BOATSWAIN'S MATE

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-1 6 BOAT HANDLING

Learning Objectives After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe the duties of a boat coxswain. 2. Identify the responsibilities related to boat seamanship, including handling the craft, compasses and charts, and Rules of the Road. 3. Understand the forces that affect a boat under way and explain how they react on the boat’s motion. 4. Explain the force factors described in typical boat handling situations; rudder action, screen currents, and direction of the boat. 5. Describe the effects of a small boat going astern and forward. 6. Describe the theory of boat handling, including making landings and getting under way from piers, using force factors, lines, and currents. 7. Explain how to moor and get under way from piers, and floating docks. 8. Explain the difference between beaching and retracting boats from the beach. 9. Describe how to beach a small boat and retract from the beach. 10. Use compasses and navigational charts. 11. Know how to read a compass and compensate for errors. 12. Explain the information contained on a navigational chart. 13. Identify all maritime buoyage systems and explain what each buoy means for a coxswain. 14. Explain aids in intercoastal waterways and also how to navigate safely in these areas. 15. Describe the Rules of the Road for international, inland, crossing, meeting, and overtaking situations. 16. Determine the applicability of various rules of safe navigation. 17. Recognize and describe all lights as in navigation for all types of ships, buoys, and sound signals.

6.0.0 INTRODUCTION The moment you become the coxswain of a boat will probably be the first time in your life that you have been given so many responsibilities.

In this chapter, you will gain most of the knowledge needed to operate a small boat safely. You will learn of the forces affecting a boat, boat safety and etiquette, and how to read and care for a boat compass and navigational charts. Furthermore, you will learn how to maneuver a boat in confined areas and how to beach and retract landing craft. You must also become familiar with terms used in the “Rules of the Road,” understand distress signals, and properly interpret lights and sound signals.

Your ability in boat handling will increase the more you operate a small boat and have the basics committed to memory. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-2 6.1.0 A COXSWIAN’S RESPONSIBILITIES You must become completely familiar with everything relating to the care and handling of your boat. You must know its physical characteristics, dimensions, draft, and cargo and passenger capacities in both fair and foul weather. These capacities are stamped on the boat label, and you must not exceed them. During heavy weather, in particular, overloaded boats or boats with an unevenly distributed load can swamp easily, and in such circumstances, lives could be lost. Occasionally, it may be necessary to remind the OOD of your boat’s capacity to discourage overloading. When loading ashore, you are responsible for not overloading.

You are responsible to the officer in charge of the boat for having it clean and ready for use, with a complete boat outfit in good condition. Before making the accommodation ladder, coxswains of officers’ motorboats, gigs, and barges must ensure that the seat cushions are in place, the boat cloths are spread, and the boarding ladders (if provided) are placed properly.

You are responsible for the training and conduct of the boat crew. You must see that the crew is available when needed and that each crew member is wearing a clean uniform of the day. Problems may arise on some ships when white uniforms are required, but according to custom, each member of the boat crew should be in a clean, pressed uniform before assuming the duty. Ship’s regulations frequently require the boat crew to wear clean white sneakers. This is a safety factor, primarily, but it is also an aid in keeping boats looking neat, and you should always enforce this regulation. Oilskins or rain clothes supplied for your crew are your obligation, too. They should all be of one type, if possible, and should be kept in the boat when not being worn. Wearing foul weather clothing is strictly prohibited for boat crews unless weather requires its use. The senior officer present afloat (SOPA) provides instructions that set the uniform for boat crews. If you are unfamiliar with those instructions, check with the OOD before reporting for boat duty. Then, inform your crew of the proper uniform so that all will be dressed correctly before being called away.

When called away, man your boat promptly, lie off until signaled to make the gangway, and do not leave until you receive your orders from the OOD. Immediately upon return to the ship, inform the OOD whether the orders were carried out; if they were not, state the reason.

Officers of the deck are responsible for the appearance of the ship, and because they cannot see the ship from a distance, most of them will appreciate your quietly informing them of any irregularities you may notice about the ship (for example, items hanging over the side, loose gun and gun director covers, Irish pennants, and the like). Make it a habit to look for such things when you are returning to the ship. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-3 Before leaving your boat, you must make sure that it is secured properly and that a boat keeper, if required, is in the boat. If the boat is secured alongside a pier, make sure there is enough slack in the lines to allow for the rise and fall of the tide. To do so, you must have a good idea of the range and state of the tide. Check with the Quartermaster of the watch for this information. Figure 6-1 shows the proper way to secure a boat to a boom. Run the bow painter through the deadeye of the guess-warp, through the hoisting padeye, and then throw a clove hitch (backed up by a half hitch) around the Samson post. Have enough slack in the painter to allow for the bounce of the boat on the waves. When the weather is rough, the stern fast should be thrown over the boom guy and secured back on itself with a rolling hitch and one or more half hitches. When other boats are at the same boom, leave fenders rigged over the side. When your boat is secured properly, report to the OOD. Before securing for the night when you have the running duty, be sure the personnel on watch know where you can be found. As a coxswain, you are responsible for calling your crew.

Figure 6-1 Securing a boat to a boom UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-4 A beach guard usually is on duty at fleet landings during liberty hours. When boats are waiting to make the landing, you must lie to until called. Make your landing quickly, repeat your orders to the beach guard, embark or disembark your passengers, and wait for orders to shove off. When there isn’t a beach guard present, custom and common courtesy require that you wait your turn before going alongside. Defer to boats carrying officers senior to those in your boat. When your orders are to wait for a certain period or person and if space is at a premium, lie off while waiting.

Remember that among other things, a ship may be judged by its boats and the appearance and conduct of the boat crews. An untidy or disorderly crew in a dirty boat reflects discredit to its vessel, whereas smart crews in clean boats create good impressions. Even more important to you as an individual is the fact that you will come under the eye of most of the ship’s officers, and the impression you make in your boat will definitely be remembered when recommendations for advancement in rating are being considered.

As the coxswain of a boat, you are responsible for the conduct of all passengers. You must ensure that they are seated properly and that they remain so, that they keep their hands and arms off the gunwales, and that they observe boat etiquette at all times. As coxswain, you must enforce the no-smoking regulation, and assign one member of the boat crew to act as a bow lookout.

In addition, you must require the boat crews and passengers to wear life jackets when weather or sea conditions are hazardous. In the past, when Navy boats swamped (although the boats usually did not sink), many lives were lost. This generally was caused by the “powerful” swimmers leaving the boat and then not being found before they drowned. In the event of a swamped boat, insist that all hands remain with the boat lest individuals who separate themselves from the group become lost. Even if the boat sinks, encourage everybody to remain in a group, where the strong assist the weak. Remember: Emphasize to your people, it is much easier for rescue boats to find one large group than two or three dozen individuals scattered about. When you can get your anchor line or any other line from the boat before the boat sinks, tie the ends of the line together and have everyone secure to it with the belts of their life jackets. If the boat does not sink, try to anchor the boat to keep it from drifting out of the traffic lanes.

6.1.1 A Coxswain’s Authority Along with your many responsibilities as a boat coxswain, you have considerable authority. Subject to the orders of the officer of the deck and the senior line officer embarked, you as the coxswain, have full charge of the boat and its crew. Your passengers, regardless of rating, also must obey your orders when they concern the operation of the boat or the safety and welfare of personnel aboard. You, as the coxswain, have the authority to quell any disturbance, and if unable to do so, can request assistance from the senior officer or petty officer embarked. Any disturbance or unusual occurrence should be reported to the OOD immediately upon return to the ship. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-5 6.1.2 Boat Officer During heavy weather and any other time deemed necessary, an officer (or chief petty officer, in some instances) is assigned to each duty boat. A boat officer naturally has authority over you, as coxswain. The boat officer, however, does not assume your responsibilities or relieve you of your normal duties. The situation is somewhat like the relationship between the officer of the deck and the commanding officer on the bridge. You, as well as the boat officer, are responsible for the boat and for the safety and welfare of the crew and any passengers. Furthermore, you still are the coxswain and are expected to act as the coxswain. The boat officer may, however, choose to have you relieved by another qualified coxswain.

The senior line officer embarked (eligible for command at sea) assumes ultimate responsibility for the boat. The boat officer is responsible for informing such officer of the situation.

6.1.3 Boat Etiquette A key essential for a smart crew is proper, seamanlike conduct. Here are a few rules of boat etiquette, established by custom and regulations that can serve as your guide to proper conduct when in boats. Observe the rules closely, and insist that others in your boat do likewise.

