QUARTERMASTER (QM)

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For content issues, contact the servicing Center of Excellence: Surface Warfare Officer School (SWOS); (757) 444-5332 x3034.

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NONRESIDENT TRAINING COURSE

February 2014 Quartermaster

NAVEDTRA 14338A

S/N 0504LP1128914

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DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. Although the words “he,” “him,” and “his” are used sparingly in this course to enhance communication, they are not intended to be gender driven or to affront or discriminate against anyone.

i UNCLASSIFIED PREFACE

By enrolling in this self-study course, you have demonstrated a desire to improve yourself and the Navy. Remember, however, this self-study course is only one part of the total Navy training program. Practical experience, schools, selected reading, and your desire to succeed are also necessary to successfully round out a fully meaningful training program.

THE COURSE: This self-study course is organized into subject matter areas, each containing learning objectives to help you determine what you should learn along with text and illustrations to help you understand the information. The subject matter reflects day-to-day requirements and experiences of personnel in the rating or skill area. It also reflects guidance provided by Enlisted Community Managers (ECMs) and other senior personnel, technical references, instructions, etc., and either the occupational or naval standards, which are listed in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower Personnel Classifications and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068.

THE QUESTIONS: The questions that appear in this course are designed to help you understand the material in the text.

VALUE: In completing this course, you will improve your military and professional knowledge. Importantly, it can also help you study for the Navy-wide advancement in rate examination. If you are studying and discover a reference in the text to another publication for further information, look it up.

2014 Edition

Published by Center for Surface Combat Systems (CSCS)

NAVSUP Logistics Tracking Number 0504-LP-112-8914

ii UNCLASSIFIED

Sailor’s Creed

“I am a United States Sailor.

I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States of America and I will obey the orders of those appointed over me.

I represent the fighting spirit of the Navy and those who have gone before me to defend freedom and democracy around the world.

I proudly serve my country’s Navy combat team with honor, courage and commitment.

I am committed to excellence and the fair treatment of all.”

iii UNCLASSIFIED TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE 1 Introduction to Navigation ............................................................. 1-1 2 Voice Communications .................................................................. 2-1 3 Compasses …………...................................................................... 3-1 4 Navigation Publications and Instructions ....................................... 4-1 5 Aids to Navigation .......................................................................... 5-1 6 Basics of Time ................................................................................ 6-1 7 Tides and Currents .......................................................................... 7-1 8 Dead Reckoning and Piloting ......................................................... 8-1 9 Electronic Navigation/ECDIS-N .................................................... 9-1 10 Weather Observations ................................................................... 10-1 11 Bridge Watches and Equipment .................................................... 11-1 12 Voyage Planning …………………............................................... 12-1 13 Logs ……………........................................................................... 13-1 14 Visual Communications ………………........................................ 14-1 15 Celestial Navigation ……………………………………….…….. 15-1 16 Rules of the Road …………………………………………….….. 16-1 17 Maneuvering Boards ………………………………………….…. 17-1 18 Protective Measures Assessment Protocol (PMAP) …………….. 18-1

APPENDIX A Glossary .......................................................................................... A-1 B References ………………………………………………………... B-1

Course Assignments follow Appendix B

iv UNCLASSIFIED STUDENT FEEDBACK AND QUESTIONS

We value your suggestions, questions, and criticisms on our courses. If you would like to communicate with us regarding this course, we encourage you, if possible, to use e-mail or to post your comments on the Quartermaster Community of Practice (COP) page located at https://wwwa.nko.navy.mil/portal/home/. If you write or fax, please use a copy of the Student Comment form that follows this page.

For subject matter questions:

E-mail: delphine.jackson@navy.mil Phone: (757) 444-5332 x3034

Address:

COMMANDING OFFICER Surface Warfare Officer School (SWOS) 1534 Piersey St. Ste. 300 Building 420 Norfolk, VA 23511-2612

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-1 1 INTRODUCTION TO NA VIGATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe a dead reckoned track. 2. Describe the Terrestrial Coordinate System. 3. Measure distance on a Mercator projection chart. 4. Interpret chart symbology. 5. Plot and extract positions on a chart. 6. Plot direction on a chart. 7. Determine chart accuracy. 8. Find charts using NGA Hydrographic catalog. 9. Describe the Chart Correction System and correct charts from Notice to Mariners. 10. Order, label, and stow charts.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-2 1.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, you will be introduced to the world of navigation. As a Quartermaster, you will be engaged in many aspects of navigation. As you will learn, navigation is known as both an art and a science. Don’t be put off by the science end though; a basic knowledge of mathematics will suffice your needs. There is no feeling that compares to knowing that you are part of a team that safely navigates a ship and her crew across vast expanses of ocean.

You will be a highly visible member of the ship’s crew; after all, your work station is on the bridge. The bridge is where the captain spends most of his or her time under way. The bridge is where the orders are given for the ship to carry out her mission. QMs traditionally maintain the highest standards of grooming, pride, and professionalism. You will become the trusted assistant of the navigator, bridge watch officers, and the captain.

1.2 ORIGINS AND PRIMARY AREAS OF NAVIGATION From the beginning of recorded time, man has traveled on the water. He left port without the ability to steer a course. He was at the mercy of the sea, with his direction being determined by the wind and currents. Eventually, he faced the problem of how to get to where he wanted to go. As a result of this problem-solving process, navigation was born.

The early days of navigation were dubious at best. During this period in time, navigation was considered an art. This soon changed with the addition of science.

Modern day navigation has aspects of both; it is considered an art and a science. On one hand, navigation is a precise science comprised of complicated mathematics, precision instruments, and state of the art machinery. On the other hand, it is the skill in the use of these tools and the interpretation of information that is an art. Many operations conducted in the area of navigation require the use of precise instruments and mathematical tables and sound judgment based on experience.

The seasoned navigator uses all available information and a certain measure of judgment to say “Our position is here on a chart.” A nautical chart is a map designed especially for navigators. It provides a photo-like view of some body of navigable water, together with the topographic features of adjacent land. To help the navigator transit the body of water safely, the chart contains standard symbols, figures, and abbreviations that supply data on water depth, the character of the bottom and the shore, the location of navigational aids, and other useful information. Figures indicating water depth are scattered over a chart but are more numerous near approaches to land.

1.2.1 Primary Areas of Navigation Navigation is divided into four primary areas: piloting, dead reckoning, celestial navigation, and radionavigation. These areas are listed in the sequence in which they probably evolved as knowledge and abilities progressed. We will now briefly look at each area.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-3 1.2.1.1 Piloting Piloting may be defined as the movement of a vessel with continuous reference to landmarks, aids to navigation, depth sounding, and radionavigation.

Example: Our early navigator probably departed port and set his or her course towards a distant landmark. This may have been any number of things, an offshore island or a lone jagged rock outcropping. The navigator steered on this landmark and tracked his progress by landmarks passing down the port and starboard sides of his ship.

Piloting as a technique has not changed. The difference between our early navigator and the present navigator is the use of technology.

1.2.1.2 Dead Reckoning Dead reckoning (DR) can be defined as projecting an intended course and speed from a known point. As our early navigators ventured further from land, they needed a method to estimate position. With no visible landmarks to use as a reference, early navigators estimated course and speed on the chart. Dead reckoning does not consider the effects of wind or current.

Figure 1-1 illustrates a sample DR plot. From the 0800 fix the ship’s course and speed is plotted. A DR plot is maintained on board naval vessels under way at all times. It is the best estimate of where the ship should be at any given time. The DR plot also gives the navigator a visual sign of whether the ship is steering towards danger or not.

Figure 1-1 Example of a DR track

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-4 1.2.1.3 Celestial Navigation Celestial navigation may be defined as the practice of observing celestial bodies (the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets) to determine the ship’s position.

