardware and software upgrades will affect how you do your job. HARDWARE.— Changes to system hardware include the addition of new, the loss of existing, and the modification of existing peripheral equipment. You, as the computer operator, may be involved with helping to move the equipment, running cables, or removing cables, but the majority of the work is usually performed by maintenance technicians. SOFTWARE.— Changes to the software include changing memory, buffer sizes, and hardware 2-3

addresses; and adding new application software. Changes to memory, buffer size, and hardware addresses require changes to the operating system. In addition, you must follow the manufacturer’s instructions. Memory and buffer size changes are done when system performance has dropped because of increased use or changes to peripherals. By increasing memory and buffer sizes, the throughput time of the system is improved and the user access time is shortened. Hardware addresses are changed when there is a change to hardware status, such as the addition or loss of a piece of equipment. The addition of new application software will cause the system to be unavailable to users during the implementation. When the software arrives, it will include the installation instructions that are to be followed. Powering Up the Computer The CPU is normally powered up first; then one by one, each of the I/O devices is turned on. This is done to prevent a sudden surge of power that might overload the circuits. With the computer system powered up, you can then proceed to IPL the system. Booting the System Anytime the system loses power, is shut down, or becomes disabled because of a system crash, it usually needs to be rebooted or initial program loaded (IPLed). A system crash is the result of a hardware, software, or operation problem: a malfunction in the CPU, a programming error from which the operating system could not recover, or an operator error caused by an incorrect response to a message. Booting most systems resets all status indicators and reloads the supervisor (the executive-system program along with other resident routines) into the CPU memory. The manner in which the system is booted depends upon the computer system used and the software included in its operating system. Many of the larger mainframe computers store their operating systems on disk, and this disk is referred to as the SYStem RESident (SYSRES) pack. Once the disk unit with the SYSRES pack is in a ready status, you can then boot the system. Some systems are so simple to boot that all you need do is depress the start (or load) button on the CPU (or master console) and enter the date and time on the console keyboard. Some of the more complex systems may require you to take additional steps—assigning various I/O devices, partitioning (sectioning off) memory, and so on. It is because of these differences that boot procedures are well documented with each step explained to the point that anyone, even someone unfamiliar with the system, could follow the step-by-step directions. Computer Diagnostics Computer diagnostics are of two types: those that are run when the computer is booted (called internal diagnostics), and those that can be run from a peripheral device (called external diagnostics). INTERNAL DIAGNOSTICS.— Internal diagnostics are performed when the computer is booted and are designed to test the computer hardware. They return a pass/fail result to the operator. Some of the internal diagnostics are designed to test all or selected sections of the computer. An example of an internal diagnostic test is the power on-self test (POST), that checks the components upon power on. EXTERNAL DIAGNOSTICS.— External diagnostics can be loaded into the computer from a peripheral (disk or magnetic tape unit) but initiated and controlled by the computer. These diagnostics are very thorough and offer the option of testing all or specific sections of a computer. They are more comprehensive than the internal diagnostics. RESPONDING TO MESSAGES Unless you respond correctly to a system- or program-generated message, CPU time can be lost, the wrong program options can be executed, and the system can even become disabled. As a console operator, you are the most important part of a team effort that makes computerized procedures successful. It is true that while complex operating systems make it easier for you to perform various tasks, correct responses to messages are just as critical. Never second-guess a response. Always refer to the proper documentation to determine the response needed. Manuals provided by the manufacturer, operator’s manuals, and error message manuals should be located as near to the console as possible for your convenience. Basically, you will be concerned with two types of messages: system-generated messages and program- generated messages. System-Generated Messages System messages are generated by the operating system software. To be more specific, it is the executive-program (the supervisor) that is responsible for monitoring and allocating the resources of the 2-4

system, and also for communicating with you, the operator. While carrying out the instructions of an applications program or a utility program, the computer is in a program or problem state. While in this state, interrupts occur that return control of the system resources to the supervisor. When this occurs, the computer is in the supervisor or control state. When an interrupt occurs, a message to the console operator may be displayed to indicate either a normal or abnormal condition. Some messages require a response on your part; others do not. “File XXX now being loaded,” or “PAYROLL1 completed (EOJ)” do not require a response. Other messages, like “Printer Not Ready,” or “No volume label found on pack XXX999,” or “Insufficient memory allocated for job XXX” do require a response on your part. You may be asking yourself, how do I know what occurred, and how do I respond to a system-generated message? YOU FOLLOW PROCEDURES! Most messages are coded, and you use this code to lookup the meaning of the message displayed. These types of messages are normally found in the software manuals supplied by the manufacturer. As you become more experienced, you will quickly become familiar with the different types of messages and be able to determine the origin of the message just by looking at the identifying codes. Program-Generated Messages Program-generated messages are those messages that are displayed by the program as the result of the programmer wanting to inform you of an available option or wanting you to supply data. The program might display a message such as “Enter expiration date,” or “Option 1 to edit data, Option 2 to update file,” or “Load four-part paper in printer.” Whenever a program message is displayed that requires a response, the run book/sheet along with the documentation (operator’s manual, run manual) provided by the programmer should explain each and every response or option available and how you are to respond. STARTING JOBS As an operator, you will be expected to run utility programs and batch jobs. The start up procedures are similar for both; refer to the operator’s manuals and run folders for the specifics for each job you run. The most common application utility programs that you will run will be tape and disk copies, to make backup copies of application files. While batch jobs are more detailed when it comes to starting them, as long as the run folder is followed there will be no problems. They will have different inputs and outputs required than utility programs. All of the file names and media types will be supplied by the user in the form of an AIS service request. Remember, before starting either an application utility or a batch job, look at and follow the operator’s manual and run folder for the job. DISPLAYING JOB STATUS Using the system console, you can display, by their assigned name, the status of all jobs that are currently being executed. The job status also indicates whether the job is active, stopped, terminated, or canceled but still residing in the CPU; waiting for space in the work area or on disk; waiting for a printer or a communications line; or waiting for you to respond to a message. You can also display the status of the system’s I/O devices to see whether or not they have been varied offline to the system. One of your primary responsibilities is to maintain an awareness of the jobs currently undergoing processing within the system. Having the above information is extremely important to you, as it enables you to provide services to the various jobs being processed. The jobs with the highest priorities usually receive immediate attention. Jobs with lower but equal priorities are processed in the order they were entered (loaded) into the system (first-come first-served). Considering these operating constraints, it is easy to understand why the system is in a continuous state of change. Through the use of the display command, you are able to get an immediate picture of the system’s activities. Using this information as a frame of reference, you can determine what actions are necessary to maintain a continuous work flow. RESTARTING A JOB Unfortunately for us, not all jobs processed come to a normal end of job (EOJ). Things like program or machine interrupts, operator errors, bad input data, and incorrect responses to messages can cause a job to prematurely or abnormally terminate (ABORT). When this occurs, it is imperative that normal operations be resumed as quickly as possible. Error recovery must be 2-5

accomplished to maintain production schedules and minimize cost and lost computer time. By monitoring the console (CRT or console printer), you can determine whether a job aborted because of invalid data or during processing. On some systems, the operating system software will display on the console the reason for the job’s cancellation or the point at which the abort of the program took place. If the job aborted during the input phase, you may conclude that bad input data was at fault. If the input data was accepted and processing begun, you may conclude that a program malfunction was encountered (barring any hardware problems) and caused the job to be automatically flushed (canceled) from the system. Regardless of why the job aborted, ultimately, you are responsible for initiating recovery from the job cancellation, using one of a number of methods. In many cases, the operator’s manual or run manual will provide you with the proper procedures necessary to recover or restart a job. One method is to rerun the entire job. However, this could be very costly and time consuming, especially if the master file(s) had to be returned to its/their original state. You might have to recreate files from backup files and rerun programs that added, changed, and deleted records. This problem is especially true when working with disk files. When the operating system supports checkpoint restart routines, a job can be restarted near the point where the problem occurred without having to rerun the entire job (or system). The logical point to take a checkpoint is at the end of reading or writing a tape file or after a predetermined number of records (say, 15,000) have been processed, or after so many minutes of processing (say, 30 minutes) have occurred. The programmer determines the points in the program at which the checkpoints are to occur. This way, if the program cancels (aborts), it can be started again at the last checkpoint. Even if the system provides for an automatic restart at the last good checkpoint, you still must authorize the restart. Usually, a message will appear on the console indicating the job (or task) to be executed and the checkpoint for restarting the job. It is then up to you to either restart the job, postpone the restart until the cause of the problem can be determined, or indicate that the job is not to be restarted. Under no circumstances should the termination or cancellation of a job interfere with the continuous flow of processing within the system. 2-6 CANCELING A JOB Among the tasks you may be asked to initiate via the console is cancellation of a job currently running within the system. The purpose of the cancel operation is to allow you to halt (stop) the processing of an application program and remove it from the system. A program can be canceled by either the supervisor control program or by you. Should the supervisor control program determine that an application program is not executable, it automatically directs the computer to cancel the program and, thereby, halt its processing. There are times when you must intervene with normal processing and flush a job from the system even though the program being executed may not have an error in it. For example, you could be instructed to process a higher priority job immediately. Unable to wait for the completion of the current program (job), you are, therefore, required to abort it. Don’t become confused over the terms cancel, flush, or abort; they all have the same meaning. You may also be required to cancel a job because it has entered a continuous loop, been running way beyond the allotted time, or because it is trying to access a restricted file. You will find that there are many such reasons for having to cancel a program. There are times when you will cancel a program or a program will abnormally terminate (ABEND). This will require you to dump (print out) the contents of storage. This is known as a post-mortem dump. The system prints the contents of all the storage areas used by the program in the processing. This post-mortem dump is used as a debugging aid to help the programmer analyze the program. Whenever a job is canceled or abnormally terminates, it is your responsibility to make an entry in the error/trouble log, giving the cause of the problem and as much detail as possible. DOCUMENTATION Documentation, who needs it? In data processing, we all do: for without it, we would quickly find ourselves in serious trouble. As a computer operator, if you want to know how to run a particular procedure, job, or system or learn more about a particular procedure, job, or system, the operator’s manual or run manual is a good place to start. It can provide you with a wealth of information. Examples are a written overview of the system and systems flowchart, in-depth coverage pertaining to I/O requirements, file specifications (layouts), processing methods, job setup, error messages that might be generated,