• When there is no boat crew in a boat lying at a landing, gangway, or boom, the personnel seated in the boat rise and salute all officers passing near. When the boat crew is present the senior boat crew member renders the salute. • Unless the safety of the boat would be imperiled, the coxswain in charge of the boat will stand and salute when officers enter or leave their boats. • When boats with embarked officers or officials in view pass each other, the coxswain and the senior officer embarked should render hand salutes. The coxswain of the junior boat should idle the engine during the salute. After the officer returns the salute, resume speed. Unless it is dangerous or impractical to do so, coxswains must rise while saluting. • When a boat salutes another boat in passing, crew members outside the canopy stand at attention, facing the other boat. • When a boat is carrying an officer or official for whom a salute is being fired, slow the engines and disengage the clutches on the first gun, and head the boat parallel to the saluting ship. During the salute, only the person being honored rises and salutes. • Enlisted personnel who are passengers in the stern sheets of a boat always rise and salute when a commissioned officer enters or leaves. • Boat keepers and all other personnel in boats not under way and not carrying an officer, a petty officer, or an acting petty officer in charge, stand and salute when an officer comes alongside, leaves the side, or passes near them. They should remain standing until the boat passes or reaches the ship’s side.

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Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-6 • Personnel working on the ship’s side or aboard a boat do not salute unless ATTENTION is sounded. • Salutes aboard boats should be extended to foreign military and naval officers. • During morning or evening colors, you should stop boats. As the coxswain, stand at attention and salute. Have all others sit at attention. • No junior should overhaul and pass a senior without permission. The junior always salutes first, and the salute is returned by the senior. When a doubt exists about the rank of an officer in a boat, it is better to salute than risk neglecting to salute an officer entitled to that courtesy. • Subject to the requirements of the rules for preventing collisions, junior boats must avoid crowding or embarrassing senior boats. At landings and gangways, juniors should give way to seniors. Juniors should show deference to their seniors at all times by refraining from crossing the bows of their boats or ignoring their presence. • Junior personnel precede senior personnel into a boat, and they leave after the senior personnel unless the senior officer in the boat gives orders to the contrary. As a general rule, seats farthest aft are reserved for senior officers. • Officers seated in boats do not rise in rendering salutes except when a senior officer enters or leaves the boat. • The position of attention in a boat is sitting erect. • Enlisted personnel who are passengers in running boats with an officer on board maintain silence under ordinary circumstances. • Boats transporting senior officers to a landing should be given first opportunity to land. • Except when excused by proper authority, boats should stand clear of shore landings and the ship’s gangways while waiting, and the crews should not leave their boats. When a long wait is probable during bad weather or at night, you may request permission to make fast to a boom and to come aboard. • When a visiting party is alongside, the petty officer in charge should go aboard and obtain permission before allowing any of the visiting party to leave the boat.

The display of the national ensign, personal flags and pennants, bow insignias, hails and replies, and boat calls are covered in ATP I Volume 2 FLAGS, PENNANTS, AND CUSTOMS, and will not be repeated here.

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Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-7 6.2.0 FORCES AFFECTING A BOAT Before you attempt to handle a boat, you should understand the forces that affect a boat under various conditions. A coxswain who thoroughly understands these forces can use them to maneuver the boat, and, as the coxswain, you would not be required to fall back on an often painful trial-and-error method of learning boat handling. The following discussion concerning single-screw boats pertains to boats having right-hand propellers.

6.2.1 Force Factors For all practical purposes, you cannot compress water. Force applied to water creates a high pressure, and water flows to a low-pressure area, producing a force known as DYNAMIC PRESSURE.

High- and low-pressure areas in a ship or boat are created by the propeller and the rudder. As the propeller revolves to go forward, the shape and the pitch of each blade develops a thrust derived from a low-pressure area on the forward face of the blades and a high- pressure area on the after face of the blades. The force set up by this displacement of water is transmitted along the propeller shaft to thrust the boat ahead as the boat moves in the direction toward the low-pressure area. This force is PROPELLER THRUST.

The rudder exerts its force in a somewhat similar manner. When the rudder on a moving boat is set at an angle to the centerline of the craft, a high- pressure area forms on the leading surface. As a result of the difference in areas, the water exerts a force against the leading surface of the rudder, which, in turn, forces the stern in the direction opposite that to which the rudder is set. This is called RUDDER FORCE.

6.2.2 Side Force In maneuvering a single-screw boat, side force ranks next in importance to propeller thrust. Side force is defined as a force that moves (walks) the stern of the boat in the direction of the propeller’s rotation. Naturally, the upper blades exert a force opposite to that of the lower blades. But the lower blades are moving in greater water pressure; consequently, the force of the lower blades is greater. While going ahead, the stem tends to starboard; while backing, the stern walks to port. (See fig. 6-2.)

Figure 6-2 Effects of side force

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Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-8 6.2.3 Frictional Wake Current A vessel moving through water drags some of the water along because of friction between the skin of the ship and the water. This is called frictional wake current. Frictional wake current at the waterline is zero at the bow, increasing to maximum at the stern. It also is maximum at the waterline and decreases with depth toward the keel. It decreases the efficiency of both the propeller and the rudder and also diminishes the effect of side force. The degree of frictional wake increases proportionately to the boat’s speed and is greatest in shallow water. Thus, the higher the speed, the less the effect of side forces. To counteract the effect of skin friction, the underwater hulls of ships and boats are streamlined.

6.2.4 Screw Current Screw current, caused by the action of a rotating propeller, consists of two parts: the portion flowing into the propeller is the SUCTION CURRENT and the portion flowing away from the propeller is the DISCHARGE CURRENT. Suction current is a relatively minor force in boat handling. Discharge current, however, is a major force in two main respects.

It is a strong force acting on the rudder with the screw going ahead. Because of the part of the discharge current that acts against the boat’s counter, it is a strong component of side force when the screw is backing.

6.3.0 TYPICAL SITUATIONS Now, let us examine the effect of the forces just described in a few typical situations. We will assume there is no wind, tide, or current, except in certain instances where it is so stated.

6.3.1 Boat and Screw Going Ahead When a boat is dead in the water, with the right rudder, on and the screw starts turning over, the screw current hits the rudder and forces the stern to port. With left rudder on, the stem moves to starboard. As the boat gathers way, the effect of the screw current diminishes, and the normal steering effect of the rudder controls the boat’s head.

When the boat is proceeding ahead in the normal manner and the rudder is put right, the boat first falls off to port. When the rudder is put left, the boat goes to starboard. The entire boat is thrown slightly to the side, but the stem gives way to a greater extent. The boat advances two or three boat lengths along the line of the original course before it commences to gain ground in the desired direction. At higher speeds, advance is slightly less than at lower speeds, and turns are executed more quickly. Because of advance, trying to execute a turn to avoid an obstacle only a short distance ahead can result in disaster.

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Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-9 6.3.2 Boat and Screw Backing When you are backing down, four distinct forces are involved in steering. They are discharge current, side force, suction current, and rudder effect. The combination of these forces is such that it is almost impossible to back in a straight line.

Discharge current (from the propeller) and side force tend to throw the stem to port. (See fig. 6-3.) The relatively weak suction current acts to throw the boat to the side on which the rudder is, but suction current is negligible at slow speeds, as is rudder effect. But with the rudder on, as the boat gathers sternway, the water through which the boat is moving acts on the rudder and augments (increases) the effect of screw current (fig. 6-3). This usually slows, but does not necessarily stop, the stem’s swing to port. When backing long distances, you will find it is necessary to occasionally reverse the rotation of the screw and shift the rudder long enough to straighten out the boat.

Figure 6-3 Boat and screw backing

Strong winds affect backing ships and boats. Ships with high superstructures forward, as well as many boats, will back into strong winds. Until you discover differently, however, assume that a boat will back to port. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-10 6.3.3 Boat Going Ahead, Screw Backing A boat going ahead with the screw backing is an important illustrative case, for it is the usual condition when danger is discovered close aboard. You might assume that the rudder would have its usual effect in such a situation, BUT THIS IS NOT TRUE. As soon as the propeller starts backing, the forces discussed earlier combine and begin to cancel rudder effect.

When the rudder is left amidships, the head falls off to starboard, and the boat gains ground to the right as it loses way. This is because both side force and discharge current force the stern to port.

When the rudder is put hard right at the instant the screw starts to back, the boat changes course to starboard. The stem continues to swing to port unless, as the boat gathers sternway, the rudder effect is great enough to take charge.

When the rudder is put hard left at the instant the propeller backs, the boat’s head goes to port at first, and as the speed decreases, the head usually falls off to starboard. Some boats and ships, however, back stem to starboard for a while if there was a distinct change in course to port before the screw started backing.