The early navigators recognized the need to overcome the shortcomings of dead reckoning. They soon developed techniques to observe the heavenly bodies to determine their position. Although the instruments used first were crude, they have steadily improved. An experienced QM may now obtain a celestial fix within one-tenth of a mile of the ship’s position.

How is this accomplished? Measurements are taken of the height above the horizon of a celestial body. The measurement or sight, as it is commonly referred to, is then reduced by a mathematical procedure. The results are then plotted on the chart to determine position (fig. 1-2).

Figure 1-2 Sextant angle and sample 3 star fix

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-5 1.2.1.4 Radionavigation Radionavigation may be defined as the determination of position by the use of radio waves. There are several types of systems in use today.

From the now seldom used Radio Direction Finder (RDF) to the latest satellite navigation system, what they all have in common is that they use radio waves. This area of navigation is now sometimes referred to as electronic navigation.

1.3 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH NAVIGATION As you have learned, navigation is an art and a science. Our early navigators experienced the same problems that face the modem navigators. There are three major problems of navigation that must always be addressed. These problems are:

• How to determine position • How to determine the direction to get from point A to point B • How to determine the distance between points, the time it will take, and the speed as the navigator proceeds

1.3.1 Determining Position Of the three problems facing the navigator, the most basic and also the most important is determining position. The ship’s position must be known to safely and accurately direct the movements of the ship.

The term position refers to a known point on Earth. QMs refer to a position as a fix. It may also be qualified by an adjective such as estimated and dead reckoned.

1.3.2 Measuring Direction Direction is the orientation of a line drawn or imagined joining two positions without any regard to the distance between them. Direction on charts is measured in angular units using a polar coordinate system (a coordinate system based on the North Pole and South Pole). The reference used is normally true north.

Figure 1-3 shows a line drawn between two positions. The direction may be determined from the compass rose.

Direction is measured from 000° T through 360° T.

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1.3.3 Direction Knowing the direction between two positions makes it possible for the navigator to lay a course from where he is to where he wants to go and then to proceed to that point. Direction will be presented in greater detail later in this chapter.

1.3.4 Measuring Distance The distance between two points is the physical separation without regard to direction. Nautical distance is measured as the international nautical mile (nmi/nm) of 6, 076.1 feet. The nm is longer than the statute mile (mi) used on land, 5, 280 feet; 1.15/1 is a simple ratio often used to convert nm to mi.

1.3.5 Time Time in navigation is always based on the 24-hour clock. You are already familiar with this type of timekeeping as it is what we use in the military.

Figure 1-3 Compass rose

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-7 1.3.6 Speed Speed is defined as the rate of movement. In navigation speed is referred to as nautical miles per hours or knots (kn).

We can now put this all together. We have defined the major problems associated with navigation. The solutions to these problems are contained in later text. We know that navigator must determine the position, direction, and distance to travel. But how does speed and time figure in this picture?

1.3.7 The Relationship between Time, Speed, and Distance That brings us to the time, speed, and distance triangle. If you know the distance you need to travel and at what speed you will proceed, you can use simple mathematics to determine how long it should take to travel that distance. This is a triangle, because if you know any two values (time, speed, or distance) you can solve for the unknown value. That brings us to the next subject. Where does this information go? How does one actually go from one known position to another known position safely? The answer is the nautical chart! The remainder of this chapter will explore the nautical chart and how the QM uses it.

1.4 EARTH AND THE TERRESTRIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM Before we begin to examine the nautical chart, we must first understand some facts about Earth itself.

It is not a perfect sphere.

The diameter at the Equator equals approximately 6,888 nautical miles.

The polar diameter is approximately 6,865 nautical miles, or 23 miles less than the diameter at the Equator.

Technically it is classified as an oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the poles.)

For the purposes of navigation, we assume that we are working with a perfect sphere. The differences between the two diameters are small enough to be considered insignificant.

Nautical charts do NOT take Earth’s oblateness into account.

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1.5 REFERENCE LINES ON EARTH To locate a position on Earth’s surface, you must first have some point to start from. If you imagine Earth in motion, you will notice that it spins on its axis. The axis is the imaginary line drawn between the North Pole and South Pole that forms the first point of reference. The second point of reference is the Equator, which divides Earth into two parts, the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere.

We now have our starting points. For practical application in locating a position, two points of reference were not adequate so we had to create great and small circles around Earth.

1.5.1 Great Circles A great circle is formed by a plane passing through the center of Earth. Figure 1-5 illustrates our imaginary line that connects the North Pole and South Pole. The great circle passes directly through the center of Earth, but more importantly, around Earth‘s surface. The Equator is also a great circle.

Figure 1-4 Earth

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1.5.2 Small Circles A small circle is formed by planes that do not pass through the center of Earth. Figure 1-6 illustrates several small circles. How will these circles allow us to find our position? The answer is that certain great circles and small circles have special meaning for navigation purposes. They are called parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.

Figure 1-5 Examples of great circles Figure 1-6 Examples of small circles

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-10 1.5.3 Parallels of Latitude Parallels are the small circles around and on Earth’s surface. For navigation, parallels of latitude have been established. They are all parallel to the plane of the Equator. Figure 1-7 illustrates parallels of latitude. Since they are all parallel to the Equator, latitude can be measured towards the North Pole and South Pole.

1.5.4 How Latitude is Measured Latitude is measured in degrees (°), minutes (‘), and seconds (“) north or south of the Equator.

Measurements of latitude cannot exceed 90° in either direction.

This is due to the fact that the Equator is always perpendicular (at a right angle) from the great circle that forms the plane through the North Pole and South Pole.

Figure 1-8 illustrates this clearly. Do not confuse angular expressions of minutes and seconds with units of time because they are unrelated.

Figure 1-7 Examples of parallels of Latitude

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1.5.5 Meridians of Longitude Meridians of longitude are the great circles. They all pass through the center of Earth. The prime meridian or 0° of longitude is the starting point for all longitude measurements. Longitude is measured in same manner as latitude except that it is measured east or west throughout 180°. The prime meridian is also known as the Greenwich meridian. It is so named because is passes directly through Greenwich, England.

Latitude and longitude comprise the terrestrial or geographic coordinate system. Figure 1-9 illustrates how a position is located on a chart. We will discuss the mechanics of plotting a position on a nautical chart later in this chapter. Before we can do that we have to learn more about the charts we use.

Figure 1-8 Measurement of latitude

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1.6 THE NAUTICAL CHART A nautical chart is like a road map for the world’s oceans and inland waterways. The nautical chart is designed especially for navigation. A chart is a printed reproduction of Earth’s surface showing a plan view of the water and land areas. It contains parallels and meridians to use when plotting a position, locating aids to navigation, and much more.

1.6.1 Chart Projections The task of putting the round Earth on flat paper is a complex one. This text will not go into great detail on chart projections. More information on this subject may be found in Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting. We will discuss the two projections most widely used in today’s Navy and by mariners in general.

Figure 1-9 Locating a position on a nautical chart

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-13 A chart represents a section (large, medium, or small) of the Earth’s surface. The Earth is a terrestrial sphere with the North Pole and South Pole located at opposite ends of the axis on which it rotates. To establish an object’s location geographically, you must use one reference line running in a north-south (N-S) direction and another one in an east- west (E-W) direction. These lines are part of a circular navigational grid located on the surface of the Earth.

Since the navigational grid is located on a sphere, and navigational charts are flat, the grid lines must somehow be transferred from the sphere to the chart. This is done through a process called projection.

There are two types of projection—Mercator and gnomonic.