recovery/restart procedures, and sample reports. As the console operator, you are responsible for running hundreds, possibly even thousands, of jobs on a regular basis. Without using the available documentation, even an experienced operator cannot understand or be expected to remember exactly how each job is to be set up and run. The actual format of the operator’s documentation differs, depending on your installation’s requirements and SOPS. In some installations, you will find that each procedure or job has its own folder or notebook. Other installations may include an entire system (several jobs), such as personnel or payroll, in one large notebook. Regardless of how the documentation is formatted, its basic objectives are to provide you with complete instructions and to serve as a ready reference. So take the time to read the documentation. You will find that from knowledge comes the wisdom to make the right choice or the right decision every time. SHIFT OPERATIONS As you have probably realized by now, you have the prime responsibility for keeping the computer in an operational state. That is, you are responsible for the continuous and efficient processing of all types of program applications. Knowing this, it is essential that you acquaint yourself with the status of the system before working on the shift, whether it be on the day shift, eve shift, or mid shift. Before you assume control of the shift, you should be aware of its operational state. Normally, this information is obtained from the operators currently on duty, the shift supervisor, the various computer logs and run schedules, and by monitoring the activities of the system. In essence, you must examine those indicators that can reveal possible trouble spots or system malfunctions. For example, ask, what maintenance activities were accomplished, if any, on the previous shift(s)? what devices (pieces of equipment) have been varied offline (those devices which are not available to the CPU)? what other devices have not been fully operable? what maintenance activities, if any, are scheduled during your shift? and are any applications scheduled that are normally troublesome, difficult to handle, or prone to producing errors? Then ask about the work to be done on your shift, what jobs are scheduled to be run? are all the tapes, disks, documentation, and other various media and supplies present and accounted for? if not, have the appropriate personnel or organizations been notified-the librarian, data entry, or scheduling—to rectify the problem? This is important, for it ensures you that the next job to be processed will be input to the computer system with minimum or no delay. In determining all these factors, you get a feel for what’s going on and what is to take place during the upcoming shift—your shift. In a production environment, personnel sometimes get too busy to finish a job or job step. Take that little extra time to stay organized, especially when it comes to the paperwork. Keep in mind and help other personnel understand the importance of being organized, and the problems that come from having too many things going on at one time. A misfiled or mislabeled tape can, at best, mean lost time either in locating it or recreating it. At worst, it can mean lost data and an unrecoverable problem. You will find that most AIS installations overlap each of the shifts from 15 to 30 minutes. This allows you sufficient time to get acquainted with the jobs currently being run and provides continuity between shifts and operators. Throughout this section, we have tried to make one point clear: you must learn to react quickly to situations that may affect the processing capabilities of the computer system. To accomplish this task, you must have a working knowledge of the operational aspects of your job. That is, you must understand what procedures to follow when specific errors arise, know where the operations manuals are kept and how to use them, know where the supplies to process jobs are stored (computer ribbons, paper, tape reflectors, and so on), who to contact in the event of equipment or program failures and errors, and what forms are used and for what purpose. Having a general knowledge of what to do is particularly important to you as a new operator just reporting aboard. You must adjust yourself to this new environment and learn where things are located as well as what should be done. Regardless of the system you are working on, you must know how to use all the available resources, which include hardware, software, and people. Operators who are alert to the requirements of the total system and are able to understand and use the available resources play a vital role in the overall efficiency of the system, the department, and the installation. It is your performance as a computer operator that often determines the general attitude of users toward your installation. In developing a proper attitude toward your work, adhere to a code of ethics. 2-7

Job Monitoring Although we would like to believe all jobs run without error, there are occasions when a program prematurely or abnormally terminates. It does not process to normal end of job (EOJ). When this occurs, the operator is expected to take whatever corrective actions are necessary to get the job going again. More often than not, the operator is able to recover a job by recreating a tape/disk file, moving the file to another device, or possibly cleaning the read/write mechanisms of the device prior to rerun. But, there are times when the operator will notify the I/O control clerk to assist in correcting the problem. Such would be the case when the input parameters are in error, the user’s input is bad, or the job aborted because of an unrecoverable program error. In the event this happens, you maybe responsible for collecting all the data, both input and output, along with any memory dumps, and forwarding them all to the programmer. During the recovery phase of an operation, the operator may need you to provide certain input parameters or tape/disk files before the job can be executed. Because of time constraints, a job that abnormally terminates may have to be rescheduled. If so, you may be responsible for seeing to it that the job gets rescheduled and that the user is notified of any job delay. We could go on and on, but by now you are beginning to get the picture. These examples are just a few of the many things that can get in the way of achieving a normal EOJ. We bring them to your attention to make you aware of the types of problems that can and do arise, and the manner in which you are to respond. Hopefully, you now know and are aware that monitoring a job means more than just calling up the operator to see how the job is progressing. It means you must oversee the job to its completion, doing whatever is necessary to help keep the job (or system) on track. Virus Utilities Virus utilities keep out viruses (malicious logic) that can attack computer system software. This type of software is normally designed to prevent both “known and unknown viruses” from invading a system, and detects and removes those already present. What is a virus? you might ask. A virus is a self replicating, malicious program segment that attaches itself to an application program or other executable system component and leaves no obvious signs of its presence. And just like any bacterial disease, it can spread from disk to disk. Viruses take advantage of the sequential step-by-step process that the computer follows. The virus is read into the computer via a peripheral device (tape drive, diskette drive, communication device, and soon) from a previously infected software application. The virus then inspects the first few instructions of each program until it finds a program that does not begin with the same instructions as itself. Then it attaches a copy of its own instruction set to the front of the program being examined. The spread of the virus comes from inspecting and duplicating itself. Execution of programs may seem to appear normal until the virus strikes. A virus can destroy data files and programs, depending on its design. Be particularly careful about putting new software on your computer; if it contains a virus, it can infect your other programs and data, giving you big problems. Your ISSO and Naval Computer Incident Response Team (NAVCIRT) can assist you in the detection and eradication of the virus. Processing AIS Service Requests Your first task may be to receive jobs from users. Each job will have an AIS service request of some type. A typical AIS service request is illustrated in chapter 1 of Module 1 (figure 1-2). In looking over this form, you will notice that it provides you with all the information needed to run the job. LIBRARY FUNCTIONS As a librarian, your job encompasses many duties and tasks vital to the smooth operation within your installation. Usually, you will find that there are instructions and/or standard operating procedures (SOPS) to help guide you along in different areas of library procedure and toward establishing a highly functional library. But what about you? What should you know or be aware of when working in the AIS media library? The answer to that question is the topic of our discussion: library functions. Put briefly, as a librarian, your job is to become as proficient as possible in the different areas of library management, by learning all the ins and outs, you might say. You will need to know how to receive, handle, maintain (condition, clean, and retire), store, issue, and transfer magnetic media. You will be working with a minimum of supervision and will have to work well with other people to provide the needed services in a timely manner. As the AIS librarian, you can be expected to perform any one, several, or all of the following tasks: 2-8

. Keep an adequate supply of magnetic media (scratch tapes, initialized disk packs, diskettes, and cassettes) available in the library and/or in the computer area ready for use. . Retrieve and file magnetic media in accordance with command policy. l Maintain a current inventory of all magnetic media. Control tapes (save tapes, work tapes, and scratch tapes) on a rotational basis. l Test tapes for quality, and clean and degauss tapes and disks according to prearranged schedules or upon release by programmers and in-house users. . Ensure that all magnetic media is acclimated to the atmosphere in which it will be used for at least 24 hours before releasing it for use. . Inspect new tapes and install BOT and EOT reflectors if not provided by the manufacturer. . File newly created tapes after checking the identification tape reel number against the tape strap number (if used) and verifying that the security classification on the label matches that on the tape reel. . Refile previously created tapes, being careful to scrutinize each as if it were a newly created tape. . Strip tapes (by removing the first 100 feet) when the error rate increases and replace the beginning-of- tape (BOT) reflector. If a tape has damage to its end, remove the last 100 feet (EOT) reflector. . Keep all system condition at all times. and replace the end-of-tape tapes and disks in good l Maintain a record of tapes and disks that have been cleaned by stamping the Julian date on a cleaning label on the back surface of the tape reel or disk pack canister. . Clean disk pack covers according to schedule or as the need arises. l Maintain and distribute tape and disk error and usage reports. . Maintain control of certain required data files, program files, and various types of microforms (microfilm/microfiche). l File all library materials in a neat, organized, and uniform manner. . Have a standard operating procedure (SOP) instruction manual, indicating all library procedures, readily available. . Have an adequate supply of save (external) labels and classification labels available for the computer operators. Q Check all user submitted save labels with job/run request sheets to ensure they are correct. . Check save labels to ensure they indicate no more than a 90-day save request, and that only one 90- day extension is granted before the tape is copied to another tape. . Ensure all users annotate, initial, and return their weekly copy of the release report, indicating what tapes are to be scratched, cleaned, degaussed, stripped, or mailed off-site; or any other action they deem necessary. . Collect a copy of the save labels from the operators for the tape library tape/disk database file (only if the site has an automated tape library control system) and supported software. . Maintain off-site storage of tapes and disks for disaster recovery. . Maintain a current list of all foreign (outside) tapes and disks received and return them on schedule. . Ensure fire-fighting equipment in the library is maintained and inspected by appropriate personnel (fire department, damage control petty officer, and so on) in accordance with command policy. . Update fire-fighting instructions as necessary.. . Maintain the correct temperature and humidity in the library. . Maintain security requirements and access to the library area. . Ensure unauthorized persons do not remove magnetic media or related materials from the library. . Promptly report any and all problems to your supervisor, leading chief, or other appropriate personnel in accordance with standard operating procedures (SOPS). As you see by this list, there is a lot to do. In anyone day, you may perform one or many of these tasks. 2-9

Practice being a good communicator, and adopt orderly work habits. RECEIPT OF MAGNETIC MEDIA One of your jobs will be to receive magnetic media from the manufacturer (new tapes, disks, or diskettes). The first thing you should do is check the shipping container for obvious damage, such as crushed corners, holes, and the like, as shown in figure 2-1. If you find obvious damage, closely examine the media to determine whether damage has occurred. In case of damage, the affected media must be disposed of in accordance with command policy or contract specifications. Physically check magnetic tapes for damage. Get in the habit of looking for such things as broken or warped flanges and damage to the outer edges of the reel. Also, check for damage to the wrap-around strap (see figure 2-2). Examine disk packs for broken or cracked dust covers (see figure 2-3). In addition, visually inspect each and every disk surface for physical damage and warpage. Also, check the air filter located on the bottom spindle of the pack to ensure that it is in place and correctly inserted (mounted). When you examine tapes, check to ensure that reflective tape markers, the beginning-of-tape (BOT) marker, and end-of-tape (EOT) marker are physically located and properly placed at the beginning and at the end of the tape. Should your command have a tape cleaner or tape cleaner/certifier similar to the one shown in figure 2-4, by all means use it to check out the placement of the reflectors as well as to ensure that nothing is internally wrong with the tape. Remember, Figure 2-1.—A damaged tape shipping container. Figure 2-2.—Damaged wrap-around strap. new does not necessarily mean good. If a tape cleaner or certifier is not available, you may be able to use the computer to check out the tape. Some computer systems have software programs that will allow you to test a tape while it is on the tape drive. However, to use this method, you must be allocated computer processing time. Before releasing magnetic media from the library for use on the computer, you must ensure that the media has been properly labeled and prepared (prepped). LABELING MAGNETIC MEDIA We use two types of labels for magnetic media. The first type is placed on the outside of the media itself and Figure 2-3.—Damaged disk dust cover. 2-10