6.3.4 Boat Going Astern, Screw Ahead With the boat going astern, the screw going ahead, and the rudder amidships, side force and screw current are the strongest forces. They oppose each other; hence, the resultant effect is difficult to determine. You must try it on your boat to obtain the answer. When the rudder is put hard right, the discharge current greatly exceeds the side force and the normal steering effect of the rudder, and the stem swings rapidly to port. Throwing the rudder hard left causes the stem to fall off to starboard.

6.4.0 MANEUVERING A BOAT Many books on boat handling tell the beginner to make a landing, heading into the wind, if possible, or to make it on the side of the pier where wind or current will set the boat down on the pier. This is good advice, but any sailor knows that a boat coxswain has few chances to select landings. Consequently, the coxswain must learn the effects of the elements on the boat and to control the boat under any condition. The coxswain will be able then to get under way or make a landing when and where directed, in a smart, seamanlike manner. With experience, the coxswain will be able to weigh circumstances and handle the boat correctly in an almost second-nature manner.

The pointers that follow, plus a firm understanding of the preceding section, will assist you in learning the intricacies of boat handling. You, as coxswain, should remember though, that boats do not always respond exactly as theory predicts and that there is no substitute for actual experience. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-11 Throughout this section, we assume that the boat handler (coxswain) knows how far the boat, going at various speeds, will travel before a reversing screw stops the boat or changes its direction. We also assume that the boat handler knows how far the boat will fetch (glide) with the screw in neutral.

6.4.1 Making a Landing with a Single-Screw Boat Making a landing usually involves backing down. For this reason, procedures for landing port-side-to differ from those for a starboard-side-to landing. Let us first consider a port- side-to landing.

6.4.2 Port-Side-To Landing Making a port-side-to landing is easier than making a starboard-side-to landing, because of the factors discussed already. With no wind, tide, or current with which to contend, you should make the approach normally at an angle of about 20° with the pier. You should have the boat headed for a spot slightly forward of the position where you intend to stop. Several feet from that point (to allow for advance), put your rudder to starboard to bring your boat parallel to the pier, and simultaneously commence backing. Quickly throw the bow line over. Then with the bow line around a cleat to hold the bow in, you can back down until the stern is forced in against the pier.

When the wind and current are setting the boat off the pier, make the approach at a greater angle and speed. Make the turn closer to the pier. In this situation, you can get the stern alongside easier by using hard right rudder, kicking ahead, and using the bow line as a spring line, as in figure 6-4. To allow the stern to swing in to the pier, you must not snub the bow line too short.

When wind or current is setting the boat down on the pier, make the approach at about the same angle as when you are being set off the pier. Speed should be about the same or slightly less than when there is no wind or current. Commence the turn farther from the pier because the advance is greater. In this circumstance, you should bring the stern alongside by either of the methods described, or the centerline of the boat can be brought parallel to the pier and the boat will drift down alongside. Figure 6-4 Making a port-side- to landing, using a spring 6.4.3 Starboard-Side-To Landing Making a starboard-side-to landing is a bit more difficult than making a landing to port. The angle of approach should always approximate that of a port-side-to landing. Speed, however, should be slower to avoid having to back down fast to kill headway, with the resultant swing of the stem to port. A spring line should be used when you are working the stem in alongside the pier. Get the line over, use hard left rudder, and kick ahead. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-12 When you cannot use a spring line (as when you are making a gangway), time your turn so that, when alongside the spot where you intend to swing, your bow is swinging out and your stem is swinging in. When it looks as though the stem will make contact, back down; as you lose way, shift to hard right rudder.

6.4.4 Making Use of the Current When there is a strong current from ahead, get the bow line to the pier, and the current will bring the boat alongside as in view A of figure 6-5.

When the current is from aft, you can achieve the same result by securing the boat with the stem fast, as shown in view B, fig. 6-5. You should exercise care during the approach, because a following current decreases rudder efficiency and steering may be slightly erratic.

Figure 6-5 Making use of the current

6.4.5 Getting Underway From a Pier When you are coming alongside, procedures for getting under way depend upon which side of the pier the boat is located, as well as the state of current, wind, and so on. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-13 6.4.5.1 Starboard-Side-To The easiest way to get under way when you are starboard-side-to a pier is to cast off the stem fast, hold the bow line, give the boat hard left rudder, and commence backing. When the stern is clear of the pier and there is no boat or other object astern, cast off the bow line and back out of the slip. When a wind or current is coming from astern or the slip is long, you will do better to turn in the slip (room permitting) as shown in figure 6-6.

Figure 6-6 Turning in a slip

6.4.5.2 Port-Side-To The easiest way to clear a port-side-to landing is to use the bow line as a spring line. Cast off the stem fast, give the boat left full rudder, and kick ahead until the stem is well clear. Then cast off the spring line and back out of the slip. You can use another method of clearing the pier by following the maneuvers in figure 6-7.

Figure 6-7 Another way of turning in a slip UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-14 6.4.6 Twin-Propeller Boats On twin-propeller boats, the starboard screw is right-handed and the port screw is left- handed. The lateral (sidewise) forces produced by one screw cancel those of the other when both are going ahead or astern. When one screw is going ahead and the other is going astern, however, the forces complement each other and the effect is doubled. For this reason, you will find that maneuvering a twin-screw boat is considerably simpler than maneuvering a single-screw boat. You need not worry about the separate forces or their combined effect; think of it as a lever with a force (screw) at each end and the load (boat) in the middle. Thus, you readily can see how quickly a particular maneuver may be accomplished by using the correct propeller combinations along with the appropriate rudder angle. For example, to turn your boat 180° to starboard for a dead stop, use right full rudder, port engine ahead, and starboard engine astern. Your boat will make the turn in little more than its own length, whereas if in a single-screw boat you would require considerably more space to complete the same turn.

You will also find it much easier to get into a short berth or other confined spaces with a twin-propeller boat. Consider the situation shown in figure 6-8. How would you maneuver the LCM into the space at the pier? You should put over your bow line, throw your rudders right full, back the starboard engine, and kick the port engine ahead. Adjust your throttles, as necessary, to keep from gaining headway or sternway. The stern will walk right into the pier. To get out, put on left rudder, back your port engine, and put the starboard engine ahead. When the stern of the LCM clears the ship astern, back both engines and use the rudders and throttles to keep a steady course. Figure 6-8 Maneuvering a twin-propeller boat into a short berth

Almost all the maneuvers required of a boat can be accomplished by varying the direction and speed of the engines and by not using the rudders. As an experienced coxswain, you can also maintain a fair course by varying the number of turns of the propellers. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-15 6.5.0 LIFEBOATS AND SIGNALS JCS Pub 2, Unified Action Armed Forces requires that a ship at sea have at least one boat rigged and ready for lowering to be used as a lifeboat. The ship’s boat bill specifies the exact condition of the lifeboat and the items of equipment that must be in the boat.

At the beginning of each watch, the lifeboat coxswain musters the crew, checks the boat and gear, has the engine tested, and reports to the officer of the deck. The crew of the lifeboat will consist of the following personnel:

• Boat officer with binoculars and side arm • Coxswain • Engineer • Rescue swimmer/Bow hook (must be SAR qualified)

The bow hook must be rescue swimmer qualified. All other personnel in the boat must be qualified second-class swimmers.

The maximum number of personnel authorized during hoisting is seven, lowering is six.

NOTE In an emergency situation, where human life is in jeopardy, the number of personnel authorized during hoisting (seven persons) can be increased to save the lives of the survivors. All personnel should be debarked at the rail or the lowest weather deck with the exception of the boat crew personnel required for hoisting in the boat.

The lowering of boats while under way is described in chapter 5, so the topic is not discussed here. However, if you stand BM watches or if you are coxswain of a lifeboat, make certain that you know the procedure for lowering lifeboats on your ship.

If a person goes overboard and it is necessary to use a boat for recovery, you must know the recovery procedures. Quick recovery is particularly important in cold water in which a person can live only a few minutes. Time must not be lost; the person may be dying. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-16 Once in the water, you probably will be directed to the victim, but the victim’s position relative to the ship undoubtedly will change before you get there. For these reasons, a simple system of signals has been adopted to direct the boat to the individual. Although there will be an officer in the boat, you, too, must know these signals.

By day, the signals are flags hoisted where seen best; at night, the signals are given by flashing light or pyrotechnics. Figure 6-9 shows the flaghoist, flashing light and pyrotechnic signals and their meanings. At night, pyrotechnics fired by the Mk 5 pyrotechnic pistol may also be used to direct the boat.

Figure 6-9 Man overboard/pilot rescue signals

You should approach a person in the water from downwind, so that the boat is not blown on him/her. Make the last part of the approach with the engine stopped, and attempt to make the recovery at the bow. If possible, try to avoid having the screw turning over in the vicinity of the person. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-17 If you are picking up survivors from a plane crash or ship disaster and they are in lifeboats, beware of the approach you make so that you do not foul your screw in a lifeboat’s sea anchor.