1.6.2 Mercator Projections Mercator projection charts are the most commonly used navigational charts. Therefore, it is important that you understand the characteristics of these charts. The first thing to understand is that no navigational chart is perfect.

Example: Cut a hollow rubber ball in half and try to flatten it out, you cannot do so without tearing or stretching the rubber. In fact, no section of the hemisphere will lie flat without some amount of distortion. No system of projection has yet been devised that preserves the exact true proportions of the original sphere.

Mercator projections almost always display meridians and parallels. Meridians run from the top to the bottom of the chart, parallels run from the left to the right. Due to distortion in high latitudes, this projection rarely exceeds 70° north or south.

Advantages: The Mercator projection shows a rhumb line as a straight line. A rhumb line is nothing more than a compass course or direction plotted by the navigator to show that he will follow from his point of departure to his destination.

1.6.3 Gnomonic Projections The gnomonic projection’s chief advantage is that it plots a great circle as a straight line. This is most useful when planning long ocean passages. It is always best to take the shortest route from point A to point B.

1.7 NAUTICAL CHART INTERPRETATION Figure 1-10 represents a portion of an average chart. This chart contains a lot of information. When you are in doubt of a specific symbol on a chart refer to U.S. Coast Guard Chart 1 in booklet form.

Chart 1 lists all standard symbology contained on a chart and is published in easy to use booklet format. A copy of chart 1 will be available in every charthouse, if you can’t find one, a copy may be found in Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting. But a copy of Chart 1 must be ordered!

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-14 Now let’s take a closer look at the chart. If you have a copy of a chart and chart 1, get them to use as references while covering this material. Use figure 1-10 on the facing pages to identify the many items that may appear on a chart.

Note: Figure 1-10 does not contain all symbols and features that may appear on a nautical chart! However, many items that you will work with on a day-to-day basis are called out for your attention.

Figure 1-10 Sample of a nautical chart with features called out

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Figure 1-10A Sample of a nautical chart with features called out

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-16 1.8 CHART SCALE The scale of a chart refers to a measurement of area, not distance. A chart covering a relatively large area is called a small-scale chart and a chart covering a relatively small area is called a large-scale chart. Scales may vary from 1: 1,200 for plans to 1: 14,000,000 for world charts.

Normally, the major types of charts fall within the following scales:

Chart Type From To Remarks Harbor and Approach 1:1,000 1:50,000 Used in harbors, anchorage areas, and the smaller waterways. Charts used for approaching more confined waters are called approach charts. Coast 1:50,000 1:150,000 Used for inshore navigation, for entering bays and harbors of considerable width, and for navigating large inland waterways. General and Sailing 1:150,000 1:6,000,000 Used for coastal navigation outside outlying reefs and shoals when the vessel is generally within sight of land or aids to navigation and its course can be directed by piloting techniques. Table 1-1Chart Scale Information

1.8.1 Understanding Chart Scales The size of the area portrayed by a chart varies extensively according to the scale of the chart. The larger the scale, the smaller the area represented. It follows then that large- scale charts show areas in greater detail. Many features that appear on a large-scale chart do not, in fact, show up at all on a small-scale chart of the same area.

The scale to which a chart is drawn usually appears under its title in one of two ways: 1:25,000 or 1/25,000. These figures mean that an actual feature is 25,000 times larger than its representation on the chart. Expressed another way, an inch, foot, yard, or any unit on the chart means 25,000 inches, feet, or yards on Earth’s surface.

The larger the figure indicating the proportion of the scale, the smaller the scale of the chart. A chart with a scale of 1:25,000 is on a much larger scale, for instance, than one whose scale is 1:4,500,000.

1.9 CHART ACCURACY Chart accuracy is hard to determine exactly. Several things need to be taken into consideration. The first and most important factor to consider is that a chart can be only as accurate as the survey on which it is based. To judge the accuracy and completeness of the survey, take note of its source and date. Usually, early survey dates indicate that the chart may have several irregularities. A chart must be tested before it may be used with a high degree of confidence. In heavily trafficked waters, a chart is normally quite accurate due to more thorough survey.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-17 Tip: Another clue with which to determine accuracy is the abundance or absence of soundings. Infrequent soundings are an excellent indicator that the survey was not of great detail.

1.9.1 Chart Production Compromise is sometimes necessary in chart production, as scale, clutter, and other factors may preclude the presentation of all information collected for a given area. The National Ocean Service publishes about 1,000 charts covering in excess of 86,000 miles of shorelines. NGA publishes an even greater amount.

Caution: Charts are an aid to navigation and must be used with a certain amount of caution as they are not a complete guarantee of safety. Every navigation team is responsible to report any changes or errors they may encounter on the charts they use. In the back of each Notice to Mariners is a form that may be filled out listing any discrepancies on charts. Information can also be submitted by visiting the NGA Maritime Safety Information page (https://www1.nga.mil/Pages/Default.aspx).

1.10 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE The latitude and longitude scales presented on the chart are broken down into whole degrees (fig. 1-11). Each degree is usually broken down into minutes on small-scale charts (remember, small scale = large area.) The large-scale chart breaks down even further into minutes (‘) and seconds (“). It is important that you understand these scales.

Remember that each degree (°) of latitude or longitude equals 60 minutes (60’), and that each minute (1’) equals 60 seconds (60”). Seconds of latitude and longitude may also be expressed as a decimal fraction.

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Figure 1-11 Latitude and longitude scales

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-19 1.11 HOW TO MEASURE DISTANCE On Earth’s surface, 1° of latitude may be considered 60 nautical miles in length; whereas, the length of 1° of longitude varies with latitude. Therefore, the latitude scale must be used for measuring distance. Although this scale is expanded on a Mercator chart, the expansion exactly equal to the expansion of distance at the same latitude.

Therefore, in measuring distance on a Mercator chart, one must be careful to use the latitude and longitude scale in the area one is measuring. NEVER use the longitude scale.

1.11.1 Measuring Distance Use the table and figure 1-12 to learn how to measure distance on a nautical chart.

Step Action 1 Place one point of the dividers at the beginning of the area to be measured. 2 Open the dividers to the desired distance to be measured. 3 Move the dividers over to the closest latitude scale; do not open or close the dividers! 4 Place one point of the dividers on a whole degree of latitude. 5 Place the other point on the latitude scale. 6 Determine the distance between the two points. (In figure 1-12, the measurement indicates 10 nmi.) Table 1-2 Measuring Steps

Figure 1-12 How to measure distance on a chart

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-20 1.12 HOW TO DETERMINE OR PLOT DIRECTION ON A CHART Remember, meridians on a Mercator chart appear as straight lines, parallel to and equidistant from one another. You know they represent imaginary curved lines, not parallel to one another at all, but converging at the poles. Appearance of meridians on a Mercator projection as parallel straight lines is one of the most valuable features of this type of projection, making it possible to plot a course as a straight line (a rhumb line). On a Mercator projection, a rhumb line cuts every meridian at the same angle. In other words, it is a line of the same bearing throughout. Although it does not represent the shortest distance between the points it connects, this fact is not important unless very large distances are involved. Use the table and figure 1-13 to determine or plot direction.