Figure 2-4.—Checking for BOT and EOT with read/write head. is referred to as an external label. External labels are the labels we are interested in. The second type is written directly onto the media and is referred to as an internal label. Internal labels contain information that is needed by the executive control programs (systems software) of the computer to allow for the proper functioning of applications programs. External Labels External labels are considered permanent or nonpermanent, depending on their purpose (see figure 2-5). The two types of permanent tape and disk labels are the identification label, which indicates the number that has been assigned to the media; and the certification label, which indicates the last time the media was certified (tested for its reading and writing capability). Nonpermanent labels include usage labels to tell you how often the media has been used on the computer, cleaning labels to indicate when and how often the media has been cleaned, and save labels to indicate the file or files that are contained on the media. As the magnetic media librarian, you are responsible for initiating and maintaining the first four types of external labels: identification, certification, usage, and cleaning Figure 2-5.—Examples of media labels. 2-11

labels. The programmer, user, or control clerk is responsible for the save label. PERMANENT LABELS.— The permanent-type label comes with a special adhesive backing; and when applied to a surface such as the flange of a magnetic tape, it adheres permanently. That is not to say this type of label cannot be removed, but to remove it takes a considerable amount of effort. Normally, you would consider using this type of label only if it were to remain on the media throughout its life cycle, as is the case with the identification number or certification labels. Identification Label.— The identification number (label) contains a series of letters and/or numbers (usually from 3 to 8 characters in length) that tell you where the magnetic media resides in the library (see figure 2-5). It is a permanent home address, you might say. Your responsibility is to ensure that whenever new tapes and disks are brought into the library be properly numbered. If the tape or disk is a replacement for one that is no longer usable, you must be sure to dispose of the old media and physically remove the identification label. Certification Label.— The certification label is used to indicate the last time a magnetic tape or disk underwent certification. Diskettes are not normally certified, but, instead, are disposed of upon receiving an unacceptable number of unrecoverable read/write errors. It has been found to be more cost effective to simply replace this type of media with new rather than putting it through a refurbishing process. NONPERMANENT LABELS.— The non- permanent type label has a special adhesive backing of stick-on-type construction that can be applied to just about any kind of surface yet be removed with very little effort. This type of label is most useful in applications where information regarding the media itself, or what is written upon it, changes quite frequently. Usage labels, cleaning labels, and save labels are usually nonpermanent type labels. Usage Label. — The usage label is used to determine how many times a tape has been read from or written to. It can be placed on either side of the tape reel. The usage label is normally made up of several boxes or circles (approximately one-quarter inch in diameter), which are filled in (one at a time) by the computer operator each time a tape is used. Notice that we did not mention disks. Disks are normally sent outside of the command for cleaning. At that time, they are also certified for use. However, magnetic tape is an entirely different story. After so many uses a tape must undergo 2-12 a cleaning, and that is where you come in. Every time a tape is returned to the library, you should make it a point to check the usage label to see whether or not it requires cleaning. A magnetic tape maybe cleaned at any time. However, if the tape does contain live data (data still needed), try to be extra careful not to damage the tape during the cleaning process. Normal operating conditions in the computer room require the read/write heads to be cleaned at least once every 4 hours of operation and the entire unit once every 8 hours unless usage is very heavy or as specified in the SOP. If this is done, a tape should be cleaned after every 5 uses, and the number of uses between cleanings should never exceed 10. Cleaning Label. — The cleaning label is used to indicate when and how often a tape has been cleaned. This is important to know, for after a tape has undergone so many cleanings (usually 10), it should be put through a certification process to determine its accuracy (reading and writing capability). Normally, you place the cleaning label on the backside of the tape, since the information it contains is useful only to you, the librarian. Save Label.— Whenever a tape is to be saved for a period of time, a save label, such as the one shown in figure 2-6, is required for accountability. The save label (also referred to as a user label) contains information that helps to identify the job/task number and the data file(s) written on the media, along with other related information. This label is placed on the front side of the media so it can be readily seen by all. Each individual programmer, user, and, in some cases, the control clerk (depending upon command policy) has responsibility for filling out as much information on the save label as possible before job submission. He or she normally enters such information as: job or task number, file identification, security classification, purge date, and/or its period of retention (30,60, or 90 days). When the job Figure 2-6.—Magnetic tape save label for unclassified (UNCLAS), Privacy Act (PRIV), and For Official Use Only (FOUO).

is run, the operator inserts the remaining entries: reel sequence number(s), the creation date of the file, the system on which the job was run, the magnetic tape unit (the drive #) that was used to create the tape, along with his or her operator number or initials upon completion of the job. These newly created tapes are then forwarded to the library, where you (the librarian) check to see that all required entries on the save label have been made. If there are discrepancies, it is your responsibility to notify the appropriate personnel so that corrective action may be taken. Once you are satisfied that all label entries are correct and complete, you can then proceed to log and file (store) the media for future use. Whenever you are asked to pull (retrieve) magnetic media (input tapes, disks, diskettes), you should ensure that save labels accompany the job request for all outputs to be saved. Do this before releasing the job to the computer operator. Internal Labels Before releasing new magnetic media from the library, you are sometimes required to put the media through what is called an internal labeling or initialization process. As the librarian, one of your many jobs may be to perform this labeling or initialization process. Why? you might ask. Good question. Some computer systems require an internal label of some sort to be physically written on the magnetic media for validation (checking) purposes before the media can be accepted and processed by the system software and applications programs of the computer. When dealing with magnetic tape, the internal label consists of two blocks of information written immediately after the BOT marker. The first block is normally reserved for the identification number, which is assigned by you at the time a new tape is added to the library. This identification number never changes. The second block identifies the information to be stored on the tape, along with the file ID. It may also contain date information that is used by special programs to further identify the tape and to protect the information from being destroyed prematurely. This type of information is normally provided by the programmer. You must schedule computer processing time to set up the internal label. Like magnetic tape, whenever you introduce anew disk or diskette into the system, it, too, must undergo an internal labeling process known as initialization. Initialization is somewhat similar to an initiation. If the disk pack (or diskette) passes a series of tests, then it gets to become a member of the library. If not, then the media is normally boxed up and shipped back to the manufacturer. To initialize a disk pack, you must have computer processing time at your disposal and a special program called a direct access storage device initialization (DASDI) program. The initialization procedure itself is designed to accomplish two things. First, during the DASDI procedure, an internal volume identification is recorded on track zero of the disk. Without this volume identification label, the computer cannot access the disk. Second, for a new pack, a surface analysis of the entire disk (or disk pack) is performed, defective tracks are flagged, and alternate tracks are assigned. In addition, a listing is produced that reflects the overall operating condition of the pack. This listing is normally retained in the library or in the technical support branch. As you travel from one command to another, you will find that there are many DASDI programs available, under just as many names: INIT, FORMAT, and so on. The one you use will depend upon the system’s hardware and its executive software. DISASTER/OFF-SITE BACKUP Have you ever given any thought to how much time and money are invested in the library? If you are not working in the library at the moment, next time you visit one, look around and try to imagine how much money it would take to replace the equipment and the media, and how much time it would take to recreate all the necessary files if everything were totally lost because of fire or flooding. Depending on the size of the library and the types of media it contained, it could run into the millions of dollars. Remember, data entry personnel do not work for nothing. The loss of these media can have harmful effects on your command’s operations for quite some time. And, as we have already noted, recreation of files can be extremely costly. All systems software, master files, and other critical entries and documentation should be duplicated as backup on a regularly scheduled basis and stored in a protected area, as far away from the library as possible. In spite of the many precautions that can be taken to protect the security of the computer center and the media library, the safest possible means of protecting data and information of a vital nature is the off-site, back-up procedure. This is true because there is no totally fail-safe procedure to protect a computer room or the library from the many dangers to which it is exposed. 2-13

It is up to the individual programming branch supervisors, operations supervisor, or division chief to ensure that all projects, systems, or jobs under their cognizance or control be identified, duplicated, and stored off-site in accordance with local Continuity of Operations (COOP) instructions. Off-site magnetic media should be changed each time the data/information is updated. In the case where daily updates occur, backup files should be minimized to once a week if at all possible. As librarian, you should have an established standard operating procedure (SOP) to copy master files for the various types of media, for use in the event the originals become damaged. Copies should be made each time a master file is updated. These copies can be the actual COOP tapes/disks or duplicates, depending on the proximity of the COOP storage site and the delay in operations required to retrieve the copies. If the COOP site is distant from the operation, the COOP files should be duplicated and the duplicates stored within the library for fast recovery. SHIPMENT OF MEDIA Occasionally, you will be expected to ship media to another site. The most important thing to remember to do before packaging a tape or disk up for shipment is to make a copy. There is nothing worse than mailing off a disk or tape and the recipient finding it blank when it arrives, and you don’t have another copy. The following steps should be followed to prepare media for shipment: • Pull media from the library • Copy the media, returning original to library • Box media in shipping container • Label container • Affix warning labels on all sides The warning labels should state that the package contains magnetic media; do not xray. CARE AND HANDLING OF MAGNETIC TAPE While it is inevitable that computer tape eventually acquires errors, you can help minimize tape errors through proper handling techniques. Tapes should never be handled unnecessarily, because each time you Figure 2-7.—Magnetic tape in a canister. handle a tape the possibility of damage increases, especially to the outer edges of the tape. Devices, such as canisters and wrap-around (tape) straps, help protect the reel and tape during handling and storage. The canister tape seal shown in figure 2-7 offers the maximum protection against dust and physical abuse. Canisters provide a dust-free environment and support the tape reel by its hub. Canister tape seals are normally supplied by the manufacturer, unless your command specifically asks for another type such as the wrap-around strap. Some AIS installations prefer to use wraparound straps, better known as tape straps, instead of canisters because they are far less expensive and take up less storage space in the library, figure 2-8. Unfortunately, tape straps do not provide the same degree of protection from dust or physical abuse as do the canisters. It is Figure 2-8.—Magnetic tape in a wrap-around (tape) strap. 2-14

possible for a person to squeeze the reel flanges during handling even though a tape strap is properly in place, as shown in figure 2-9. Handling tapes in this manner will certainly result in tape-edge damage. In addition, defective or improper size straps may deflect (twist or warp) the reel flanges, causing tape-edge damage. Nonetheless, when handled with care, the wrap-around tape strap can bean effective method of tape protection. Anytime you are handling magnetic tape, regardless of how it is protected (by a canister or a tape strap), always use good judgment and follow the applicable safeguards, as follows: • When a tape is not actually being used, keep it in its protective container to avoid accidental breakage and unnecessary contamination. • Do NOT leave empty tape canisters open as this allows entry of dust or other tape contaminating matter. • Hang wrap-around straps in a clean area while the tape is in use. • Whenever you return a tape to its respective canister, you must ensure that a clean stopper is used. NOTE: A stopper is a one-inch piece of foam rubber the same width as the reel (inside the flanges) and one-half-inch thick. Stoppers are used to keep the tape from unraveling once inside the canister. Figure 2-9.—Magnetic tape being held improperly- the fingers should go through the hub hole without squeezing the flanges. • Never use rubber stoppers with wrap-around straps. The extra thickness could result in the tape being embossed (leaving a permanent imprint). • While working with tapes in canisters, canisters may be stacked for short periods of time. NOTE: Avoid stacking more than 10 canisters, since weight can cause the canisters on the bottom to crack. • Avoid stacking tapes with wrap-around tape straps, because doing so can cause tape-edge damage. • Store magnetic tapes in a vertical position. • Always handle tape reels by the center hub, never by the flanges. NOTE: If you happen to drop a tape reel, check it immediately for cracked flanges and the tape itself for possible edge damage. • Periodically remove and check inside the flange and hub areas of take-up reels on tape cleaning and certifying equipment for dirt or other contamination. Also check these reels (at the hub) periodically for signs of warpage or cracks. Periodically check the mounting hubs on your equipment to ensure they are tight (secure). This prevents a reel of tape from wobbling during a cleaning or certifying operation. • When you mount a tape on a device, always push in on the hub itself, never on the outer flanges. • Never touch or handle the recording surface of the tape. • Never place magnetic tape on top of equipment because of the heat generated by the equipment and because internal magnetic fields within the device may scramble recorded bits of information on the tape. • Smoking should not be allowed in working spaces where magnetic tape is being used. Smoking is never permitted while handling magnetic tape, attending to tape units, or working in the library area. Ashes may contaminate tapes, and live ashes may cause permanent damage if they come in contact with the tape. 2-15