6.6.0 COMPASSES AND CHARTS Both the magnetic compass and the gyroscopic compass were explained in the Seaman rate training manual and are not discussed here. The rest of this chapter, however, takes up many things that you must know concerning the use of a compass.

A boat must never leave the ship without a compass. You never know when fog will set in or a sudden rain squall will blot out objects that were in clear view a few minutes earlier. You may think that you can steer a reasonably straight course under such conditions even without a compass, but it is impossible. Many coxswains who have become lost will bear witness to this fact.

Trust your compass. At times you may swear something has gone wrong with it, but that is your imagination not a faulty compass. Do not try to make your way from ship to ship by listening to the ships’ bells. The sound in a fog is deceptive, seeming to come from anywhere or everywhere at once. However, if you should become lost, the best thing you can do is listen for bells and try to find the nearest ship. Upon finding a ship, either request permission to stay there until the fog lifts or ask the OOD to determine a course to your ship. Never leave your ship without learning which berth the ship is in. If you should decide to remain at the ship, ask the officer of the deck to inform the OOD about your ship and your whereabouts.

Handle your compass with care so that you may rely on it in time of need.

6.6.1 Compass Error Two forces make up compass error. They are variation and deviation.

Actually, Earth is a huge magnet, and magnetic north is over a thousand miles from the geographic North Pole. And, as you know, a magnetic compass points to magnetic north instead of to the true geographic pole. The amount the compass is offset from the true pole is called variation. Variation differs at various points on Earth’s surface, and at many points increases or decreases by a certain known, annual rate.

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6-18 6.6.1.1 Variation Variation for any given locality, together with the amount of annual increase or decrease, is shown on the compass rose of the chart for that particular locality. This is true of large- scale charts, where the variation is constant throughout the area. On small-scale charts of large areas, however, variation is shown by lines (isogonic lines) running through points with the same amount of variation. Along each line or every fifth line, variation is printed, and rates of annual changes are shown between the lines. ount of annual increase or decrease, is shown on the compass rose of the chart for that particular locality. This is true of large- scale charts, where the variation is constant throughout the area. On small-scale charts of large areas, however, variation is shown by lines (isogonic lines) running through points with the same amount of variation. Along each line or every fifth line, variation is printed, and rates of annual changes are shown between the lines.

Figure 6-10 shows a compass rose that indicates that in 1957 there was a 26°45' easterly variation in that area, increasing 11' annually. The total amount of variation is found by multiplying the number of years since the year printed in the compass rose by the rate of annual change. The result is either added to or subtracted from the variation given, depending on whether the error is increasing or decreasing. In this instance, total variation in 1980 would have been 23 years x 11' annual increase added to the variation given, or 26°45' + 4°13' = 30°58'. Figure 6-10 shows a compass rose that indicates that in 1957 there was a 26°45' easterly variation in that area, increasing 11' annually. The total amount of variation is found by multiplying the number of years since the year printed in the compass rose by the rate of annual change. The result is either added to or subtracted from the variation given, depending on whether the error is increasing or decreasing. In this instance, total variation in 1980 would have been 23 years x 11' annual increase added to the variation given, or 26°45' + 4°13' = 30°58'.

Figure 6-10 Combination compass rose UNCLASSIFIED

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6-19 Variation remains the same for any heading of a ship or boat at any given locality. No matter at direction your boat is heading, the magnetic compass, if affected by variation alone, points in the direction of the magnetic pole.

6.6.1.2 Deviation Deviation is caused by the magnetic metallic masses in and on a ship. It is built into a ship and the ship, in effect, becomes another magnet. We do not intend to give you a detailed explanation of how this force affects a magnetic compass, but where deviation exists, it must be corrected. Although it remains a constant amount for each compass heading, it gradually increases, decreases, increases, and decreases again as the ship swings through a complete 360° circle.

Deviation must be considered in correcting compass error; consequently, the deviation for any given heading of a ship must be known. Before the ship puts to sea, it is swung through the complete circle from 0° to 360°, and the amount of the compass deviation is noted at every 15° swing. This is calculated by various methods, generally by comparison with the gyrocompass, or by reciprocal bearings on a compass on the beach, which is unaffected by the metal in the ship.

The results are compiled in a table called the deviation table (table 6-1). Every 15° is considered close enough, and in using the table, you take the deviation for the heading nearest the heading you are checking. In other words, if you look in this table for the amount of deviation for a 17° heading, you would select the deviation for 15°, or 10°W. When using a boat compass, you must understand deviation to understand the next topic.

Table 6-1 Typical Deviation Table Deviation Table Ship’s Heading Magnetic Dev. Ship’s Heading Magnetic Dev. Ship’s Heading Magnetic Dev. 000° 14° W 120° 15° E 240° 4° E 015° 10° W 135° 16° E 255° 1° W 030° 5° W 150° 12° E 270° 7° W 045° 1° W 165° 13° E 285° 12° W 060° 2° E 180° 14° E 300° 15° W 075° 5° E 195° 14° E 315° 19° W 090° 7° E 210° 12° E 330° 19° W 105° 9° E 225° 9° E 345° 17° W 360° 14° W

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6-20 6.6.2 Correcting Compass Error The course you take from a chart usually is a true course. You must convert the true course from a magnetic compass to a compass course. To convert, you must apply the compass error (variation and deviation) to the true course. Changing a true course to a compass course is called UNCORRECTING, and changing a magnetic course to true course is CORRECTING. You can remember this easily if you think of something that is TRUE as being CORRECT or already corrected. Another handy memory aid, CAN DEAD MEN VOTE TWICE, gives the key to the problem of changing from one to the other. Each word in our memory aid represents a word in our problem as follows:

CAN COMPASS DEAD DEVIATION MEN MAGNETIC VOTE VARIATION T W I C E T R U E

Variation and deviation are always given as EASTERLY or WESTERLY errors, and when you are CORRECTING (converting from compass to true), ADD easterly errors, and SUBTRACT westerly errors. When you are UNCORRECTING (converting from true to compass), SUBTRACT easterly errors, and ADD westerly errors.

Suppose the true course, taken from a chart, is 095°; variation taken from the same chart is 2° westerly; and deviation, taken from the deviation table is 3° westerly. Now work the problem. Put down the things you know as follows:

C D M V T 3°W 2°W 095°

Do not forget the W (for westerly) or E (for easterly); otherwise you will not know whether to add or subtract the error. Now, true course was given, and you want to find compass course. You are uncorrecting; therefore, you add westerly errors and subtract easterly errors. Both errors are westerly, so you add them both.

C D M V T 100° 3°W 097° 2°W 095°

Compass course is 100°.

Now, solve a problem converting compass course to true course. You have given: compass 193°, variation 7° easterly errors, and deviation 2° westerly.

This time we are correcting; therefore, add easterly and subtract westerly errors.

C D M V T 193° 2°W 191° 7°E 198° UNCLASSIFIED

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6-21 After a little practice, you should be able to work these problems in your head. Because it is compass course or true course you are interested in, find the algebraic sum of the two errors. An algebraic sum is obtained by adding the two errors if they are in the same direction, or subtracting the smaller error from the larger error if they are in opposite directions. The total error then is added to or subtracted from whichever course is given.

In many boats, deviation is very small or nonexistent, and when this is true, merely apply variation and you have your answer. In some boats, however, the motor and the other metal objects do cause deviation. These boats must be swung, deviation tables made out, and the date used when the compass corrections were made.

6.6.3 Navigational Charts Navigational charts contain a wealth of information for you, as a boat coxswain, as well as for the navigator. These navigational charts are a printed reproduction of a portion of the Earth’s surface depicting water and land. A chart uses standard symbols, figures, and abbreviations to show channels, data on water depth, character of the bottom and the shore, location of navigational aids, and prominent landmarks, including rocks, reefs, sandbars, and piers.

Numbers indicating water depth are placed throughout the water area of the chart. Depths are figured at mean low water and are given on a U.S. chart either in feet or fathoms. Whether the soundings are in feet or fathoms is shown under the title of the chart. Also shown under the title are such data as the scale of the chart, the units of measurements that heights are given in, and other pertinent information peculiar to that chart. When you study a chart, these are the first items to notice.

The symbols for prominent landmarks have abbreviations next to them. The meanings are clear enough to require no definitions here. Figure 6-11 shows the symbols for some of the dangers you may encounter in water areas. For further information on symbols and abbreviations used on nautical charts, refer to the current edition of Chart No. 1 Pub., which has a complete list of illustrations that have been approved for use on nautical charts.