Step Action 1 Identify the two points that you want to determine the direction to or from. Example: Pt A and Pt B. 2 Lay one edge of the parallel rulers so that it passes through each point. 3 Firmly press down on one side of the parallel rulers and begin to move the ruler to the compass rose. 4 Position the ruler so either edge passes through the center crosshair of the compass rose. 5 Use a pencil to mark the outside ring of the compass rose. 6 Read the bearing on the outside ring of the compass rose. Table 1-3 Plotting Direction steps

Figure 1-13 Plotting a position on a chart

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-21 1.13 HOW TO PLOT A POSITION Now that we understand the latitude and longitude scales, we can learn how to plot a position. We can quickly and accurately plot any known position. Figure 1-14 will help illustrate this process. For example, a ship’s position at 1800 (Lat. 36° 11’N, Long. 70° 17.5’W) can be plotted as follows:

Step Action 1 Find the latitude, 36° 11'N, on the latitude scale. 2 Place the point of the compass on 36° and measure up 11'; now mark the scale with the compass lead. 3 Without opening or closing the compass, move the point of the compass over to the proper meridian. In this case it is 70°. Now mark the meridian with the latitude measurement. 4 Next we will find our longitude 70° and measure 17.5'. Care must be taken to measure towards the west or left, towards the next higher longitude. Now we will use our lead to mark off 17.5'. 5 Now move the compass point up to the 36° parallel and mark off 17.5'. Continue to move up the 70th meridian to the point where you marked off the latitude (36°11'N) and mark off your longitude. You will now mark off the longitude once again, this time making a small arc. 6 Now place the point of the compass on the 36° parallel at the point where the 70° 17.5' W is marked. Now mark a small arc that will cross the longitude mark. That’s it, the point where the two arcs intersect is the position. Table 1-4 Position Plotting steps

Figure 1-14 How to plot a position

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-22 1.14 HOW TO EXTRACT LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE FROM A KNOWN POSITION You have now learned how to plot a position. Now let’s extract the latitude and longitude from a known position. Let’s find the position of the fix labeled 1520 in figure 1-15. This is easily accomplished by following these steps:

1. Place the point of the compass directly beneath the position to be extracted on the closest parallel. Now open the compass and swing an arc that passes through the position.

2. Move your compass over to the latitude and read the latitude from the scale. Now repeat the procedure using the closest meridian as a reference.

You have now learned how to plot and extract positions on the chart. Hopefully, the previous discussion on the terrestrial coordinate system is now clear. If not, now is a good time to review the material once again. Let’s continue to take a closer look at our chart, where it comes from, how it is kept up to date.

Figure 1-15 That’s it, the point where the two arcs intersect is the position

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-23 1.15 NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL-INTELLIGENCE AGENCY Charts used in the Navy may be prepared by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, the National Ocean Service (NOS), the British Admiralty, or by other hydrographic agencies. Whatever the source, all charts used by the Navy are issued by NGA. In this last portion of the chapter you will learn how determine chart coverage and select charts for any area in the world. How charts are numbered and the portfolio designations. The system used to correct charts and techniques used to make corrections. We will also discuss the chart ordering system.

1.15.1 DLA Map Catalog The Defense Logistics Agency Map Catalog (Figure 1-16) provides a variety of products including nautical charts and publications.

• Charts and products can be selected and ordered using the DLA Map Catalog and uploaded on line via DOD E-Mall (https://dod-emall.dla.mil). The Catalog is organized as follows:

• Products stocked by DLA – Aeronautical Products – Digital Media Products – Hydrographic Products – Topographic Products

• Product Information • Help Files • Contact Information • Glossary • FAQ • Computer Based Training • Label Products

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Figure 1-16 DLA Map Catalog overview

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-25 1.15.2 Catalog The Map Catalog Hydrographic section is the only part that you will normally use as a Quartermaster. It allows you to select products using a multiple array of selections including selection of product by route to be navigated (Figure 1-17). Other products are available in the catalog and shall be used as needed. For classified products refer to the Classified DLA Map Catalog.

The catalog listing also includes chart edition numbers and dates. Navigational and oceanographic publications are contained in the publication section of the catalog and provide the title and date of each publication as shown. Publications can be downloaded and updated using the Marine Safety Information we web page.

Figure 1-17 DLAMap Catalog product search selection. Figure 1-17 DLA Map Catalog product search selection

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-26 1.16 CHART ORDERING SYSTEM When a ship is first commissioned, it is outfitted by NGA with its initial allowance of charts and publications. During normal operations, some charts will wear out and requirements for additional copies of high-use charts will be established. New and revised charts and publications are received by your ship through the Automatic Initial Distribution (AID) System.

The NGA issues all NGA maps, charts, and publications. A major unit of the NGA is its NGA Distribution Control Point (DDCP) in Washington, DC. Submit all requisitions to DDCP. Improper planning on your part does not constitute a crisis for local offices of NGA. When you use a chart, always order a new chart in a timely manner.

1.16.1 NGA Branch Office The NGA offices and branch offices stock limited quantities of products to meet immediate operational needs. You may obtain products from them if time does not permit you to submit a requisition to the DDCP. When you visit a NGA office or branch office, be sure that you carry a completed requisition form with you. This form must be signed by the commanding officer.

1.16.2 Chart Allowances The basic load of maps, charts, and publications your ship is required to hold is prescribed in allowance instructions issued by your fleet commander or type commander. In some cases a ship may have a permanent allowance that is supplemented by another allowance that will cover the area to which the ship deploys. In such cases your deployment allowance is normally requested by your type commander from NGA about 3 months before your deployment. You should become familiar with the allowance instructions that pertain to your ship.

1.16.3 Automatic Initial Distribution (AID) AID refers to the automatic issue of predetermined quantities of new or revised products. AID is the means by which your ship’s allowances of charts and publications is kept current with no requisitioning action required on your part. Annually the NGA forwards to each U.S. Navy ship on AID a computer listing, called an AID Requirements for Customer Report (R-05), to allow the command to confirm its allowance holdings. Upon receipt, an annual inventory must be conducted.

A copy of your Permanent, Deployment and Fleet Allowance charts can be obtained by visiting the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) web site (http://www.dscr.dla.mil)

1.17 ORDERING, LABELLING, AND STOWING CHARTS The ordering of charts is now primarily accomplished online by uploading your MILSTRIP requisitions through DOD E-Mail or Web-based Requisition System (WEBREQ) via the DLA Portal.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-27 Before you can obtain charts you ship must have an active Department of Defense Activity Address Code (DoDAAC) account, Common Access Card (CAC) access. This account must be renewed annually. An account can be set up using the Account Management and Provisioning System (AMPS) via the DLA Portal.

1.17.1 Labeling and Stowing Charts All charts have labelling requirements. To properly label each chart you must first fold it correctly. Start with the chart lying flat with the printed side facing up. Now fold the left side to the right side, turn the chart 90° and fold in half again. Refer to figure 1-18. Note that the labelling includes a five-digit chart number, latest edition number and date, and the latest NTM that the chart is corrected through.

Charts are stowed in numerical order by regions. Care must be taken not to bend or damage charts when placing them in to the chart drawers. Several copies of the same chart should be placed inside of one copy.

1.18 NAUTICAL CHART NUMBERING SYSTEM NGA assigns a number to every nautical chart used by the U.S. Navy, regardless of the organization or government producing the chart. NGA charts have numbers consisting of one to five digits. The number of digits generally indicates the scale range, and the number itself indicates the geographical area covered by the chart. The chart numbering system is as follows:

1. One-digit number (1-9) — This category consists of charts that have no scale connotation, such as symbol and flag charts.

2. Two- and three-digit numbers (10-999)—This category includes small -scale, general charts that depict a major portion of an ocean basin, with the first digit identifying the ocean basin. The first digit denotes the ocean basin containing the area covered by the chart. For example, Chart No. 15 covers the North Atlantic Ocean (northern sheet). Two-digit numbers (10-99) are used for charts having a scale of 1:9,000,000 and smaller, including world charts, while three-digit numbers (100-999) are used for charts having a scale between 1:2,000,000 and 1:9,000,000.

3. Four-digit numbers (5000-9999) — This category includes great circle tracking charts, electronic navigation system plotting charts, and special-purpose non-navigational charts and diagrams. Four-digit charts with a letter prefix (EOIOI-E8614) are bottom contour charts.