• And last, but not least, always follow the rules and procedures that have been established by your command or installation. Check your SOP manual. Remember, anytime your library personnel are to handle magnetic media, whether it be issuing, receiving, filing, scratching, inventorying, or mailing, they need to be on the lookout for certain things. They must look for such things as tapes that are unevenly rewound, write rings that have not been removed from a newly created file, cracked tape flanges, worn tape straps, broken or cracked tape canisters, faded or peeling file identification or reel identification labels, mismatched tape reel number against tape strap number, and soon. Media with problems such as these should not be released for use or filed in the library until the problems are corrected. CARE AND HANDLING OF MAGNETIC DISKS As the librarian, you are primarily concerned with the care, handling, retrieving, storing, and labeling of magnetic media. When we care for magnetic media (especially disks or diskettes), an important element of that care is cleanliness. Disk packs, as well as diskettes, have a tendency to attract dust, smoke, oil, hair, you name it, and a disk pack will attract it (or at least it seems that way). Because even tiny particles can cause problems, it is imperative that all AIS spaces (including the media library) be as contamination-free as possible. For you, that means all disk pack file drawers must be kept closed when not in use. Vacuum the disk pack covers and storage cabinets on a regular basis (at least once a week) to prevent dust buildup. It also means you must examine disk pack filters as often as possible (preferably after every use) to ensure there is no dust buildup or damage of any kind. If dust buildup or damage to the filter exists, by all means, replace the filter before it is to be used again. Be sure no foreign objects or notes are placed inside the disk pack covers. Foreign objects have a tendency to fly and, as a result, could slip between the disk platters and become undetectable until the disk pack is used. This would certainly cause severe damage to the pack and drive and make your maintenance technician very unhappy. If, for any reason, you suspect a disk pack has been damaged or dropped, under no circumstances should you release it from the library until it is checked out by a person using an authorized pack cleaner/certification device. Anytime you are retrieving, storing, or just plain handling a disk pack, always carry it by the handle located on top of the cover, as illustrated in figure 2-10. The handle is designed in such a manner that the pack is supported at its center by locking the cover to the spindle on the pack. You must ensure that the bottom cover of the pack is firmly secured (attached), while holding the pack vertically by the handle. You should never set the pack down onto the bottom cover. The locking knob, which is cone-shaped, could puncture the pack’s filter or possibly bend the disk’s lower platter. Figure 2-10.—Magnetic disk should be carried level, using the dust cover handle. 2-16

CLEANING AND RECERTIFYING MAGNETIC TAPE How important is tape cleaning and recertification? Let us answer that question by asking another question: When do you suppose tape failures are most likely to occur? If you answered, when the tape is being used on the computer system; then you are correct. Consider this example: an unrecoverable tape error appears while the operator is trying to read in reel four of an eight-reel master file; the operator is about 3 hours into a very important job, and finds out there is no way to recover (restart) the job starting with reel three of the input. A failure at this stage of the operation gets the operator and a good many other people very upset, for we all know that reruns are costly in both time and money. Such failures can be avoided if tapes are cleaned and recertified on a regular basis. It is well worth the effort to properly care for tapes according to a regular planned schedule; since this avoids upset and inconvenience and gives your users confidence that your AIS facility is running smoothly. Careful and planned maintenance of magnetic tapes can minimize and even possibly eliminate a lot of lost computer time. The first step in every magnetic tape maintenance program is, obviously, careful cleaning. Despite the many safeguards against contamination, you can believe that magnetic tape will eventually acquire some contamination and cause read or write errors. You will find the greatest number of tape errors normally occur in the first 100 feet of a reel. When this is the case, the appropriate action is to cut off the contaminated area, relocate the BOT reflective marker, and continue to use the tape (see figure 2-11). In most cases, the reduced length will not detract from its usefulness. This procedure is known as stripping a tape. After a tape has been stripped five times, it should be reloaded (transferred) onto what we call a mini-reel. A mini-reel is about half the size of a standard reel of tape. If the errors continue throughout the length of the tape, you should determine whether the errors are distortion errors or dirt errors. Distortion errors are usually the result of careless handling (abuse) of the tape and can rarely be corrected. Distortion errors can be seen as wrinkles, creases, turned-up edges, or a slight stretching of the tape. Dirt errors usually result from the accumulation of microscopic foreign matter on the tape surface and can be removed by careful cleaning. To do this, you need to use a tape cleaner. Tape cleaning is the process of removing all foreign particles (known as residual buildup) and protruding debris from the oxide and back side (the shiny side) of the tape. This process does not destroy any of the data that has been previously recorded on the tape. New tape has a tendency to shed oxide particles near the surface for approximately the first six passes through the read/write heads of the magnetic tape unit. Unless the new tape is cleaned at least twice, increased tape unit head wear could result. You will also find that deterioration of the edges of the tape is the major cause of most tape-generated debris. Edge guides that help to direct the tape along the tape path also cause a constant edge-scuffing. This results in a further breakdown of the oxide/base layer interface of the tape. An effective Figure 2-11.—A 100 feet of contaminated tape being removed from reel (stripping). 2-17

process to clean a tape is to use a magnetic tape cleaner/certifier similar to the one shown in figure 2-12. Knives are used to remove any protrusions from the oxide surface. It is estimated that a maximum of 90% of all tape errors are removed in this manner. Most tape cleaners clean tape by wiping the oxide and back surface of the tape. Loosened dirt, oxide particles, and other debris are removed from the tape by wiping assemblies. When the EOT marker is sensed by a photoelectric cell, the tape is automatically reversed, and the wiping assemblies clean the entire length of tape in the opposite direction. The wiping tissue used is made of a special textured fabric and is wound on a spool. It is important to change the wiping material frequently at the point of contact with the tape. This is done to avoid entrapment and retention of abrasive dirt particles at the tape surface being wiped. Some tape cleaners, like the one shown in figure 2-12, move the wiping material along automatically. In addition, most tape cleaners repack the tape as it rewinds, using a built-in machine programmed tension arm. This feature helps to relieve irregular tape pack tension, thereby reducing the possibility of tape deformation inside the tape reel. The repack tension arm is shown in figure 2-12. Tape cleaning equipment that combines tape cleaning and recertification (figure 2-12) operates in the following manner. Any protrusions are removed by a knife edge during the first tape cleaning pass. At the same time, the location of every error that was not removed on the tape pass is indicated on a recording chart (figure 2-12, upper left-hand corner). The location of each error is identified by its distance from the beginning-of-tape (BOT) reflector. On the second pass, that is the return pass, the certifier stops at every unremoved error area and the operator, using a microscope, endeavors to remove the error with a sharp knife or scalpel. Upon completion, a recertification operation will usually restore the tape to a near error- free condition. On a 2,400-foot tape reel, each recertification operation averages 15 minutes. All tapes—scratch tapes, work tapes, save tapes, and data tapes—should be cleaned after every 10 uses or every 90 days, whichever is more frequent. All tapes should have a cleaning label attached to the back surface of the tape reel. Each time a tape is cleaned, you should log the Julian date and initial the cleaning label. Some helpful measurement criteria, used by several of the AIS installations for determining retention or disposal of magnetic tape, areas follows: ABSOLUTE-END-OF-LIFE— The tape contains so many flaws (errors) that it can not function at all. PRACTICAL-END-OF-LIFE— The tape can produce usable results, but because of cost and annoyance of failures, it is impractical to use it any longer. LEVEL-OF-REJECTION— This is a judgment call and must be based on your past experience or expertise, you might say. Some librarians and management personnel feel that after a tape is cleaned, if 15 write errors occur throughout the tape, then the tape has reached the threshold of rejection. Figure 2-12.—Tape cleaner/certifier. 2-18

TAPE-REPLACEMENT-LEVEL— This is the point at which the number of errors exceeds the rejection level. Maintaining Magnetic Media Maintaining media involves using specialized library equipment to clean, certify, and degauss magnetic media. It also involves seeing that media is in usable condition. The duties and responsibilities include the following: Splicing leaders onto magnetic tapes Placing BOT/EOT markers on magnetic tape Rotating tapes and disks Inspecting and changing disk pack filters Setting up and operating tape cleaners, certifiers, and degaussers Mounting and dismounting magnetic tapes Performing cleaning, certifying, and degaussing functions Performing emergency shut-down/power-off procedures on equipment Setting Up, Operating, and Maintaining Equipment Be sure you and the head librarian know and can explain the steps involved in setting up and operating equipment. Be able to demonstrate the proper way to clean, certify, and degauss magnetic media. Be sure all library personnel know how to properly perform emergency shut-down/power-off procedures on the different types of equipment used in the library (tape cleaner, certifier, degausser, and remote computer terminal, if used). Like any area with equipment, some operator maintenance is required to assure proper functioning and also to increase the useful life of the equipment. Operator maintenance on tape cleaners and certifiers should be performed on a regular basis and include the following tasks: . Removing and replacing cleaning blades . Removing and replacing wiping tissues . Removing dirt/dust from photoelectric cells . Ensuring tape pack wheel is rotating freely Ensure that proper and regular operator maintenance is performed on the library’s equipment. Keeping a log of when it was conducted and when it should be done again will help. Make sure outer cabinets are kept clean and free of dust. All dirt, oxide particles, and other debris should be removed from the capstans, turrets, tape pack wheel, and cleaning blades. Cleaning blades should not be allowed to become nicked or dull. Also see that the wiping tissues are clean, and are rotating smoothly and automatically. CLEANING AND RECERTIFYING MAGNETIC DISKS Today, the removable and interchangeable magnetic disk pack is one of the most frequently used mass storage media. Not only is it small, fast, and reliable, but with the proper care and handling, it has an almost indefinite life span. Like magnetic tape, the main enemy of the disk pack is dirt. During the manufacturing of the disk packs, every precaution is taken to maintain a sterile environment and a contamination-free assembly of each component of the disk. However, these safeguards do not entirely prevent some contamination from occurring, and everyday operation continues to increase the contamination level until data checks (read/write errors) do occur. During normal computer use, three different types of errors are encountered on disk packs: temporary errors, permanent errors, and disastrous errors (head to disk contact or head crash). TEMPORARY ERRORS OR SOFT DATA CHECKS— These temporary errors are the direct result of a minor buildup of contaminants, such as dust, smoke, and oil. PERMANENT ERRORS OR HARD DATA CHECKS— These permanent errors cause data to be lost because of an excessive buildup of contaminants. As a result, the read/write heads are no longer able to access this particular area on the disk. HEAD TO DISK CONTACT OR HEAD CRASH— These disastrous errors are caused when a read/write head of the disk drive unit comes into direct contact with the surface of a disk platter. Again, this is the result of an excessive buildup of contaminants. These errors can be prevented by inspecting and cleaning the disk pack. Although none of the major disk pack manufacturers recommend a regular schedule for cleaning of disk packs, they do recommend that disks be cleaned and inspected when they have been exposed to 2-19