The limits of channels are marked by buoys, and these buoys are indicated on charts by a small dot and a diamond. The dot shows the location of the buoy, and the diamond is most often the same color as the buoy. Small figures and letters alongside the buoys give the number and color of the buoy, type of buoy, color of light, and any pertinent information about it. In addition, the limits of dredged channels are represented by straight, black dashed lines.

In general, small boats need not stay in the channels; and in crowded harbors, they are better off to one side or the other. Larger shipping has the right of way. When you lay out a course, make certain that there are no obstructions along it and that there is plenty of water. UNCLASSIFIED

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6-22

Figure 6-11 Symbols used on charts to indicate changes to navigation UNCLASSIFIED

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6.7.0 MARITIME BUOYAGE SYSTEM Until 1982, as many as 30 different buoyage systems were in use around the world. An agreement was signed establishing two international buoyage regions with all maritime countries to condense all buoyage into one system. (See fig. 6-12.) This agreement was sponsored by the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) and bears its name.

The IALA Maritime Buoyage System provides rules that apply to all fixed and floating markers other than lighthouses, sector lights, range lights, lightships, and large automatic navigational buoys (lanbys).

6.7.1 Buoys Buoys are moored floating markers, placed to guide ships in and out of channels, warn them away from hidden dangers, and lead them to anchorage areas. Buoys are of various sizes and shapes; however, their distinctive coloring, shape, and topmark indicate their purpose by day and their light color and phase characteristics by night. Figure 6-12 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, buoyage regions A and B 6-23 UNCLASSIFIED

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6-24 Although buoys are valuable aids to navigation, they must never be depended on exclusively. Buoys frequently drag their moorings in heavy weather or may be set adrift if run down by passing vessels. Lights on lighted buoys may go out of commission. Whistles, bells, and gongs actuated by the motion of the sea may fail to function in smooth water.

6.7.1.1 Buoy Shape There are five basic buoy shapes (fig. 6-13); namely, can, nun, spherical, pillar, and spar. With the exception of pillar and spar buoys, the shape of the buoy indicates the correct side on which to pass. Can buoys may sometimes be referred to as cylindrical, and nun buoys referred to as conical. The term pillar is used to describe any buoy that is smaller than a lighthouse buoy and has a tall, central structure on a broad base. Lighted buoys in the United States are referred to as pillar buoys.

Figure 6-13 Types of buoys

6.7.2 Topmarks The IALA Maritime Buoyage System makes use of can, nun, spherical, and X-shaped topmarks only. Topmarks on pillar and spar buoys are particularly important to indicate the side on which they will be passed and will be used, wherever practical.

6.7.3 Lights Where marks are lighted, red and green lights are reserved for port and starboard or starboard and port lateral marks. Yellow lights are for special marks, and white lights are used for other types of marks, which will be discussed later in this chapter. UNCLASSIFIED

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6-25 6.7.4 Lateral Marks Lateral marks are generally used for well-defined channels. They indicate the route to be followed and are used in conjunction with a “conventional direction of buoyage.” This direction is defined in one of two ways:

• Local direction of buoyage - the direction taken by the mariner when approaching a harbor, river estuary, or other waterway from seaward. • General direction of buoyage - in other areas, a direction determined by the buoyage authorities, following a clockwise direction around continental landmasses, given in Sailing Directions, and, if necessary, indicated on charts by a symbol.

The numbering or lettering of buoys is an optional feature. In the United States, fairway and channel buoys are always numbered odd to port and even to starboard, approaching from seaward.

6.7.5 Buoyage Regions As previously mentioned, two International Buoyage Regions were established under IALA. Navigational charts produced and printed after 1983 will indicate the buoyage region to which a chart refers.

6.7.5.1 Lateral Marks Used in Region A As shown in figure 6-12, International Buoyage Region A covers Europe and Asia with the exception of Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the Republic of the Philippines and Guam. The major rule to remember in this region is red to port when you are returning from seaward. UNCLASSIFIED

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6-26

Port Hand Marks (fig. 6-14) Color Red Shape (buoys) Can, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single red can Light (when fitted) Color Red Phase Characteristics Any except composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-14 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region A, port hand marks (buoys)

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6-27

Starboard Hand Marks (fig. 6-15) Color Green Shape (buoys) Nun, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single green cone, point upward Light (when fitted) Color Green Phase Characteristics Any except composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-15 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region A, starboard hand marks (buoys)

When a vessel is proceeding in the “conventional direction of buoyage,” a preferred channel is indicated by a modified port or starboard lateral mark at the point where a channel divides. UNCLASSIFIED

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6-28

Preferred Channel to Port (fig. 6-16) Color Green with one broad red horizontal band Shape (buoys) Nun, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single green cone, point upward Light (when fitted) Color Green Phase Characteristics Composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-16 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region A, preferred channel to port

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6-29

Preferred Channel to Starboard (fig. 6-17) Color Red with one broad green horizontal band Shape (buoys) Can, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single red can Light (when fitted) Color Red Phase Characteristics Composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-17 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region A, preferred channel to starboard UNCLASSIFIED

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6-30 6.7.5.2 Lateral Marks Used in Region B Basically, Region B covers the Western Hemisphere, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the Philippines. The main rule to remember in this region is red right returning from seaward. stern Hemisphere, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the Philippines. The main rule to remember in this region is red right returning from seaward.

Port Hand Marks (fig. 6-18) Color Green Shape (buoys) Can, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single green can Light (when fitted) Color Green Phase Characteristics Any except composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-18 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region B, port hand marks (buoys)

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6-31

Starboard Hand Marks (fig. 6-19) Color Red Shape (buoys) Nun, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single red cone, point upward Light (when fitted) Color Red Phase Characteristics Any except composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-19 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region B, starboard hand marks (buoys)

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6-32

Preferred Channel to Port (fig. 6-20) Color Red with one broad green horizontal band Shape (buoys) Nun, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single red cone, point upward Light (when fitted) Color Red Phase Characteristics Composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-20 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region B, preferred channel to port

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6-33

Preferred Channel to Starboard (fig. 6-21) Color Green with one broad red horizontal band Shape (buoys) Can, Pillar, or Spar Topmark (when required) Single green can Light (when fitted) Color Green Phase Characteristics Composite group flashing (2 + 1)

Figure 6-21 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, International Buoyage Region B, preferred channel to starboard

NOTE In buoyage Regions A and B, if marks at the sides of a channel are numbered or lettered, the numbering or lettering will follow the “conventional direction of buoyage.”

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6-34 6.7.6 Cardinal Marks A cardinal mark is used in conjunction with the compass to indicate the best navigable water. It is placed in one of the four quadrants (north, east, south, or west) from the best water. A cardinal mark takes its name from the compass point in which it is placed. Figure 6-22 shows the IALA Maritime Buoyage System cardinal marks. ass to indicate the best navigable water. It is placed in one of the four quadrants (north, east, south, or west) from the best water. A cardinal mark takes its name from the compass point in which it is placed. Figure 6-22 shows the IALA Maritime Buoyage System cardinal marks.

Figure 6-22 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, cardinal marks

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6-35 The mariner is safe if he/she passes north of a north mark, east of an east mark, south of a south mark, and west of a west mark. A cardinal mark may be used to do the following:

• Indicate that the deepest water is an area on the named side of the mark. • Indicate the safe side on which to pass a danger. • Draw attention to a feature in a channel, such as a bend, junction, branch, or end of a shoal.

6.7.6.1 Topmarks By day, topmarks are the most important features of cardinal marks. The arrangement of the cones must be memorized. For north, the point of each cone is up. For south, the point of each cone is down. An aid to help you memorize the west topmark is its resemblance to a wineglass. Cardinal marks carry topmarks, whenever practical, with the cones as large as possible and clearly separated.

6.7.6.2 Color Black and yellow horizontal bands are used to color cardinal marks. The position of the black band, or bands, is related to the points of the black topmarks. The black and yellow horizontal bands are used as follows:

• North - black band above yellow band • South - black band below yellow band • West - black band with yellow bands above and below • East - black band above and below yellow band

The shape of a cardinal mark is not important, but in the case of a buoy, it will be pillar or spar.

6.7.6.3 Light Characteristics When lighted, a cardinal mark exhibits a white light. The characteristics are based on a group of quick (Qk) or very quick (VQk) flashes. These flashes distinguish it as a cardinal mark and indicate its quadrant. The distinguishing QK or VQK flashes are as follows:

• North - uninterrupted • East - three flashes in a group • South - six flashes in a group followed by a long flash • West - nine flashes in a group

As a memory aid, associate the number of flashes in each group with a clock face (3 o’clock - east, 6 o’clock - south, and 9 o’clock - west). UNCLASSIFIED

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6-36 The long flash immediately following the group of flashes of a south cardinal mark is to ensure that its six flashes cannot be mistaken for three or nine.