4. Five-digit numbers (11000-99999) — This category includes all standard nautical charts having a scale larger than 1:2,000,000 (large and medium scale). At scales such as this, the charts cover portions of the coastline rather than significant portions of ocean basins. The first of the five digits indicates the region to which the chart belongs. The first and second digits together indicate the geographic sub-region within the region, and the last three digits identify the geographic order of the chart within the sub-region.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-28 5. Six-digit numbers (800000-809999) — This category consists of combat charts and combat training charts. A random numbering system is used to prevent the identification of the geographical area covered by a classified combat chart without referring to the catalog. One reason for this is to allow you to order classified combat charts with an unclassified requisition. Also included in the six-digit numbering system are Mine Warfare Planning charts (MCMCH810000-819999). These charts show predetermined passages into and out of large ports that have been searched for any mine-like objects (Q Routes). They may also contain environmental information for selected areas. Like combat charts, these classified charts use a random numbering system to prevent the identification of the geographical area.

Figure 1-18 NGA stock numbering

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-29 1.18.1 Portfolio Designations The U.S. Navy uses three portfolio (grouping) systems to assign charts into allowances for ships. These portfolio systems are Standard Nautical Charts; World and Miscellaneous Charts; and Bottom Contour Charts. Except for certain Bottom Contour Charts, the letter in the third position of the NGA stock number is the portfolio assignment letter. Portfolio designators are recommended by NGA and approved by the fleet commander in whose area of responsibility the charts rest.

1.18.2 Standard Nautical Charts Most Standard Nautical Charts are assigned to either an “A” portfolio or a “B” portfolio.

“A” portfolios consist of operating area charts and principal coastal and harbor and approach charts for each sub-region. See Figure 1-19.

“B” portfolios supplement “A” portfolios with additional coastal and harbor and approach charts for each sub-region.

Standard Nautical Charts that are not assigned to a portfolio have an “X” in the third position of the NGA stock number.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-30

1.18.2.1 World and Miscellaneous Charts Most World and Miscellaneous Charts are assigned to either an “A” portfolio or a “P” portfolio.

“A” designates Atlantic Ocean charts. “P” designates Pacific Ocean charts. “B” designates other ocean regions or charts that cannot be categorized by a specific geographic region.

While “X” designates charts not in a portfolio. A World Nautical Chart portfolio is commonly referred to by use of the first two letters (WO) of the NGA stock number, with the portfolio designation letter, e.g., Pacific Ocean Portfolio, WOP. Figure 1-19 DNC "A" Charts

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-31 1.18.2.2 Bottom Contour Charts Bottom Contour Chart portfolios are designated by the area they cover.

“EP” in the second and third positions of the NGA stock number designates the Eastern Pacific Ocean.

“WP” in the second and third positions designates the Western Pacific Ocean.

“IN” in the second and third positions designates Indian Ocean.

“X” in the third position designates Atlantic Ocean.

1.19 ARRANGEMENT OF CHARTS Charts are arranged and numbered in a geographical sequence, which permits systematic stowage aboard ship. Within each region, the geographical sub-regions are numbered (first two digits of the five-digit chart number) counterclockwise around the continents; within each sub-region, the individual charts are numbered (last three digits of the five- digit chart number) counterclockwise around the coasts. Many numbers are left unused so that charts produced in the future may be placed proper sequence.

1.20 CLASSIFIED CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS Your ship will undoubtedly have some classified charts and publications on board. These charts and publications must be handled and stored according to the requirements of the Department of the Navy Information Security Program Regulation, SECNAVINST 5510.36. The following basic provisions apply to the handling and storing of these materials.

1. Only persons with the necessary security clearance and a definite need to know should be granted access to the information.

2. When classified material is not under the direct observation of an authorized person, it must be locked up or given equivalent protection.

3. Charts must be stored in locked drawers. Publications must be stored in locked safes or cabinets.

4. Money, jewels, or other valuables must never be stored in containers used for storing classified material.

5. Combinations (or keys) to safes or locks must be accessible only to persons whose official duties require access to the material in the containers.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-32

Figure 1-20 Properly folded chart

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-33 1.21 CHART CORRECTION SYSTEM The Chart/Publication Correction Record Card System is used to conserve nautical charts and publications and to reduce the amount of chart correction work aboard ship. The Notice to Mariners, Local Notice to Mariners, Summary of Corrections, NAVTEX and SafetyNet are considered component parts of the system.

Any corrected paper chart or publication shall have a complete and accurate ‘Correction Tree’ as specified in Chapter 3 of the NAVDORM (COMNAVSURFPAC/ COMNAVAIRPAC/COMNAVAIRLANT/COMNAVSURLANTINST 3530.4C), which should be validated against the corrections list printed in the Notice to Mariners (NtM’s) or from the NGA website prior to use.

Charts and publications not immediately required for use may be updated as areas of operations change or as directed by the commanding officer. A record must be maintained for Notice to Mariners corrections to all charts and publications carried aboard, with actual corrections being made on all charts and publications before they are used for navigational purposes. Never use an uncorrected chart for navigation purposes.

1.22 HYDROGRAPHIC BULLETINS The Semiannual Bulletin Digest for Hydrographic Products is published in June and December. It provides a complete listing of all available unclassified charts and publications. The Monthly Bulletin for Hydrographic Products is issued the other 10 months between issues of the Semiannual Bulletin Digest. New and revised charts and publications issued are reported on a month-to-month basis in the Monthly Bulletin. The old edition for a chart must not be disposed of until the latest edition arrives on board.

All information reported in the Monthly Bulletin is cumulative. This means that only the latest Semiannual Bulletin Digest and Monthly Bulletin need to be held for you to have current information on all available hydrographic products. Information appearing for the first time is marked with an asterisk. The Quarterly Bulletin for Classified Hydrographic Products is published in January, July, and October, with volume XI being reissued in April. The Quarterly Bulletin provides a complete summary of all available classified charts and publications. The bulletins should be filed and used to correct your catalog volumes. They will also allow you to check and confirm that you hold the latest editions of charts and publications in your inventory and that you are not missing any charts from your required allowance. The charts listed as canceled are to be disposed of.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-34 1.23 NOTICE TO MARINERS The chart and publication correction system is based on the periodical, Notice to Mariners, published weekly by the NGA and the Local Notice to Mariners also published by the U.S Coast Guard weekly to inform mariners of corrections to nautical charts and publications. This periodical announces new nautical charts and publications, new editions, cancellations, and changes to nautical charts and publications. It also summarizes events of the week as they affect shipping, advises mariners of special warnings or items of general maritime interest, and includes selected accounts of unusual phenomena observed at sea. Distribution of the Notice to Mariners is made weekly to all U.S. Navy and Coast Guard ships and to most ships of the merchant marine.

You can obtain copies of the latest Notice to Mariners or query chart and publications by visiting the NGA web site. You can also receive the latest copy of Notice to Mariners by subscribing on the Notice to Mariners web site.

The classified Chart and Publication Correction System is based on the Classified Notice to Mariners, published on an as-needed basis by the NGA to inform mariners of corrections to classified nautical charts and publications. Classified Notice to Mariners can be obtained by visiting the NGA web site on the Secret Internet Protocol Router Network (SIPRNET).

The Notice to Mariners provides information specifically intended for updating the latest editions of nautical charts and publications issued by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, the National Ocean Service, and the U.S. Coast Guard. When the Notice to Mariners is received, it should be examined for information of immediate value. The list of new charts and new editions of charts and publications should also be checked to assure that the latest editions are on board.