possible moisture or contamination. The fact is, during operation, the disk pack is surrounded by dirt and grease particles that are circulated through the air by the cooling fans of the disk drive; consequently, there is a definite need for a cleaning procedure, if not an actual schedule. If your installation has a disk cleaner/certifier, learn how to use it, and you will find fewer disk errors and a significant decrease in the number of computer reruns. A well-organized disk management program will serve to eliminate head crashes caused by contaminants; decrease, if not eliminate, hard data checks; and decrease significantly the number of soft data checks encountered. DEGAUSSING MAGNETIC MEDIA Degaussing magnetic media—tapes, disks, and drums-involves a process in which you demagnetize the media itself. This rearranges all the 0 and 1 bits, sort of mixing them up, you might say. Normally, the only time you would be required to perform such an operation is when you must declassify (remove the data from) the media before the media can be scratched for reuse. To remove a previously recorded magnetic signal (all the 0 and 1 bits), use a concentrated magnetic field to magnetically saturate the oxide coating of the media and randomly orient all the magnetic particles. Magnetic Tape Degaussing To degauss a magnetic tape, you must pass the entire tape through controlled fields of alternating current to reduce the signal level of the magnetic tape’s recordings to a level which is below the capability of ADP equipment to interpret. This requires that signal level reduction be performed on the entire reel of magnetic tape, including the tape leader and tape trailer. For a tape 1 inch or less in width to be considered unclassified by the National Security Agency (NSA) standards, the signal on the tape must be reduced a minimum of 90 dB (decibels) below saturation level after degaussing. The manufacturer’s recommended operating procedures should be followed when degaussing a tape. Also, the tape degausser should be checked at least quarterly by technical personnel to ensure proper operating level specifications. Before degaussing a tape, you should remove the tape wrap-around strap to prevent the reel from jamming, and secure the end of the tape with a foam rubber stopper to prevent the tape from unwinding. The degaussing operation itself takes no more than 2 minutes per reel for a magnetic tape with a maximum one-inch width. Magnetic Disk, Diskette, and Drum Degaussing Rigid magnetic media such as disk and drum storage, as well as diskettes (also known as floppy disk), should be machine cleared (overwritten), using a specially designed computer software program. Once the media has been overwritten, it should be verified (checked) to be sure the read mechanism cannot detect any traces of data information except the characters used in the overwrite procedure. Only then can the media be considered as unclassified, and all classification labels and markings identifying the subject matter be removed. You should also ensure the computer operator checks out the computer and all related components that are to be used immediately before beginning the overwrite procedure. This is to let you know that malfunctions, which could prevent the classified information from being effectively overwritten, do not occur. During the overwriting process, all storage locations will be overwritten a minimum of three times, once with the binary digit “1 ,” once with the binary digit “0,” and once with a single numeric, alphabetic, or special character (other than “0” or “1”). The current used in overwriting must be equal to that used when the data was first recorded, but not so strong that it will damage or impair the equipment. If the storage device fails in such a reamer that it cannot erase the data from the media, the media may be declassified by exposing the recording surface(s) to a permanent magnet having a field strength at the recording surface of at least 1500 oersted. Care must be taken to ensure that the entire surface is wiped at least three times by a nonuniform motion of the magnet. Care must also be taken to assure that all tracks are covered by the center of the magnet. A thin sheet of clear plastic (a 1-to-5-mill sheet) should be used to prevent any damage to the recording surfaces. MAGNETIC TAPE AND DISKETTE DESTRUCTION When it comes to the destruction of magnetic tape and diskettes, you will use the same techniques as hard copy material. Depending to the equipment available to you, you will shred or burn the material, depending on the classification and the type of equipment. Because of their design, some of the shredders can not be used to shred magnetic tape or diskettes. Remember to use your local standard operating procedures (SOPs) as guidance 2-20

for the destruction techniques that are used at your command. RELEASING (SCRATCHING) MAGNETIC MEDIA As librarian, one of your many tasks may be to release (scratch) magnetic media; that is, make the media available to the computer operator for reuse. Before you release or scratch media, there are several things you should know. First, never remove a save label from a tape, disk, or diskette without the permission of the user to whom the data on the media belongs. Well, then you might ask, how does one go about getting the user’s permission? There are several ways this can be accomplished: by phone, by way of an interoffice memo, or by contacting each individual in person; but the fastest and easiest way is to distribute a copy of the release report on a weekly basis. The users can annotate the files they want released and return the report to you. At that time, you can scratch the appropriate files and make the magnetic media available for reuse. But wait, is the file you are about to scratch the same file that is listed on the release report? Good question. Before you start removing save labels, be sure that all information written on the save label agrees with what is listed on the release report. There are times when the computer operator is in a hurry to get things rolling and may accidentally place the wrong wrap-around strap on a tape, disk pack cover on the wrong disk, or attach the wrong save label to a newly created file. By performing this check, you could avoid hours of computer rerun time. Once you have determined the file to be scratched agrees with the information on the release report, you can remove the save label. If the file to be scratched contains classified data, be sure the media is degaussed before its release unless it is to be used again for the recording of classified data of the same security level. Next, examine the media thoroughly to be sure it is healthy (in good physical condition). Be on the lookout for the following problems: MAGNETIC TAPE— Look for contaminants on inside and outside of flanges, tape unevenly rewound (take note of the tape unit it was created on), cracked or warped flanges, cracks around the center hub (if made of plastic), uneven tape packing (look for ripples between the layers of tape), and broken or deteriorated locking mechanisms. MAGNETIC DISK— Look for contaminants inside and outside of the disk pack covers, cracked or broken covers (top and bottom), and damaged or warped disk platters. Be sure the locking mechanism is functioning properly. DISKETTES (floppy disk)—Look for contaminants, primarily dust and oily marks on the outside cover. Next, you should look at the usage and certification labels to see whether or not the tape or disk needs to be cleaned or recertified; and if so, do it. Finally, be sure to place (insert) a write ring in the slot provided on the back side of each scratch tape. Forward the magnetic media to the computer operations area. Do not forget to follow up on the paperwork. That is, update the library master file (or database) to reflect latest status on the media. LIBRARY MANAGEMENT In addition to performing library functions, you will need to consider other areas of library management. These include protection and storage of media, maintaining a proper physical environment, management of classified media and materials, magnetic media administrative duties, tape retention, and disaster/off-site backup. You will learn about these management areas in this topic. STORAGE OF MAGNETIC MEDIA Data is one of your installation’s most valuable assets, and, as the librarian, you are responsible and accountable for its protection. You must protect it from a number of things. The data that is recorded on magnetic media must be protected from theft, unauthorized access by individuals, destruction by fire, flooding, contamination, accidental overwrite, and so on. The key words here are protection and security, not only of the media but also of the library spaces as well. The library must be theftproof. It should be of vault-type construction, with no windows and with cypher locks (or their equivalent) on the doors. Personnel access must be closely controlled. You must follow proper procedures to ensure that material entering or leaving the library is controlled. You should be aware of the fact that security means more than the loss of data through theft or sabotage. If the user cannot depend on the data, as recorded on magnetic media and. retrieved from the library, then the entire library becomes worthless. Regardless of the classification of 2-21

the data your command processes (Unclassified, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret), you must ensure that the library is secure. Another security requirement is fire control. Smoke and fire alarm systems are necessary. Sprinkler systems that react immediately to any threat of fire area must. Insulated vaults (safes) and storage cabinets like the ones shown in figure 2-13 are extremely helpful in preventing magnetic media and paper records from being destroyed in the early moments of a fire before it can be put out. They can also help reduce the heat to which the storage media are exposed. Heat can be particularly harmful and damage the data even if the medium itself is not destroyed, because plastic melts, and metal warps. If the storage devices are insulated, this will further protect against water damage, either from natural accidents, such as floods, the sprinkler system, or personnel putting out a fire. Some commands prefer to use an inert-gas extinguishing system, or chemical fire extinguishers rather than the conventional water sprinklers. These help to eliminate the damage and contamination that would otherwise be caused by water. Another safety feature is the lead-strip vault door hinge. The lead strip will melt at 150°F and automatically close the vault door (see figure 2-14). LIBRARY ENVIRONMENT The library is usually located in the same functional area as the computer room it is supporting. This is especially true aboard ship. Magnetic tape, disk, and other media must be maintained within the same environment, or the same type environment, as the Figure 2-13.—Media storage vault and cabinet (with doors open). Figure 2-14.—A lead strip bolted in the vault door hinge. computer facility. If not, the media should be placed in the proper environment for a minimum of 24 hours before using; otherwise, the operators may encounter problems using the media. Temperature and relative humidity tolerances should be maintained within specified limits. In the absence of other instructions, maintaining a 30 to 60 percent relative humidity at 70°F to 80°F is considered an acceptable environment. In the library, especially the tape cleaning area, the elimination of dust, lint, and foreign matter on equipment is necessary for efficient operation. In short, the cleanliness of equipment, floors, and contact areas and the control of humidity and temperature are essential. Traffic in and out of the library should be kept to a minimum. Smoking, eating, and drinking should be prohibited at all times. The library should be vacuumed and/or cleaned with a damp mop. A dry mop, fox tail, or dust broom should never be used, as they tend to kick up more dust than they take up. Aerosols should never be used in the library environment, because the oily, dust-collecting moisture settles and eventually finds its way onto the equipment as well as the surfaces of the media. The use of air-conditioning filters in the library should be given special attention, because fiber glass filters often fail to prevent the penetration of fine silts and tend to deposit particles of fiberglass on magnetic media. 2-22

MANAGEMENT OF CLASSIFIED MEDIA AND MATERIALS As the media librarian, you must ensure that all classified magnetic media bear some type of external markings or labels and internal notations. The markings must be sufficient to assure that any one receiving such media will know that classified information is involved and what its specific classification category is. The unique methods employed when handling, processing, storing, degaussing, transferring, or mailing this type of media require correspondingly unique security procedures, some of which you read about in Module 1, “Administration and Security.” Additional information regarding these and other areas related to AIS security may be found in OPNAVINST 5239.1, Automatic Data Processing Security Program, and OPNAVINST 5510.1, Information and Personnel Security Program Regulations. The rules, regulations, and procedures in the OPNAV instructions and local command instructions are there for good reason. They provide you with the information needed to protect classified materials and media, and their contents. It is up to you to carry out these procedures, without unduly complicating AIS operations. You are probably asking yourself, as a librarian charged with the responsibility of handling classified materials, how do I go about keeping everything uncomplicated and on track? The answer is simple: follow established command procedures, know where the materials are located, and keep track of classified media and materials at all times, whether they are in or out of the library. The keyword here is accountability. Every reel of magnetic tape, disk pack, and diskette that are to be used for recording classified information should have a stick-on, pressure sensitive classification label, specifying the classification of the highest level of information ever recorded on this media. (See figure 2-15.) In addition, after recording has taken place, you must ensure that the proper save label has been placed on the face (front) side surface of the media. This label should contain the highest classification of information recorded on the media, the date the recording was performed, and other appropriate identification information required by your installation. Magnetic media that is not the property of your AIS installation, but which is on loan from another installation, (known as foreign tapes, disks, and so on), should be isolated in the library and separated according to security classification. Classified magnetic media received from other AIS installations should be degaussed before you return it, unless the sending organization specifically requests the media not be degaussed. Before returning the degaussed media to its rightful owner, a certificate of destruction should be filled out and retained in the library. For reasons of security, Figure 2-15.—Classification labels. 2-23