Quick flashing lights flash at the rate of less than 79 but not less than 50 flashes per minute. Very quick flashing lights flash at the rate of less than 159 but not less than 80 flashes per minute. It is necessary to have a choice of quick flashing or very quick flashing lights to avoid confusion. Two north buoys that are placed near enough to each other to be mistaken is one example where the QK flashing and VQK flashing lights would be needed.

6.7.7 Isolated Danger Marks An isolated danger mark (fig. 6-23) is erected on, or moored above, an isolated danger of limited extent. The isolated danger mark has navigable water all around it. The extent of the surrounding navigable water is not important. The isolated danger mark can, for example, indicate either a shoal that is well offshore of an islet separated by a narrow channel from the coast.

Figure 6-23 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, isolated danger mark

A black double-sphere topmark is, by day, the most important feature of an isolated danger mark. Whenever practical, this topmark will be carried with the spheres as large as possible, mounted vertically, and clearly separated.

Black, with one or more red horizontal bands, is used for isolated danger marks. The shape of an isolated danger mark is not significant, but, in the case of a buoy, it will be a pillar or spar.

When a spar buoy is lighted, a white flashing light showing a group of two flashes, is used to denote an isolated danger mark. The association of two flashes and two spheres in the topmark may be a help in remembering these characteristics. UNCLASSIFIED

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6-37 6.7.8 Safe Water Marks A safe water mark (fig. 6-24) is used to indicate there is navigable water all around the mark. Such a mark may be used as a center line, mid-channel, or landfall buoy.

Figure 6-24 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, safe water marks

Red and white vertical stripes are used for safe water marks. The vertical stripes are used to distinguish them from the black-banded danger marks. Spherical, pillar, or spar buoys may be used as safe water marks. Whenever practical, a pillar or spar buoy used as a safe water mark will carry a single red sphere topmark.

When lighted, a safe water mark exhibits a white light. The phase characteristics of the light will be occulting, equal interval (isophase), one long flash every 10 seconds, or Morse “A.” The association of a single flash and a single sphere in the topmark may be a help in remembering these characteristics.

6.7.9 Special Marks A special mark (fig. 6-25) may be used to indicate to the mariner a special area or feature. The nature of the special area or feature may be found by consulting the chart, Sailing Directions, or Notice to Mariners. The uses of a special mark include the following:

• Ocean Data Acquisition System (ODAS), buoys carrying oceanographic or meteorological sensors • Traffic separation marks • Spoil ground marks • Military exercise zone marks • Cable or pipeline marks, including outfall pipes • Recreation zone marks

Another function of a special mark is to define a channel within a channel (for example, a channel for deep-draft vessels in a wide-approach area where the limits of the channel for normal navigation are marked by red and green lateral buoys).

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6-38

Figure 6-25 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, special marks

Yellow is the color used for special marks. The shape of a special mark is optional, but it must not conflict with a lateral or a safe water mark. For example, an outfall buoy on the port hand side of a channel could be can-shaped but not conical.

When a topmark is carried, it takes the form of a single yellow X. When a light is exhibited, it is yellow. The phase characteristics may be any except those used for the white lights of cardinal, isolated danger, and safe water marks.

6.7.10 New Dangers A newly discovered hazard to navigation, not yet shown on charts or included in Sailing Directions or sufficiently announced by Notice to Mariners, is called a “new danger,” The term new danger covers naturally occurring obstructions, such as sandbanks or rocks, or man-made dangers, such as wrecks.

A new danger is marked by one or more cardinal or lateral marks following the IALA Maritime Buoyage System. When the danger is especially grave, it will be marked by marks that are identical until the danger has been sufficiently announced.

When a lighted mark is used for a new danger, it must exhibit a quick flashing or a very quick flashing light. When it is a cardinal mark, it must exhibit a white light. When it is a lateral mark, it must exhibit a red or green light.

The duplicate mark may carry a radar beacon (RACON), coded D (-..), showing a signal length of 1 nautical mile on a radar display.

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6-39 6.7.11 Daymarks Unlighted aids to navigation (except unlighted buoys) are called daymarks (fig. 6-26). A daymark may consist of a single pile with a mark on top of it, a spar supporting a cask, a slate or masonry tower, or any of several structures. Unlighted aids to navigation (except unlighted buoys) are called daymarks (fig. 6-26). A daymark may consist of a single pile with a mark on top of it, a spar supporting a cask, a slate or masonry tower, or any of several structures.

Figure 6-26 IALA Maritime Buoyage System, lateral daymarks

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6-40 Daymarks, like lighthouses and light structures, are usually colored, to distinguish them from their surroundings and make them easy to identify. Daymarks marking channels are colored and numbered like channel buoys. Many are fitted with reflectors that show the same colors a lighted buoy would show at night in the same position.

6.8.0 AIDS IN INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY The Intracoastal Waterway, called the inland waterway, is a channel in which a light- draft vessel can navigate coastwise from the Chesapeake Bay almost to the Mexican border, remaining inside the natural or artificial breakwaters for almost the entire length of the trip.

Every buoy, daymark, or light structure along the Intracoastal Waterway has part of its surface painted yellow - the distinctive coloring adopted for this waterway. Somewhere on a lighted buoy is a band or a border of yellow.

Red buoys and daymarks are to the right, green to the left, as you proceed from the Chesapeake Bay toward Mexico. As in other channels, red buoys have even numbers; green buoys, odd numbers. Because the numbers would increase excessively in such a long line of buoys, they are numbered in groups that usually contain no more than 200 buoys. At certain natural dividing points, numbering begins again at one.

Lights on buoys in the Intracoastal Waterway follow the standard system of red lights on red buoys and green lights on green buoys. Lights on lighted aids besides buoys also agree with the standard rules for lights on aids to navigation.

6.8.1 Ranges Two day beacons located some distance apart on a specific true bearing constitute a day beacon range. When a ship reaches a position where the two lights, or beacons, are seen exactly in line, it is “on the range.” Ranges are especially valuable for guiding ships along the approaches to or through narrow channels. Much of the steering through the Panama Canal is accomplished on ranges. Other examples of successive straight reaches marked by ranges are the channel entrances to the St. John’s River, on the Atlantic coast, and to the Columbia River, on the Pacific coast.

Lights on ranges may show any of the four standard colors, and they may be fixed, flashing, or occulting. Most range lights appear to lose intensity rapidly as a ship diverges from the range line of bearing.

When you are steering on a range, it is highly important to ascertain the limit beyond which the range line of bearing cannot be followed safely. This information is available on the chart. UNCLASSIFIED

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6-41 6.8.2 Fog Signals Most lighthouse and lightships are equipped with fog-signaling apparatus, ordinarily sounded automatically by mechanical and electrical means. For identification purposes, each station has its own assigned number of blasts, recurring at specified intervals. A definite time is required for each station to sound its entire series of blasts, and this timing provides another means of identification.

The various types of apparatus produce corresponding variance of pitch and tone, thus giving your ear a chance to compare the sound of a station with its description in the Light Lists.

6.8.3 Determining a Course One occupational standard for advancement requires you to use a chart to determine a compass course to a destination. For this purpose you need at least a pair of dividers and parallel rulers such as those shown in figure 6-27. The parallel rulers are simply two straight edges, usually of plastic, secured together by two short strips of plastic or metal. They may be opened or closed, but they always remain parallel to each other. To use them, place one edge along a course or bearing line, and walk them to the nearest compass rose. (Most charts have several compass roses conveniently located.) Make sure the rulers do not slip as you walk them across the chart. Place one edge at the center of the compass rose (marked by a cross). True course is read where the ruler crosses the outer ring. The inner ring gives a magnetic reading; variation (for the year indicated) is already applied. When using magnetic course, be sure you remember to apply the correction for annual rate of change. When you take true course, apply total variation. Deviation, if used, must be applied to either true or magnetic course.

Figure 6-27 Parallel rulers and dividers

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6-42 Suppose your ship is in Berth 8, EX-1, Hampton Roads. (See fig. 6-28.) Fog is heavy, and visibility is less than 100 yards. You never have been in this port before, and you must make a trip to fleet landing.

Figure 6-28 Section from Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart No. 400. (sample) UNCLASSIFIED

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6-43 You will want the largest scale chart available. First find your berth, then fleet landing, and plan a course between.

The safest and simplest way is to locate your position and your destination, and draw a straight line from one to the other. Then carefully examine both sides of the course, noting channels and depths of water. Make certain there are no hidden dangers, such as rocks, shoals, and sunken wrecks. When such dangers do exist, the course must be altered to give them wide berth. Choose a course that will put you at a point slightly up-current from your destination. By so doing, if your calculations are off slightly, you will not be swept past your landing. To avoid contacting ships, cross channels in the most expeditious manner possible. Remember that a small boat is not easily seen from a fogbound navigation bridge.