In section I of the Notice to Mariners, chart corrections are listed by chart number, beginning with the lowest and progressing in sequence through each chart affected. The chart corrections are followed by publication corrections, which are also listed in numerical sequence. Since each correction pertains to a single chart or publication, the action specified applies to that particular chart or publication only. If the same correction also applies to other charts and publications, it is listed separately for each one.

Figure 1-21 illustrates the Notice to Mariners format for presenting corrective information affecting charts. A correction preceded by a star indicates that it is based on original U.S. source information. If no marking precedes the correction, the information was derived from some other source. The letter T preceding the correction indicates the information is temporary in nature, and the letter P indicates it is preliminary. Courses and bearings are given in degrees clockwise from 000° true.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-35 1.24 LOCAL NOTICE TO MARINERS The Local Notice to Mariners is published weekly by the U.S. Coast Guard. It contains information of a local nature. As the U. S. Coast Guard is responsible for maintaining all U.S. Aids to Navigation, they report any changes that may have been made. This may include information such as the movement of buoys and markers, and changes in depth of the water due to dredging. It will also contain information on bridge closings, harbor restrictions, and general information concerning harbors and local coastal areas.

It is important to use Local Notice to Mariners (LNM) and apply corrections to your charts as they would have updated information that may not be published on the Notice to Mariners for up to 2 to 4 weeks in some cases.

Figure 1-21 Notice to Mariners format

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-36 1.25 GLOBAL MARITIME DISTRESS AND SAFETY SYSTEM Whenever a ship is under way, it is necessary to receive information concerning any hazards in the area that the ship may be operating. Broadcast warnings fulfill this requirement. In recent years a system has been established that notifies mariners by radio messages. All messages are broken down into two categories. The first category is called Hydros. Hydrolants cover warnings in the Atlantic Ocean, Hydropacs cover the Pacific Ocean. The second category is called Navareas, which covers specific areas. Navareas contain information that advises mariners of operating area warnings. An example would be a navigation aid adrift. Refer to section III of the NTM for more information. Broadcast warning message boards must be updated from the weekly NTM. You can also visit the Marine Safety Information page for the most recent updates.

1.26. SUMMARY OF CORRECTIONS The Summary of Corrections (fig. l-22) is a six-volume cumulative summary of corrections to charts and publications previously published in the Notice to Mariners. The summary is used when you are correcting any chart that has not been previously corrected. For example, a chart lists twelve corrections. The summary contains all corrections through 6/93. Of the twelve corrections, ten are contained in the summary; the other two must be obtained from the applicable NTM. This saves time because instead of pulling twelve NTM, you only pull two.

Figure 1-22 Summary of Corrections

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-37 1.26.1 Volumes Published NGA publishes each of the five unclassified volumes semiannually and the classified volume annually. They are organized as follows:

Volume I-East Coast of North and South America Volume II-Eastern Atlantic and Arctic Oceans including the Mediterranean Sea Volume III-West Coast of North and South America including Antarctica Volume IV-Western Pacific and Indian Ocean Volume V-World and Ocean Basin Charts, U.S. Coast Guard Pilots, Sailing Directions, Fleet Guides, and other Publications

1.27 CHART CORRECTION TECHNIQUES After a little practice on obsolete charts, corrections to printed information on nautical charts can be made neatly and quickly. These corrections become a permanent part of the chart and may involve the safety of the ship. Corrections must be made in ink so they will not be accidentally erased when you are cleaning the chart after use. The only instruments necessary to correct charts are several high-quality ball-point pens or central feed technical fountain pens, a variety of stick or pencil-type erasers, and typographical correction fluid.

1.27.1 Correction Techniques Example: The NTM states that you are to add a buoy at 25°10’33”N 70°21’12”W. Locate the coordinates on the chart, determine if you need to erase part of the chart to insert the buoy. If necessary erase or use typing correction fluid (white out). NOTE: Any information that is removed from a chart must be redrawn after the correction is made. This calls for the person effecting the correction to use some degree of judgment.

Use the chart correction template (fig. 1-23, available from NGA) to draw the buoy on the chart. Write in any information about the buoy. Chart correction may be completed in many ways. It is wise to purchase additional templates from local sources that carry drafting supplies. As a rule, corrections must always be neat and legible. Never use red ink to make corrections to a chart. The Navy uses red lighting at night. Red ink will disappear under red lights, making the correction invisible and putting the ship at risk. DO NOT USE RED INK!

Time Saver: When correcting charts that have accumulated numerous corrections, it is more practical to make the latest correction first and work backwards since later corrections may cancel or alter earlier corrections. Remember to use the Summary of Corrections

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-38 Chartlet corrections (pasters) appearing in the back of section I of the Notice to Mariners are to be affixed to the chart in the proper area. They must be glued in place. Any outstanding temporary changes must be transferred to the chartlet. Temporary changes in Aids to Navigation are not plotted by the NGA. It may be necessary to pen in lengthy notes on a chart. It is desirable to photocopy the note from the NTM and paste it on the chart whenever possible.

Figure 1-23 Chart correction template

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-39 1.28 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Utilizing satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, the system enables a GPS receiver to determine its location, speed, direction, and time and provides inputs to many systems including Automatic Plotting Systems and Tactical Data Systems.

All ships using GPS as the primary fix source are required to log Figure of Merit and to obtain a visual and/or RADAR fix at 3 times the intervals indicated (i.e., every six minutes in restricted waters).

1.28.1 Figure of Merit (FOM) FOM (Figure of Merit) is an internal GPS receiver calculation that indicates the best accuracy achievable from the satellites being tracked. (Issues such as GDOP, signal tracked, #of frequencies, receiver noise, time errors, etc can be included in the FOM.)

1.29 NAVIGATION SENSOR SYSTEM INTERFACE (NAVSSI) The Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) is a U.S. Navy system that distributes highly accurate navigation data to shipboard systems and provides an electronic display of Digital Nautical Charts for use by the ship's navigation team.

It is a highly capable and robust system that supports many interfaces and is designed to meet the Navy requirements for Electronic Chart Display and Information System-Navy (ECDIS-N).

The Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) integrates inputs from various shipboard navigation sensor systems, distributes the integrated navigation solution to shipboard users, and provides a dedicated workstation to the ship's navigator.

The Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) collates, displays and disseminates all available own-ship navigation information on a common computer system. Using Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) GPS as its primary source of navigation data; the system provides real-time position, and displays historical information on watch station computer terminals. It also automates logs kept for navigation records.

1.30 VOYAGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (VMS) The primary function of the VMS is to improve navigational safety. It does so by providing shipboard personnel with the information they need to make decisions more quickly and more effectively. The system is designed to automate time consuming tasks related to voyage planning and monitoring, including management of chart data. When configured to provide automatic track steering, the VMS can also interface with installed automatic pilot equipment to maintain a plan track.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-40 The VMS is a computer-based navigation, planning and monitoring system. It is designed in accordance with International Maritime Organization specifications, as an Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS), and to the specifications of the United States Navy for ECDIS-N. Traditional bridge equipment and most navigation sensors can be interfaced to the VMS, as can propulsion control and steering control systems, and one or more radar systems.

The Voyage Management System provides flexible and unfettered access to the electronic chart, and to other navigational data, for watchstanders on the bridge and in other key areas aboard ship such as the Combat Information Center. Using the data supplied by the VMS, watchstanders can spend less time in gathering information, and more time in important decision-making functions.

On the bridge, multiple VMS stations allow shipboard personnel to accomplish more than one navigation task at the same time. Voyage planning and monitoring functions are available from all VMS workstations, and data input to one computer is available at all workstations.