copies of the certificate of degaussing destruction should not accompany the media during transmittal. Performing Security Functions Security functions are very important in a magnetic media library, not only for classified media but also for any material. Data has value, whatever its classification or use: Top Secret, Secret, Confidential, Privacy Act, For Official Use Only, or Unclassified. Applicable security instructions and procedures must be followed. Some of the tasks include the following: l l l l Storing and safeguarding classified media and materials Maintaining security logs and library access lists Degaussing and/or destroying classified media and materials Changing lock combinations on doors, safes, and vaults Ensure that all security procedures and measures relating to the library are understood by everyone connected with the library, especially the librarians. See that procedures are enforced. This includes controlling entrance (access) to the library spaces (both on-site and off-site storage areas), as well as providing physical and administrative controls of the media. The librarians must ensure proper security protection is provided for all magnetic media and materials in accordance with applicable security instructions and procedures. This includes issuing, receiving, shipping, declassification, destruction, and disposal. MAGNETIC MEDIA ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES Attention to administrative detail is a must. It will help assure that media are properly maintained and ready for use. Control logs, pass-down log, library listings, and reports are all a part of the everyday administrative functions. Administrative duties and responsibilities include the following: . Maintaining tape cleaning, verification, and degaussing logs l Checking magnetic media in and out, using appropriate logs l Making entries in tape and disk control logs l Making entries in pass-down log l l l Labeling magnetic media Establishing and updating current and history files Preparing library listings and reports for distribution To accomplish this task requires a specially designed program that is able to read the internal label information that is stored on the magnetic media. The program extracts whatever information it needs to build a record onto the library master file (or database file). Once a record is established, you can make changes or deletions as necessary. Most AIS installations have incorporated or are capable of installing some type of automated tape library control (ATLC) program. Various manufacturers supply these software programs for their computing systems. These programs provide an automated capability for preparing various user and management reports to assist in the operation and control of your installation’s magnetic media library. These reports reflect the current status of each tape reel, disk pack, and diskette in the library. You will find that various manufacturers give different names to their library accounting programs; however, the majority of these software systems accomplish the same functions. The names may change, but the game is the same. For this chapter, we use ATLC. A good ATLC system should be capable of providing you with the library edit and error, reel master list, application, user/programmer, media to be released, library maintenance, off-site storage, and history reports. 2-24

LIBRARY EDIT AND ERROR REPORT— This report provides you with information and error-type messages pertaining to the ATLC system transactions; those submitted, rejected, and processed. MASTER LIST REPORT— This report provides you with information pertaining to each type of media contained in the ATLC system. This report is normally listed in identification number sequence. APPLICATION REPORT— This report provides you with information pertaining to media assigned to any particular project (supply, payroll, and soon). This report is normally listed by project number and identification number. USER/PROGRAMMER REPORT— This report provides you with information pertaining to media that is assigned to a particular user or programmer. It should be in user/programmer number, release date, and identification number sequence. MEDIA TO BE RELEASED REPORT— This report provides you with information pertaining to the media that are scheduled to be released (scratched according to purge date). It is normally listed in identification number and/or in file-ID sequence. LIBRARY MAINTENACE REPORT— This report provides you with information regarding the media itself, indicating when the media was last cleaned, when it was last stripped (magnetic tape only), and recertified. This report is normally listed by media type (tape or disk) and identification number. OFF-SITE STORAGE REPORT— This report provides you with information pertaining to the media that are stored off-site. This report is normally listed by media type, release date, and identification number. HISTORY REPORT— This report provides you with various information pertaining to all magnetic media classified as history files. This report should be listed in media type, release date, and identification number sequence. All input, changes, and deletions to the ATLC systems database (master file) should be accomplished by the librarian to ensure database integrity. You should have up-to-date information on how to properly maintain the ATLC system so you can key-enter (via CRT) new records, make changes to existing records, or delete records entirely. You must also know how to use input parameters and possibly SCL parameters to produce the appropriate output products. The main purpose of any ATLC system is to relieve you of having to maintain numerous logs and library files by hand. So, if your AIS installation has an automated library control system, take full advantage of it; otherwise, you can look forward to many, many hours of manual labor. You will also find that the number of tape and disk accountability problems will be lessened considerably under an automated system. Using Remote Terminals Many tape libraries use remote terminals connected to mainframes or minicomputers to help manage their library functions. The automated library control system (ALCS) is one use. Remote terminal operation will include the following tasks: Performing log-on/log-off procedures Entering proper system passwords to assure security Inputting data to computer Retrieving data from computer Updating library files using ALCS Querying/searching library files using ALCS Requesting library listings and reports Ensure that all library personnel are properly trained on how to use the library’s remote computer terminal. All personnel must have a good working knowledge of the features and functions of the keyboard. They must know how to properly logon to the system and how to enter their access code. They must also understand how to gain access to library files and how to input and retrieve data to and from the computer. They should know how to update and query the library’s database and how to request library listings and reports. Knowing how to close out files they are 2-25

working with, and how to properly logoff the system at the end of their work day are also important parts of their job. TAPE RETENTION A restricted retention period has been established to prevent permanent physical damage to magnetic tapes, especially tapes that are stored for long periods of time, such as history tapes. This provides for all magnetic tapes to be cleaned, possibly certified, and repacked at prescribed time intervals. This procedure eliminates such problems as oxide sticking, debris embedment, and edge deformation caused by tape pack shifts inside the reel. Initially, an on-site save tape retention period should be restricted to a maximum of 90 days, with only one 90-day extension. After 180 days, you should notify the user indicating that the tape should be copied (and verified) onto a recently cleaned tape, thus freeing the original tape to be tested for accuracy. The retention period for off-site tapes should initially be 180 days, with one 30-day extension. FILE AND DISK MANAGEMENT File and disk management are other areas where your knowledge will help users. They probably don’t know the agony of delete or the problems sometimes caused by very large files. Think about what you have learned regarding file management. How to name files. How to cleanup files. How to back up files. When to back up files. Where and how to physically store files. How to protect files. How to organize files on disks. Let’s examine some of the considerations for setting up files and file management procedures for microcomputers: naming files, disk file organization, and file backup. We will be using DOS as the operating system for the examples in this section. Naming Files Every newly created file must be given a file name if it is to be stored (written and given an address) on disk. When the operating system looks for a filename, it looks up the address in its “address book,” the directory. The directory is maintained in a fixed location on every disk. Every operating system will have a system for naming files. In DOS, file names have two parts. The first part, the primary file name, names the file and can be from one to eight characters in length. The second 2-26 part, called the file name extension, is optional, and can be from one to three characters. While the extension is optional, the primary part of the file name is NOT. An extension cannot name a file, it can only be used to further qualify or describe a file. If both parts are used, they must be separated by a period, for example, TELECOMM.TP7. To name a file (including its extension), you may use any combination of the following characters: the letters A through Z (upper and lower case), the numbers 0 through 9, the following special characters: $, #, !, %, ( ), -, { }, _, and the left and right apostrophe. Why would you want to use an extension? you might ask. Let’s assume you created a file that contains all E-4 evaluations for the year 1997 and you named the file DIV-EVAL. It’s a perfectly good and valid name under DOS. However, it is entirely possible you would want more than one file called DIV-EVAL, considering the years that follow. In this case, you might want to use the option of adding a file name extension. For example, you could label the 1997 evals DIV-EVAL.97, the next year’s DIV-EVAL.98, the following year’s DIV- EVAL.99, and so on. In this case, the years 97,98, and 99 are the extensions. Some extensions have special meanings in DOS and are either created by DOS or assume the file contains a special type of program or data. For this reason, use extreme caution and avoid using file extensions defined by the program or operating system you are using. Examples of extensions assigned by DOS are as follows: COM, EXE, SYS, BAT— File extensions such as COM(mand), Executable), SYS(tem), and BAT(ch) contain executable code. That is, the code is actually understood by the hardware when programs are run. BAK— When opening a text file, the DOS program automatically makes a backup copy with the extension BAK. BAS— BAS refers to a source program written in the BASIC language. COB— COB refers to a source program written in COBOL. HEX— HEX refers to a special type file where all information has been stored in HEXADECIMAL format. Various applications software packages automatically add an extension. For example, ENABLE adds “WPF,” DBASE adds “DBF, NDX,

FRM, and MEM,” LOTUS adds “WK1, PRN, and PIC.” It is important to devise a naming scheme that is comfortable for you. Your command may have already addressed this area and come up with descriptive naming conventions. If so, of course, you will use those. Whatever method you use, be sure that it is indeed a method and NOT just haphazard naming of files. When working alongside the end users, be sure to pass along what you have learned. When they go to the filing cabinet, be sure they know exactly which file drawer to open and which file folder to retrieve from that drawer. Most people are familiar with organizing file folders in the drawers of a filing cabinet. You might want to use this analogy as a starting point, explaining to the users how they can organize their disk files in much the same manner. Explain how they can organize their work (files) into groups of files called directories. Directories File directories, like the folders that are filed away in drawers by category, or like the yellow pages of the phone book, provide you a way to organize and find files by category and name. Most operating systems give you the option of creating either single or multiple-file directories, regardless of whether your system uses floppy or hard disk. Disks with only one directory are said to be of the unstructured or flat type. Disks having more than one directory are said to be hierarchical or tree structured because they contain a root directory and several subdirectories, each subdirectory containing files with common subject matter. We use the term tree structure because this type of directory takes on the appearance of an upside down tree with the trunk of the tree or root directory located at the top and all the branches or subdirectories located below. Let’s assume you have a floppy disk that contains 50 files with only a main or root directory, as shown in figure 2-16. Upon displaying the directory (using the DIRectory command), you notice the files are listed in random sequence, usually in the order of their creation or when last updated. We call this an unstructured directory. Looking more closely, you realize a number of things. First, that better organization is needed. Second, that most of the files listed can be grouped together by categories: supply, 3-M, personnel, disbursing, food services, and division management. Finally, you see that there are really two types of Figure 2-16.—Unstructured disk file directory. categories: files that deal with user applications and those that deal strictly with division matters. Using the tree-structured approach, you can divide your disk into smaller units by subdirectories, as shown in figure 2-17. In this example, E5 Christmas, as the primary user of these files, decided to organize her files by setting up a separate directory called E5CHRISTMAS. Within the E5CHRISTMAS directory, she set up several subdirectories. They are identified by <DIR> following the name and they have no extensions. Notice also that some files, those that relate to division matters, are included in the subdirectory along with the subdirectories that relate to user files. Because E5 Christmas uses the division files frequently, she wanted to be able to access them directly from her directory. Subdirectories, like other files, appear as entries in the directory; however, you can’t see a listing (or a display) of all the files in all the subdirectories at one Figure 2-17.—Tree-structured disk file directory. 2-27