For purposes of this chapter, assume that all the areas where the DH berths are located is shallow water or contains other dangers and that you must go around that section. It is best to make as few course changes as possible, and for this reason you plan to head for the nearest channel buoy, cross the channel, and proceed in a straight line for the end of pier 2. On examining the chart, however, you discover the submerged pilings indicated near channel buoy 5. They lie exactly on your course line, so you decide to skirt them by going down the channel until you pass buoy 5 and then head for pier 2. Now chart your course.

Write down on a piece of paper all pertinent information as you find it, including courses, numbers, and characteristics of buoys where you turn and buoys you pass, and any other details that may be useful. Do not ignore any data that could prove helpful. It is better to carry around material you do not use than to discover you have lost your way because you neglected to copy down some seemingly needless item. For simplicity, you can arrange your information in table form, if you wish.

Lay one edge of your parallel rulers on the dots marking the center of the berth and buoy 4. Walk the rulers to the nearest compass rose, and pick off your course. You can take either true course (outer ring) or magnetic course (inner ring). In our problem, we will select true and convert it as we go along. Variation is 6°30'W (we will call it 7°); there is no annual change. We are uncorrecting; therefore, we add the westerly error. Following the plan, we find and record each course from buoy to buoy. Always remember to lay the straight edge on the dots, because the dots mark the exact position of the buoys.

Your entry in the compass log should look something like this.

Berth 8, EX-1, Hampton Roads to fleet landing NorNav Base and return.

Berth 8 to channel buoy R"4" (F1 R 2 1/2 sec bell) 101°T, 108°M. Passing R"2" (QkF1 R) close aboard to starboard.

R"4" to "3A" (F1 G 4 sec) C 129°T, 136°M. Turn right. Leave "3A" to port. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-44 "3A" to G"5" (QkF1 G) C 184°T, 191°M. Keep G"5" to port (submerged piles on opposite side).

G"5" to end of pier 2, C 166°T, 173°M.

When you leave the ship in a situation like this, swing around to the bow, and use either the point where the anchor chain enters the water or, preferably, the anchor buoy as your point of departure.

Probably the easiest way to make the return trip would be to proceed from the end of pier 2, cross the channel to R"8," parallel the channel to R"4," and then to the ship. Thus your courses would be as follows:

Pier 2 to R"8" (F1 R 4 sec bell) C 259°T, 276°M.

R"8" to R"4" (F1 R 2 1/2 sec bell) C 004°T, 011°M.

Passing R N"6" and W"C" (QkF1) close aboard to starboard.

R"4" to Berth 8, C 281°T, 288°M. Passing R"2" (QkF1 R) close aboard to port.

All the foregoing information, plus the speed and time of run for each leg, should be entered in your compass log.

NOTE Although we ignored tide and current to simplify our explanation, you should always be very careful to make due allowances for them when laying out your course.

6.8.4 Compass Log Navy regulations require that a compass log be kept in each boat. Magnetic courses to and from the various landings made are recorded in the compass log. To be of use, each entry should include the ship’s berth, the landings, and the various courses, with the approximate running time for each leg at a certain number of revolutions per minute. The return trips also should be recorded in proper order.

In many ships, boat coxswains are provided with sketches of small-scale charts of familiar ports, showing the courses, distances, and running times. As a boat coxswain in a strange port, however, you would do well to record your own information on your first trip. When doing this, remember that speed must be reduced in foul weather and fog; make your entries accordingly.

You should record as much useful information as possible. Refer to it as necessary, and avoid the embarrassment and possible danger of becoming lost. Remember: The smart sailor makes use of all possible aids and does not trust anything to luck. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-45 6.9.0 RULES OF THE ROAD We will not discuss all the Rules of the Road in this chapter. Any rules mentioned in this manual are taken from the U.S. Coast Guard publication Navigation Rules, International—Inland, COMDINST M16672.2 (series). This publication lists both the International and Inland Rules in a convenient form. All Navy ships are required to have a copy aboard.

6.9.1 International Rules International Rules apply to all vessels and seaplanes navigating on the high seas and the inland waters of foreign countries except for a limited number of areas where local laws prevail. International Rules are NOT applicable on the inland waters of the United States. On our inland waters, the Inland Rules are used.

6.9.2 Inland Rules The Inland Rules must be followed on all harbor, river, and other inland waters of the United States, with certain exceptions. These exceptions are the Great Lakes and their connecting and tributary waters as far east as Montreal; the Mississippi River above the Huey P. Long Bridge and all the Mississippi’s tributaries and their tributaries; the Atchafalaya River above its junction with the Plaquemine-Morgan City alternate waterway; and the Red River of the North. The above waters have special rules duly made by local authority.

Specific lines marking the boundaries between high seas and inland waters have been laid down at the entrances to many harbors and bays. Where such lines of demarcation have not been laid down, the general rule is that the boundary is a line drawn through the outermost buoy, approximately parallel to the shoreline.

The Inland Rules parallel closely to the International Rules and, except where differences are cited, it may be assumed that the two are identical in meaning.

The Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard has authority to promulgate Pilot Rules. These rules, referred to occasionally in this chapter, supplement and have co-jurisdiction with local statutory rules and apply in inland waters.

6.9.3 General Definitions For the purpose of these rules, except where the context otherwise requires, the following definitions apply:

• The word vessel includes every description of watercraft, including non-displacement craft and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on water. • The term power-driven vessel means any vessel propelled by machinery.

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Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-46 • The term sailing vessel means any vessel under sail provided that propelling machinery, if fitted, is not being used. • The term vessel engaged in fishing means any vessel fishing with nets, lines, trawls, or other fishing apparatus that restrict maneuverability, but does not include a vessel fishing with trolling lines or other fishing apparatus that do not restrict maneuverability. • The word seaplane includes any aircraft designed to maneuver on the water. • The term vessel not under command means a vessel that, through some exceptional circumstance, is unable to maneuver as required by the rules and is, therefore, unable to keep out of the way of another vessel. • The term vessel restricted in its ability to maneuver means a vessel that, from the nature of its work, is restricted in its ability to maneuver as required by the rules and is, therefore, unable to keep out of the way of another vessel. • The term under way means a vessel or seaplane on the water is not at anchor, made fast to the shore, or aground. • The term height above hull means the height above the uppermost continuous deck (main deck). • The word visible, when applied to lights, means visible on a dark night with a clear atmosphere. • A short blast is a blast of about l-second duration. • A prolonged blast is a blast of from 4 to 6 seconds. • A whistle is a mechanical sound-producing appliance. A siren may be substituted. • The word tons refers to gross tons; that is, the weight of the vessel plus the weight of the load. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-47 6.9.4 Meeting, Crossing, and Overtaking Situations Figure 6-29 shows various situations that arise when two vessels approach each other. The illustration and the following discussion apply only to the relationship existing between own ship, at the center of the diagram, and any of the other vessels.

Figure 6-29 Meeting, crossing, and overtaking situations

A MEETING situation exists when, by day, the masts of each vessel, when viewed from the other, are in a line. At night, both sidelights of each vessel must be visible to the other.

A CROSSING situation exists if each vessel has the other any place forward of 2 points abaft either beam (when it is not a meeting situation). UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-48 An OVERTAKING situation exists if one vessel approaches the other from any place more than 2 points abaft either beam. The unshaded vessels in figure 6-29 are stand-on vessels, and those with the crosshatched shading are give-way vessels. In practically all situations, a stand-on vessel must maintain course and speed. The give-way vessel in a crossing situation is required to alter course and/or speed to pass astern of the other. Overtaking vessels, regardless of the method of propulsion, are always give-way vessels. A vessel on the starboard side in a crossing situation is the stand-on vessel, and one on the port side is the give-way vessel unless it is a sailing vessel crossing a power-driven vessel. Vessels driven by machinery are always required to stand clear of sailing vessels unless being overtaken. Inland Rules warn, however, that the privilege does not give a sailing vessel a right to hamper, in a narrow passage, the safe passage of a steam vessel that can maneuver only in that channel. (Rules governing sailing vessels are explained in COMDTINST M16672.2 (series).

The relative bearing of the vessels from each other at the moment of first sighting determines what the situation is (crossing or overtaking), and no subsequent alteration of bearing relieves a give-way vessel of the duty to keep clear of a stand-on vessel.

In all of these situations, if the range is decreasing and the bearing does not change appreciably, the risk of collision is deemed to exist.