For example, at least one VMS station can function as a navigation station while another is used as a planning station. A person working on voyage planning or chart editing at the planning station will not interfere with the conning operations at the navigation station. All navigation functions available at the navigation station are also available at the planning station and all other stations, so that the ship's position can be monitored from any location. Workstations located in other areas of the ship are linked to the workstations on the bridge in the same way. The VMS Main Display includes the electronic chart display as well as the Main menu, which gives the operator access to VMS controls. Various sub-menus, and all other controls and windows for VMS operation are available from the Main menu.

1.31 ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM-NAVY (ECDIS-N) The ECDIS-N system interfaces with the ship’s Global Positioning System receivers and other navigation sensors to give the ship’s watchstanders a computerized real-time view of the ship’s position and movement on an electronic-chart display. It also provides an automated capability for route planning and Digital Nautical Chart® correction to include the latest "Notice to Mariners" information.

ECDIS-N, in conjunction with the Global Positioning System (GPS) and Digital Nautical Chart, provides superior navigation capabilities using an interactive computer system. For instance, in traditional navigation there is a time delay between taking a navigational position, plotting it on a chart and comparing it to the planned route.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-41 During this time the ship is normally moving, so the plot represents where the ship was at the time the position was taken, not where it currently is. But ECDIS-N, using a secure GPS connection, instantaneously updates and displays the ship’s position.

ECDIS-N will also increase accuracy. A majority of navigational errors are human in origin. The most common mistakes are made in adding, subtracting and manually plotting the position on a chart. ECDIS-N will greatly enhance the safety of navigating at sea.

Another common problem that affects safety is the difficulty in manually updating paper charts with new information and ensuring that the ship’s chart inventory is current. ECDIS-N allows automated updating of the digital charts, via Net download or mailed compact discs. This will significantly decrease the tedious workload of correcting charts.

One of the most powerful tools of ECDIS-N systems is the automatic grounding avoidance feature found in route planning and route monitoring. Automatic grounding avoidance correlates the ship’s position, draft and safety ellipse with the chart and generates alarms if the system detects potential hazards along the ship’s track. The system also provides a full set of alarms if the system is malfunctioning.

The databases used by ECDIS-N are the Digital Nautical Chart® (DNC) and a companion product called Tactical Ocean Data (TOD). TOD provides military and classified bathymetric data required by the Navy. These are produced by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) in the DoD standard format called Vector Product Format (VPF).

The VPF is a standard format, structure and organization for large geographic databases that are based on a georelational data model and are intended for direct use (i.e., you do not need to translate the data into another format to use). VPF allows application software to read data directly from computer-readable media without prior conversion to an intermediate form.

The software then reads the DNC and TOD data, both in VPF, and displays the data to a screen, so that it looks like the paper chart that the mariner is used to seeing. There are three sets of displays within ECDIS-N, the base layer, or the minimum amount of data that must be displayed; the standard layer looks most like the paper charts, and then mariner overlay display that allows the mariner to add additional information needed for operations.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-42 The software has tools that allow the watchstander to adjust the display to ambient light. There is a color scheme for bright sunshine and one more suited to evening hours. There is also a night-time color scheme because the bridge of a ship is in darkened mode. A computer screen that shows a lot of white would be blinding when you look outside at the dark night. Another feature of the software allows the watchstander to turn on and off layers of information to make the presentation on the screen most useful to him or her.

Most significant, is that even if the data such as the soundings are turned off, the software continues to interact with the database and sounds an alarm if there is an impending danger to the vessel.

1.32 NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL-INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (NGA) PRODUCTS Charts used in the Navy may be prepared by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), the National Ocean Service (NOS), the British Admiralty, or by other hydrographic agencies.

1.32.1 Digital Nautical Charts (DNC) The DNC is an unclassified vector-based digital geospatial intelligence database depicting significant features essential for safe marine navigation. DNC libraries are automatically distributed on CD-ROM for all 29 Regions and is also available over the NGA Gateway.

NGA has produced the DNC Vector Product Format Database Update (VDU) to support worldwide DNC navigation requirements of the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard.

VDU for DNC is automatically distributed monthly on CD-ROM for all 29 Regions and is also available over the NGA public website.

Digital patch updates to DNC are available via the NGA Gateway. Navigators must apply these changes per applicable system operating instructions to keep their databases current and safe for navigation between new editions of DNC. New editions of DNC will be announced in Section II of the US Notice to Mariners (NtM) and will also be made available via the NGA Gateway.

1.32.2 Chart/Publication Corrections These files serve as a record of all corrections required for the current allowance of NGA charts, DNC’s and publications established by the current edition of the Nautical Chart and Publication Allowance. The electronic Catalog of Maps, Charts and Related Products produced and distributed by Defense Logistics Information Service shall be used to verify the availability of any chart or DNC.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-43 As a result of the inclusion of applicable corrections being published in the Notice to Mariners and available through the NGA web site, Chart/Publication Correction Cards (NGA Form 8660/9) are no longer required to be maintained. Any corrected paper chart or publication shall have a complete and accurate ‘Correction Tree’ which should be validated against the corrections list printed in the NtM’s or from the NGA website prior to use.

Charts and publications, both paper and electronic, designated by the CO (CO’s Ready List) will be kept current at all times.

The current and previous edition of electronic corrections to DNC’s (VDU) and electronic publications (PDU) shall be kept onboard to prevent errors in the most recent edition from preventing use of the DNC or publication. These corrections should be validated against the corrections list printed in the NtMs or from the NGA website prior to use.

1.32.3 Notice to Mariners/Summary of Corrections Notices to Mariners, Summary of Corrections, and use of the Automated Notice to Mariners (ANMS) (INFONET) and Local Notice to Mariners (LNM) will be used to enter appropriate information on appropriate charts or publications.

Electronic Notice to Mariners. Notice to Mariners is now exclusively distributed in an electronic (.PDF) format. A server-based file of Notice to Mariners will be kept by the Navigation work center with a separate local file as a back-up. These electronic files must be retained on board for the date of the last correction applicable in the Summary of Corrections.

A series of publications that incorporates a historic record of corrections dating from the most recent edition date for NGA products, back to July 1975. The most current version for all editions is on the Quarterly CD distributed by NGA.

Classified Notice to Mariners. Provides the same information as the Notice to Mariners and Summary of Corrections except that the information is for classified charts and publications.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-44 1.33 PILOTING Piloting is a highly accurate form of navigation involving frequent determination of a ship’s position relative to geographic references. When a ship is operating near land or when other visual aids to navigation are available, piloting is used to prevent mishaps. This method of navigation requires good judgment, constant attention, and alertness on the part of the navigator.

When a ship is moving into or out of a harbor, close to islands, reefs, or coastlines, the navigator pinpoints the position of the ship by plotting visual bearings received from a Quartermaster. The Quartermaster, stationed at the pelorus, takes bearings from visible objects such as tanks, radio towers, lighthouses, points on shore, or other aids to navigation. By plotting successive fixes on a chart showing true positions of reference points from which bearings are taken, the navigator maintains a true track of the ship. Observations of these fixes and DR tracks of the ship enable the navigator to make recommendations to the officer of the deck concerning the course the ship should follow to reach its destination safely.

The fact that a position is determined by bearings taken on visual objects implies that a ship being piloted is in restricted—often dangerous —waters. In the open sea, there may be ample time to discover and correct an error. In restricted waters, an error can quickly cause an accident.

One important point you must remember whenever you plot on a chart is to use the correct colors in marking the chart. While color doesn’t matter much on charts that are marked in daylight or in normally lighted areas, it matters greatly in blacked-out areas. Recall times that you entered darkened areas. For the first few minutes, you could not see your surroundings.

Gradually, however, you began to make out shapes. During that brief period, your night vision was taking over from your day vision. Night vision sensors in your eyes are very sensitive to white light and can be instantly overwhelmed by it. These same sensors, though, work very well in areas lighted by red light. This is why areas that require low light are frequently lighted by red lights. So what is the problem with colors on charts? Under red light, the colors buff, orange, and red are invisible. You will not be able to see anything printed or written on a chart in these colors.