time. Instead, you must look at each subdirectory to see what is in that one. If E5 Christmas wants to see what files are in the subdirectory SUPPLY, she would use the DOS command to change the directory name to SUPPLY and then display its directory (figure 2-18, example A). As the number of files on a disk increases, so does the need to have a disk that is well-organized. A well- organized disk can save you a considerable amount of time and frustration in locating files. As computer specialists, we know this is true and of great importance, but to the uninformed or new user who has not been properly trained, disk management may seem very cumbersome and time consuming. Some users may not even be aware that they can organize their files on disk, and that’s where you come in. How can you help users create and use a tree-structured directory? you might ask. Whenever you format a disk, a single directory called a root directory is created. You can then instruct DOS to create or MaKe other DIRectories, using a command such as MKDIR or just plain MD. These are called subdirectories. Further, a subdirectory can have other subdirectories. Directories, regardless of their level, are given names just like any other files. DOS keeps track of each directory the same way it does your files. Using various DOS file handling commands, you can create (MKDIR or MD), change (CHDIR or CD), and remove (RMDIR or RD) directories and subdirectories. To move through the tree structure (UP or DOWN), you must issue commands that use a path name. A path name is a list of the directory(ies) (which might end with a file name) that DOS Figure 2-18.—Examp1es of files in subdirectories. 2-28 must follow to find a given directory/subdirectory or file name. In example B in figure 2-18, to locate the file named DIN-MENU.DLY, the path is \CHRISTMAS\FOODSERV\DIN-MENU.DLY. Once you have grouped related files into a subdirectory, you can act on them as a unit. The DOS file-handling commands can be applied to an entire subdirectory of files in a single stroke. For example, you can issue commands to copy, print, or delete all the files in a subdirectory as easily as you can for a single file. Other files on the same disk, but in different directories go unused and undisturbed. Subdirectories are especially helpful when working with hard disks because of their large storage capacities. To learn more about DOS directory structures and commands, read the DOS reference guide that accompanies the DOS software. Backing Up Files You have heard it before, and you are going to hear it again here: BACKUP your programs and data files. If you don’t, you will eventually lose all or part of your data, and the only person you can blame is yourself. Data can be lost or damaged in a number of ways. Common causes of data loss are power surges and drops, power failures, and user errors. User errors top the list. Less common but potentially disastrous are fire, theft, vandalism, and natural disasters. How often have you come close to erasing a file or formatting a floppy or hard disk by accident? Probably more times than you care to admit. No matter how many precautions you take, you can’t prevent all the potential ways data can be lost. You can certainly reduce their adverse effects by backing up your files on a regular basis. When working with data files, you will want to back them up at least on a daily basis either to tape, diskette, or to another hard disk. For our example, we will use two diskettes. A technique referred to as the odd/even backup uses two diskettes. Label one diskette as odd and the other as even. When you make your backups, use the odd diskette on odd days, and use the even diskette on even days. This pays off when you find that errors were inadvertently made to a file the day before, and you backed-up that file onto your backup diskette. With this system, you can go back 2 days if needed. No matter how many backups you make (two, three, or one for everyday of the week) or what method you use to make them, they are worthless if they are

destroyed along with your microcomputer. You need to make multiple backups and store a set in a different area away from your working area or, at a minimum, in a data safe. This will require some extra effort by you or the user, but it will more than pay for itself should you ever experience a data loss. Care, Handling, and Protection of Diskettes As communications specialists, we know how sensitive diskettes are when it comes to rough handling, extreme heat and cold, high and low humidity, static electricity, and contaminants, such as dirt, dust, liquids, and grease. Unfortunately, many end users do not. They may leave their diskettes lying around out of their protective envelopes, expose them to direct sunlight, store them next to an electric pencil sharpener, and so on. It will be your job to explain and demonstrate to new users how to properly manage and maintain their diskettes as well as other types of magnetic media. Because diskette mistreatment is usually fatal to data, it is important to have procedures to help the end user better understand how to care for, handle, and protect diskettes. They must be made aware that once a diskette is damaged, there’s little chance of retrieving the data. If you were to calculate the value of a single diskette in terms of the data stored on it and the hours it took to input the data, then a $2 diskette might well be worth several thousands of dollars. If you can make the end users understand this, then maybe they will treat diskettes more carefully. Go over the fundamentals on how to care for, handle, and protect diskettes. Explain how to properly load a diskette into a drive. CARING AND HANDLING OF DISKETTES.— We know how important it is to keep diskettes away from cigarette smoke, greasy foods, and beverages that might be spilled on them, but what about the end users? Do they know the negative effects these substances can have on their computer, the media, or their work? Probably not, and that’s where you come in. Never bend or fold diskettes. The diskette drive only accepts a diskette that is absolutely flat. If it is bent or crinkled, it may cause severe damage to the read/write heads as well as make the data unretrievable. When preparing an external file label, never use a pencil or ball-point pen if the label is already affixed to the diskette’s jacket. Instead, use a felt tip marker and be sure to press lightly. Unless labels are scarce, you would do well to inform the user it is far better to prepare a new label before placing it on the diskette. Then, using extreme care, remove any label on the diskette and place the new one on. Never stack labels one on top of the other on a diskette. It may cause problems when you insert the diskette into the drive. Show end users how to handle and properly use diskettes. To be used, a diskette must be inserted into a disk drive. Sounds simple enough; however, if you were to measure a 5.25-inch diskette, you would find that each side measures 5.25 inches—it is perfectly square. To the end users, inserting a diskette into a drive could become a bit of a problem with eight possible ways to insert it. We know a diskette goes into a drive correctly in only one way. If the disk drive is the horizontal type, insert the diskette with the label facing up and the recording window toward the drive door, as shown in figure 2-19. Normally, if the disk drive is the vertical type, hold the diskette with the label facing left while inserting it with the recording window toward the drive door. Once the diskette is properly inserted, close the drive door by lowering the drive latch. This positions the read/write heads and locks the diskette in place. This locking step is necessary; otherwise, the system will not be able to access the diskette in the drive. PROTECTION OF DISKETTES.— How many times have you read or heard the following “Whenever diskettes are not being used, they should be stored in a protective envelope”; or “Whenever a diskette is removed from its protective envelope, never touch any of the diskette’s exposed parts”; a thousand times maybe? The same may not be true of individuals who have just been introduced to the world of computers. It will be your job to assist and educate these new users through OJT in their working environment. Temperature and humidity are also important. Never leave diskettes in direct sunlight or in areas where humidity is extremely high or low. High humidity can cause moisture to form on the diskette’s surface or possibly warp the diskette’s protective jacket. Low humidity makes conditions ideal for the buildup of static electricity, which you can transfer or discharge to a diskette, thereby destroying the data. Diskettes are designed to withstand temperatures from 50 to 125 degrees Fahrenheit, 10 to 52 degrees Celsius, and a Figure 2-19.—Inserting a diskette properly. 2-29

relative humidity of 8 to 80 percent. However, we in the computer community try to keep all magnetic media within a temperature range of 60 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit, and a relative humidity of 30 to 60 percent. Generally speaking, a temperature and humidity in which you are comfortable will also be comfortable for diskettes. The users must also be made aware that they are to keep all types of magnetic media, including diskettes, at least one foot away from anything that generates a magnetic field. This includes magnets of any kind, such as those found in telephones, stereo speakers, and paper clip dispensers, as well as magnets on copyholders and inside of printers. It also includes motors, such as those found in portable fans and floor buffers and polishers. System Care and Operator/User Maintenance The fact that microcomputer systems are small and out in the workspaces doesn’t mean they don’t need operator maintenance. They do. Dirt accumulates on diskettes, disk drives, printers, display screens, and keyboards. Static electricity can also be a major problem, especially in areas where humidity is low. Keep your system as clean as possible. One way to do this is by using dust covers. This, of course, only protects the system when it is not in use. You will still need to clean the components on a regular basis. Clean the floppy disk drive heads with a head cleaning diskette. It is easy to do. Read the directions that come with the head cleaning kit. They may have you put fluid on the cleaning diskette. Then you insert the cleaning diskette in the drive and activate (lower) the heads for a few seconds. This helps reduce service calls, and you are less likely to lose data. How often you will need to do this will depend on how much the system is used and whether the area is very dusty and smokey. Some floppy disk drive manufacturers recommend cleaning the heads no more than twice a year. As your subject matter experts (SMEs), we recommend cleaning the heads after 40 to 50 hours of actual use. To clean keyboards, you can use specially angled swabs with cleaning solution, and/or a portable vacuum that has special attachments to reach between keys. Vacuums of this type usually have dual-filter systems to keep from blowing dust and dirt back into the room. Ultra soft, thin bristle brushes are also available for cleaning keyboards. We do not recommend you use 2-30 low-pressure air or canned air (a harmless gas under pressure), as this cleaning method has a tendency to blow dust and dirt into cracks, crevices, and electrical components that could eventually cause you problems. The display screen needs routine cleaning. A dirty screen can be hard to read and may contribute to headaches and fatigue. You will be able to see the dirt, dust, and smoke buildup on the screen. The dust can cause static electricity that may result in lost data. You may use a liquid video spray cleaner, but do NOT spray it on the screen. Spray it on a lint-free nonabrasive cloth. A word of caution. Many commercial cleaning solvents contain alcohol and other flammable agents. If your display screen is on (energized) when it is cleaned with one of these flammable fluids, combustion can occur. An energized display screen can discharge quite a bit of static electricity -—a sufficient amount to ignite alcohol. So, if you intend to clean your screen, turn the monitor OFF first. Also available are wet/dry towelettes. These are convenient to use because the cleaning solution is normally premeasured and they come in individual packets. To reduce static electricity, special antistatic sprays are available, or you can use antistatic pads or mats. Some cleaning solutions include antistatic chemicals. An antistatic filter for the display screen is another way to reduce static buildup. Antistatic dust covers may also help when the system is not being used. Printers create their own bits of paper and dust. To clean the printer, use a vacuum designed to clean computer components. These vacuums are usually portable, have a dual filtering system, and can clean in small, hard to get places. Cleaning solutions and specially shaped brushes are available for cleaning platens. For cleaning the print heads, you can feed a specially designed print sheet cleaner through the printer just like you feed continuous-form paper. Laser printers have special cleaning requirements. You use dry lint-free clothes to wipe any residue of surfaces and a cleaning brush to clean the antistatic teeth. Operator/user maintenance is important for effective operation of computer systems. It helps prevent data loss and will increase the life of the computer system and its components. Establish schedule for routine operator/user maintenance. a

Loading and Unloading Tapes When you are loading or unloading (mounting or dismounting) a magnetic tape, look for tapes with irregular windings and reel warpage. You will see that as tape is wound on a reel, it is normal for some of its edges to protrude slightly. These irregularities usually result from high-speed rewinding. The terrific speed at which tape moves during a high-speed rewind produces the slightly irregular winding caused by air being trapped between adjacent layers of tape. This, in itself, will not cause improper operation of the tape, but it does require you to use good judgment and extreme care when handling tapes. MOUNTING A TAPE.— When you mount a tape, make sure the tape unit is not being used for another job. Check to make sure you are mounting the correct reel of tape according to job requirements. Tapes have external labels that identify the data or programs on them. Remember, if the reel of tape is an input, be sure the file protection ring is removed. If the tape is an output, be sure a file protection ring is inserted. Then proceed to mount the tape. Have one of the more senior operators on the system show you how to perform this operation because mounting a tape and depressing the proper keys/buttons differ from one system to another. Basically, you will place the reel on a hub and lock the reel in place. Then you thread the tape through the read/write head assembly onto the machine take-up reel (unless the tape unit is a self-loading tape unit). Once the tape is properly loaded, the ready light comes on. If the tape is not properly seated on the tape unit’s hub during use, it will wobble or appear to be warped. If the file protection ring is not completely inserted, this, too, can produce the same effect. In either case, the reel behaves like it is warped, and upon rewinding, the edges of the tape can become badly damaged. Self-Loading Tapes. — The use of self-loading tapes makes tape loading much easier. Self-loading tape units eliminate the need for you to manually thread a tape between the read/write head assembly onto the machine take-up reel. All you need to do is to mount (place) the reel of input or output tape on the file reel hub and allow a small strip of tape to extend from the reel (anywhere from 2 to 6 inches, depending on the type of tape unit). Then, by depressing the proper control panel keys/buttons in the appropriate sequence, the tape unit automatically threads the tape by using a vacuum to pull the tape into the vacuum column past the read/write head assembly onto the machine take-up reel and advances to the load-point (BOT) marker. Tape Cartridges.— Tape cartridges are even easier to load. Tape cartridges consist of a reel of tape and a take-up reel enclosed in a protective case similar to the cassette tapes you are familiar with, only larger. Here, you simply mount the entire tape cartridge on the tape unit and depress the proper keys/buttons. The tape automatically loads. Your hands never come in contact with the tape. The cartridge type of tape unit also works under vacuum control and threads the tape in the same manner as self-loading tape units. DISMOUNTING A TAPE.— When a job finishes using a tape, the tape is normally rewound and unloaded automatically. At that time, the ready light goes off. This is an indication to you that the tape can be dismounted and placed in its proper storage rack or returned to the media library. LABELING A TAPE.— In some installations, you may be required to prepare the external tape label for an output tape file. On it, you will indicate such information as the following: l l l l e The tape unit number (or drive number) where the tape file was initially created The date of creation The job name or number The identification or volume number The tape usage data and other pertinent information STORING TAPES.— When not being used, tape reels should be properly supported. The plastic canister or tape strap is designed to fully support the reel. A tape reel that is supported in any other manner may become warped. 2-31