6.10.0 LIGHTS Lights are required on all vessels operating upon the high seas and the inland waterways of the world. The rules for these lights are covered under either the International Rules or the Inland Rules. The Great Lakes are covered under the Inland Rules, with a few exceptions covered by special rules made by local authorities. Certain rivers and tributaries in the United States abide by rules set by local authorities and deviate slightly from the Inland Rules of the Road.

6.10.1 Masthead Light The masthead light is a white light placed over the fore and aft centerline of a vessel showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 225°, and so fixed as to show the light from right ahead to 22.5° abaft the beam on either side of the vessel.

6.10.2 Sidelights The sidelights of a power-driven vessel are green on the starboard side and red on the port side, each showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 112.5° and so fixed as to show the light from right ahead to 22.5° abaft the beam on its respective side. If a vessel is less than 20 meters (65.5 ft) in length, the sidelights may be combined in one lantern carried on the fore and aft centerline of the vessel.

6.10.3 Stern Light The stem light is a white light placed as near the stem as possible, showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 135° and so fixed as to show the light 67.5° from right aft on each side of the vessel. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-49 6.10.4 Towing Light The towing light is a yellow light having the same characteristics as the “stern light” previously described.

6.10.5 All-Around Light The all-around light is a light showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 360°.

6.10.6 Flashing Light A flashing light is a light that flashes at regular intervals at a frequency of 120 or more flashes per minute.

6.10.7 Interpreting Lights Correctly During daylight hours, when visibility is good, it is fairly easy to recognize the situation that exists between two boats. But at night, with only the running lights to indicate relative positions, it is a little more difficult. This section is designed to teach you to interpret correctly the lights of motorboats and by them to determine what situation exists.

It would be impractical to try to describe or show every situation that could arise, but you can enlarge on the few typical ones presented. One way to do this is to whittle a rough boat hull from softwood and pin bits of colored and white paper or tufts of cotton in the approximate positions of the running lights. Screen the lights as necessary so that they are not visible where they should not be. For example, sidelights are not visible across the bow or more than 2 points abaft the beam. Place the boat on the table at various angles, and note the position of the lights in relation to each other. By doing this, you should learn to recognize a situation quickly, estimate the relative course of the other boat, and by your knowledge of Rules of the Road, determine the proper course of action.

For example, suppose you saw lights as shown in view A of figure 6-30 bearing down on you from dead ahead. The white light is about midway between the sidelights; therefore, the boat is heading straight at you.

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Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-50

Figure 6-30 Motorboat lights-meeting situation

You know that sidelights are not visible across the bow and are not visible from aft. Your conclusion must be that this is a meeting situation, and the rules say that both of you must alter course to starboard and pass port to port.

The boat in view B is showing sidelights in a combination lantern, which is allowed for boats less than 20 meters (65.5 ft) in length, and is also bearing down on you from dead ahead, making this a meeting situation. We know this because the combination light is directly in line with the white light.

Now assume that you saw lights as shown in view A of figure 6-31 about 20° on the starboard bow. Of the sidelights, you can see only the port, so you know the boat is approaching port-side-to. If the bearing does not change appreciably, you are on collision courses. The other boat is on your starboard side and therefore, is the stand-on vessel. You must alter course and/or speed to pass astern of it; consequently, a change of course to starboard is in order. Figure 6-31 Motorboat lights-crossing situation UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-51 Make the change great enough to bring your course parallel to, or slightly away from, the course of the other boat.

If you saw lights as they are shown in view B of figure 6-31 and they were on your port side, your boat would be the stand-on vessel, and you would be required to maintain your course and speed. Do not, however, go serenely on your way and forget the other boat. You know the situation; you know your boat is the stand-on craft; you know the Rules of the Road, and must follow them. But what about Petty Officer John Doe who is running the other boat? Does he know the rule governing this situation? Will he change course if necessary? Do not take a chance. You must take action if you think that a collision is possible and that the person running the other boat is not going to act in time. You must take steps to avoid the collision. In this case, you might be tempted to alter your course to the left, reasoning that this would involve the smallest change and, hence, the least loss of time. Resist this impulse. DO NOT swing to port in this circumstance. Why not?

First, even if you suspect that Petty Officer John Doe does not know the Rules of the Road, you must assume that he does know them and that he will act accordingly. Next, consider the situation as seen by the other coxswain. You are on his starboard hand. He knows that you are privileged and that he must reduce his speed, stop, reverse, or change course and pass astern of you.

For this discussion, let us suppose that the operator of the other boat, Petty Officer John Doe, waits until he is dangerously close to you and then comes right. Even so, he probably will pass safely under your stem (view A, fig. 6-32). If, however, you come left at about the same time, you will almost certainly cause a collision (view B, fig. 6-32). Figure 6-32 Avoiding collisions UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-52 Under the circumstances, your safest action is to make a sharp turn to starboard (view C, fig. 6-32), but do not wait too long before doing so. To prove to yourself that this movement is correct, try to figure out the results of various correct and incorrect actions by the coxswain of the other boat.

Suppose you see ahead of you a white light that is quite bright. You judge the distance to be less than a mile, and no red or green light is visible. You may be overtaking another vessel. If so, you are the give-way vessel and, therefore, must keep clear. It also could be a boat under oars, which is required to show a white light only in time to avert a collision. The rules do not specify boats under oars, but it is sensible, good manners, and seamanlike to avoid them - so reduce your speed and pass astern of them. Consider a situation where you have a green sidelight on your starboard side or a red light on your port side and the opposite sidelight is not visible. Either case normally signifies a safe passing, and no change of course or speed for either boat is necessary.

If you spend much time running a boat, you will undoubtedly approach many ships under way, tugs with tows, and probably vessels showing lights, the meanings of which are unfamiliar to you, but we have purposely omitted any discussions about such situations. Regarding ships and tugs with tows, common sense should tell you that your boat is smaller and much more maneuverable than large vessels; therefore, do not insist on taking the right-of-way. As for the unfamiliar lights, the chances are good that such lights denote a vessel that is not able to maneuver freely, and you would be smart to avoid the lights, too.

Ferryboats intent on maintaining a schedule seem to be particularly stubborn to maneuver even when they are the give-way vessel. Give them a wide berth. A ferryboat carries the same sidelights and range lights required of other steam vessels under Inland Rules except that a double-ended ferry must carry a central range of clear, bright, white lights showing all around the horizon, placed at equal altitudes forward and aft.

6.11.0 SOUND SIGNALS Sound signals are used in various situations and play a major part in the navigation of vessels. There are considerable differences between International and Inland rules concerning the type and meaning of sound signals; always know your situation so as not to confuse one with the other.

6.12.0 DISTRESS SIGNALS When a vessel or seaplane on the water is in distress and requires assistance from other vessels or from the shore, the signals may be used or displayed by it, either together or separately.

6.12.1 International Rules The following are recognized international distress signals. These signals are shown in figure 6-33. UNCLASSIFIED

Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-53

Figure 6-33 International/Inland distress signals

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Boatswain’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 14343A UNCLASSIFIED

6-54 UNCLASSIFIED • A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about 1 minute • A continuous sounding with any fog signal apparatus • Rockets, or shells, throwing red stars, fired one at a time at short intervals • A signal made by radiotelegraphy or by any other signaling methods, consisting of the group ...—... (SOS in Morse code) • A signal sent by radiotelephone consisting of the spoken word Mayday • The International Code signal of distress indicated by NOVEMBER CHARLIE (flag hoist) • A signal consisting of a square flag having above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball • Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, and so on) • A rocket parachute flare showing a red light • A smoke signal giving off a volume of orange smoke • Slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering arms outstretched to each side • Dye marker

A radio signal has been provided for the purpose of actuating the automatic alarms of other vessels and thus securing attention to distress calls or messages. The signal consists of a series of 12 dashes sent within 1 minute, the duration of each dash being 4 seconds, and the duration of the interval between two consecutive dashes being 1 second.

6.12.2 Island Rules Under Inland Rules, distress signals are divided into daytime and nighttime signals. The continuous sounding with any fog signal apparatus or the firing of a gun is a signal for both day and night. In addition, at night, flames on the vessel, as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, and so on, may also be used.

Pilot Rules adds the daytime signal of slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering the outstretched arms. Boat crews of amphibious forces hold a life jacket aloft. We might add that no unusual signal or action should be ignored. Investigate to find out if the signaler needs assistance.

6.13.0 SUMMARY Remember that nothing in the Rules of the Road will exonerate any vessel, the owner, master, or crew, from the consequences of any neglect to carry lights or signals, station lookouts, or neglect to take any precaution that may be required by good seamanship. You must take the ordinary precautions - carry the proper lights, use good judgment in your speed, and take any precautions necessary to avoid danger to your boat and its passengers. Be careful on the water at all times and be safe