LOADING AND UNLOADING PAPER FORMS.— Many printers have a soundproof cover that you must raise to gain access to the forms tractors and other manual controls. By moving the print-unit release lever toward you (figure 2-20, frame A), you unlock the print unit assembly. This allows you to swing the unit out to the side and gain access to the upper and lower forms tractors (figure 2-20, frame B). You then open all four tractors to unload or load paper forms. Unloading Forms. — To remove forms already in the printer, tear off the form at the end of the report and let the unused portion fall back into the box. The printed portion will normally follow on down into the printer’s stacker. Now, you are ready to insert (load) a new form. Loading Forms.— Quite often, you will find yourself having to load a form of a different width. To do this you will have to adjust the tractors. When adjusting the tractors, it is a good practice (and sometimes a command policy) to keep the left-hand tractors in one permanent location. In this way, both you and the programmer always know where print position 1 will print on any given form. To adjust the right-hand tractors, you must use the tension control (figure 2-21). This allows you to move the tractors to the desired location. As you become more experienced, you will know where to position the tractors for all standard form widths. You then place the form over the sprockets and close the tractors. Now that the forms are in place, you apply the proper amount of tension to the paper. To do this, use the tension control (figure 2-21). By depressing the left button, you move the right-hand tractor closer to the left-hand tractor, thereby decreasing the amount of tension to the paper. By depressing the right button, you move the right-hand tractor farther away from the left- hand tractor, thereby increasing the amount of tension to the paper. If there is not enough tension, the forms tend to feed improperly, and they may tear. If too much tension is applied, the tractor latching pins tend to rip out the sprocket holes in the form and may cause the forms' tractors to open. Once the proper tension is applied, you can proceed to align the forms so that the information will print in the correct location, both vertically and horizontally. Figure 2-20.—Open the print unit to access the print unit and forms tractors. Figure 2-21.—Tractor and tension control adjustments. 2-32

Aligning Forms.— Most high-speed impact printers are designed with a ribbon shield. This ribbon shield protects the form from coming into contact with the printer ribbon, thus eliminating ink smears. It also serves as a print line indicator, which we use to align the form. The ribbon shield swings in front of the form (figure 2-22, frame A). Once the ribbon shield is in position, it can be used as illustrated in figure 2-22, frame B, to help in the adjustment of the form. Use the horizontal adjustment control shown in figure 2-23, to slide the entire print mechanism to the left or right. When the left margin of the form is even with the first ruled line on the ribbon shield print line indicator (figure 2-22, frame B), release the horizontal adjustment button. At this point, the horizontal printing is accurate to within one print position. Use the horizontal adjustment button (figure 2-23) for any additional fine horizontal adjustments that may be necessary. This Figure 2-22.—Using the ribbon shield for alignment. control is especially useful when working with preprinted forms, such as your LES statement. Now that the form is positioned horizontally, you can make the necessary vertical adjustments. Again, using the ribbon shield print line indicator as a guide, you can move the form up or down one line at a time until the form is vertically aligned by pushing the line feed button. Use the vertical print adjustment button (figure 2-23) for any additional fine vertical adjustments to align the print line to its proper position. Now that the form is vertically adjusted, close the print mechanism and lock it into place with the print-unit release lever. Print forms not only vary in size but in thickness as well. For this reason, you will have to adjust the printer to accommodate for thickness differences. To do this, you move the form thickness control knob (figure 2-23) either left or right. This will move the print unit mechanism closer to or farther away from the print hammers, thereby giving the forms sufficient clearance to pass between these two components. The paper Figure 2-23.—Vertical and horizontal alignment controls used to adjust printer paper. 2-33

thickness control knob has a direct effect on the printer’s phasing (which has to do with the quality of the printed character). For this reason, it is important that this be set properly. Once you become familiar with the various buttons, levers, and controls of anyone of the many printers you may be working on, you will quickly find that most forms are relatively easy to align. For those that are not, such as preprinted forms, often the programmer will assist you by printing out form alignment characters to allow for proper alignment before the actual printing of the job. OPERATOR MAINTENANCE.— Although a maintenance contract is usually carried on the printer, you are still responsible for part of the routine maintenance. Keep the exterior and interior of the machine clean using a vacuum cleaner wherever possible. Check the print mechanism for carbon and ink buildup that accumulates and eventually causes problems. And most importantly of all, change the printer ribbon as often as needed. When the print starts to fade and adjustments to the form’s thickness and print density controls do not seem to help, then it is time to change the printer ribbon. It is a good practice to get into the habit of performing a test print before starting a job, especially if the job is a lengthy one. A test print is a routine designed to show you whether the printer is functioning properly: that each and every character is clear and sharp (not chopped or halved), that all characters are uniform throughout the entire print line (not wavy), and that all print hammers are firing properly. You should now have a basic understanding of, how to remove, load, and align forms in the printer; setup the required print controls; be able to respond to the various machine indicators; and perform routine operator maintenance functions. Reduce File Fragmentation File fragmentation occurs when you delete a file, leaving, basically, a hole in the information on the hard disk, or when you add information to an existing file when there is no contiguous space left next to the file. To correct fragmentation, you can make a backup, reformat the hard disk, and restore your files. You can also run a software program referred to as a defragmenter to reorganize the files so the data in each file is contiguous. 2-34 Troubleshooting and Isolating Problems Problems will range from simple to disastrous. The printer may not be printing because it is out of paper. The disk drive may not be reading because the drive latch is not closed. The printer maybe printing garbage because the incorrect printer definition is used. The hard drive may be having excessive read errors. The problems may be operator/user errors, software problems, or hardware malfunctions. Knowing which is sometimes easy. Under other conditions, it may be difficult to determine the source of the problem. TROUBLESHOOTING.— Learn about common problems. For example, what does it mean if the monitor screen goes blank? Is the problem a simple one, such as the monitor has an automatic function that turns off the screen when it hasn’t been used in a specified amount of time? Pressing any key will reactivate the screen. Or, have the brightness or contrast thumbwheels been turned, causing the screen to look blank? A turn of a thumbwheel may bring the monitor screen back to light. Has a cable become disconnected? Has the power been turned off? Is the monitor or power strip unplugged? Or, is the power supply no longer working? Has the operator hit a combination of keys by mistake that has caused the screen to go blank except for the status lines? Look at the status lines to see if they provide information. Whatever the symptoms, look first for simple logical answers. Check all cable and outlet connections. Check to see that each component of the system is plugged in properly. Check to see that the proper options are selected. For example, on the printer, is it in a ready status? Are the proper dip switches set? Is the printer out of paper? Is the correct mode of operation selected, either through the buttons on the printer or through software? If the software and hardware allow using several printers, is the correct one selected, and are any manual selections made when a switch box is used? We could go on and on with examples. The point is, learn from experience. Keep a list of symptoms, probable causes, and ways you can use to trace a problem to its cause. This will help you to diagnose and troubleshoot problems. You will find users tend to make the same mistakes over and over, especially while learning. Help them by telling them about common problems, the reasons for the problems, and ways to avoid having them happen to them. You will soon learn the common errors, keep a mental list of the sequence you use to start isolating a problem. You may want to develop a checklist. For

example, look at the list in table 2-1. These area few examples to get you thinking about problems. Look at the condition and try to determine possible causes. Look in the documentation; it usually has a section that lists conditions and possible causes. Ask the users what program they are using. Ask the users what keys they depressed and in what sequence. Ask what they were trying to do. Always check for error messages. Check any status information on the screen. You might want to develop a separate list for each component or for each software package. You might add to the lists in the documentation. Diagnostic routines can also help you find problems. DIAGNOSTIC ROUTINES.— Most microcom- puter systems come with online diagnostic routines. These are tests you run from the keyboard. They are in addition to the diagnostic tests the system automatically runs when you turn it on. Your system will probably provide a disk read test, a keyboard test, memory tests, and a power-up test. The diagnostic program will tell you what commands to use to perform each test, what to look for, and how to stop each test. A major hardware failure could prevent the system from being able to display error messages on the display screen. Should this happen, your microcomputer system unit may have diagnostic light-emitting diodes (indicator lights) to help isolate the problem. Follow the instructions in the owner/user manuals. Table 2-1.—Checklist for Identifying Problems SUMMARY In this chapter on computer center operations, we covered trouble reports, computer system output, environmental conditions, console operations, virus protection software, AIS requests, and the media library. This is but a sampling of what will be expected of you as you enter the computer center. You will build on this foundation with the skills you have and those you will learn. 2-35

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CHAPTER 3 DATA MANAGEMENT Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following: l l l l l l Explain how to convert, process, transfer, and verify data files. Describe how to input and manipulate data on a computer system. Calculate storage and memory requirements for computer systems and data. Explain how to perform software configurations and how to install and upgrade software. Review I/O file specifications and determine system I/O requirements. Explain how to analyze the requirements, review the structure, identify the problems and change the structures of databases. Data management incorporates many aspects of data manipulation and inputting, calculating storage and memory requirements, and computer software. You will need to know how to install applications software so it works and be familiar with all types of productivity software. Database management techniques will aid you in understanding how databases are analyzed, how to review and change structures, and how to identify problems. DATA ADMINISTRATION Data administration is an ongoing concern of management. Data administration encompasses all the technical and management duties required for converting, processing, transferring, verifying, and inputting data. Over the years, data resources in the Navy have grown in size and complexity. It is apparent that not all of the data problems within the Navy are resolved with the use of software. Some are taken care of with hard work. DATA MANAGEMENT Data management programs or routines are concerned with reading and writing data, locating data files, controlling I/O devices, handling I/O errors and requests, and providing space on output media for new files. In short, data management routines oversee the locating, accessing, outputting, and maintenance of data files. Can you imagine yourself trying to keep track of the location of all data files, which disk pack each is on, and which disk pack is mounted on which online disk drive. To try to do this would be overwhelming. Thanks to data management routines, you are relieved of this responsibility. The converting, transferring, and verifying of data files is left up to the operator to perform. All of these processes are completed by the use of application utility programs. The transferring and verifying of data files is accomplished by using a copy utility. Data file conversion is accomplished by a utility of the software program being used, such as converting a WordPerfect® file into a Microsoft® Word file. There are several different ways to accomplish the inputting of data into the system. The oldest technique is data entry, keying the data off of source documents straight into the system. The most common ways are inputting the data from a tape or disk file. These files are produced from another job or from another installation, such as status of supply parts. Once the data is inputted into the computer system, we have the capability of manipulating the data by copying, appending, deleting, and editing it. Copying and appending are used primarily for manipulating 3-1