The NGA has met this situation by using gray, magenta, purple, and blue on the charts. These colors appear as different shades, not as different colors, under red light. Be very careful in using old charts under a red light. If any vital features or markings are shown on the charts in red, orange, and yellow colors, redraw them in some color that will show, such as blue, green, brown, or purple. And when you draw on a chart in daylight, do not use a red marker. If you do and later have to use the chart under a red light, you will not be able to see any of your marks.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-45 1.33.1 Tactical Data Every ship has specific maneuvering characteristics known as the ship’s tactical data.

These data are determined by the navigation department and are available on the bridge, in CIC, and in the engine room. Two of the maneuvering characteristics, advance and transfer, are extremely important in plotting a dead-reckoned track in radar piloting and also in tactical maneuvers. The ship’s tactical data consist of the following information:

1. Acceleration — The rate of increase in ship’s speed. 2. Deceleration—The rate of decrease in speed. 3. Acceleration/deceleration distance — The distance covered between the point where an increase or a decrease in speed is ordered and the point where the ship is steady on the new speed. 4. Advance — The distance gained in the direction of the original course when the ship is turning. See figure 1-24. It is measured in the direction of the original course from the point where the rudder is first put over. The advance will be at maximum when the ship has turned 90°. If the turn is less than 90°, it is measured to the point where the ship is steadied on the new course. 5. Transfer.—The distance gained at right angles to the original course whe n the ship is turning, to the point of completion of the turn. See figure 1-24. 6. Tactical diameter.—The distance gained to the right or left of the original course when a turn of 180° has been completed, when constant rudder angle is used. Figure 1-24 illustrates that the tactical diameter is the transfer for a turn of 180°. 7. Final diameter: The diameter of the turning path of the ship when it has completed 360° of steady turning. 8. Standard rudder.—The amount (in degrees) of rudder that will turn a ship on the turning circle of a prescribed standard tactical diameter.

Figure 1-24 Ship turning circle

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-46 1.33.1.1 Use of Tactical Data As we mentioned earlier, a folder containing the ship’s tactical characteristics is kept on the bridge, in CIC, and in the engine room. Usually this folder contains the following tables:

1. The number of revolutions per minute necessary to make desired speeds. This information is posted also at the annunciators and the throttles. 2. Time versus distance the ship will continue until no forward motion is evident when the engines are stopped at 5, 10, and 15 knots. 3. Time versus distance required to stop the ship when the engines are backed one-third, two-thirds, and full speed while the ship is steaming ahead at normal speed. 4. Time required to turn 45°, 90°, 135°, and 180°, using normal, stationing, and operational speeds for rudder angles of 10°, 15°, and 25° and full rudder. 5. Time versus reach-ahead (acceleration distance) in accelerating from normal speed to stationing and operational speeds. 6. Number of yards from station at which speed should be dropped to formation speed in order to coast into station. 7. Diagrams of turning circles, showing the tactical diameter for 180° and transfer for 90° for rudder angles of 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, and full rudder at speeds of 10, 15, 20, and 25 knots (or as many of these speeds as the ship can make).

Table 1-7 shows sample turning characteristics of a ship. (These figures are for example purposes only. When you plot a DR track in restricted waters, use the correct tactical data for your ship.)

Standard Tactical Diameter at 15 Knots Requiring Standard Rudder Angle of Turn (degrees) Advance (yards) Transfer (yards) 15 185 40 30 275 85 45 345 115 60 390 190 75 445 270 90 500 375 105 450 445 120 405 520 135 360 590 150 315 655 165 265 725 180 205 800 Table 1-5 Sample Advance and Transfer Table

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-47 1.33.1.2 Computing Turning Bearing and Turning Range The piloting officer must know at what position the rudder must be put over, so that when allowance is made for advance and transfer the ship will steady on the new heading at the desired point. This procedure involves using a predetermined bearing to a known object (turning bearing) and a predetermined range to a prominent point of land to indicate where the rudder should be put over. The navigator uses the turning bearing, since the bridge personnel use bearings to take visual fixes. CIC uses the range to take a radar fix. Figure 1-25 shows how turning bearing and range are determined. In the figure, a ship is steaming at 15 knots on course 180° and must round a bend in the channel to a new course of 255°. Your job is to find the turning bearing to the lighthouse and the turning range to the point of land labeled D, where the rudder should be put over to have the ship on course 255° and on the desired track after it rounds the bend.

Figure 1-25 Turning bearing and turning range

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-48 First, draw a line parallel to the ship’s present course (180°) on the side toward which the turn is to be made at a perpendicular distance equal to the transfer for a 75° turn. (Table 1-7 shows the transfer for a 75° turn at 15 knots to be 270 yards.) The intersection of this line with the new course (255°) is the point (labeled C) where the turn will be completed. From this point, measure back along the line a distance equal to the advance for a 75° turn. (From the table, this distance is 445 yards.) Label this point (point B in the illustration). From point B draw a line perpendicular to the original course line. The intersection of this perpendicular line and the course line (labeled point A) is where the rudder must be put over. The true bearing of the lighthouse from point A is the turning bearing, 218°, and the turning range to point D is 600 yards (a round figure determined for simplicity’s sake). Thus the ship should remain on course 180° until the lighthouse bears 218°, at which point the navigator should recommend right standard rudder. NAV should make the same recommendation when point D is 600 yards away. An accurate way of achieving that is for the scope operator to put the range strobe on 600 yards and the bearing cursor toward point D. When the strobe touches point D, NAV should recommend that the ship begin its turn. The turn should be completed, with the ship heading 255° at point C. If the ship is not on track as it approaches point A, a line constructed parallel to ship’s new course (255°) and drawn through point A will provide the turning point. In figure 1-25, the solid line represents the proposed track of the ship.

1.33.1.3 Determining Position The most important part of piloting is establishing the position of own ship. Without an accurately plotted own ship position, called a fix, all other piloting actions are meaningless.

Piloting involves using lines of position that are determined in relation to easily identified and charted landmarks. A fix is obtained from the intersection of two or more lines of position. Basically, there are two general types of lines of position: bearing lines and range arcs. See figure 1-26.

Figure 1-26 Lines of position

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-49 A bearing line of position is drawn from the landmark in a reciprocal direction because the bearing indicates the direction of the landmark from the observer. If a lighthouse bears 000°, for example, then your ship is located on the 180° bearing line from the lighthouse.

The tangent is a special type of bearing line that provides a line of position to the edge of a point of land that is sufficiently abrupt to provide a definite point for measurement. When a bearing is obtained to the right edge of a projection of land, as viewed by the observer, the bearing is a right tangent. Similarly, a bearing to the left edge of a projection of land is a left tangent.

A range arc is a circular line of position. When the distance from an observer to a landmark is known, the observer’s position is on a circle having a radius equal to the measured distance, with the landmark as the center. The entire circle need not be drawn, because in practice the observer normally knows the position near enough that drawing an arc of the circle suffices.

Normally, the navigator obtains fixes by plotting lines of bearing to landmarks, while CIC obtains fixes by plotting radar range arcs from prominent points. However, any combination of lines of position may be used to determine own ship’s position. The following methods are used to obtain radar fixes.

TWO or more bearings.—Cross bearings by radar are plotted in the same manner that the navigator plots visual bearings. The most rapidly changing bearing (usually closest to the beam) is taken first, followed quickly by the remaining bearings.

Search radar bearings are not normally considered very accurate. However, radar- bearing information can be nearly as accurate as visual bearings when the radar system is properly calibrated and aligned and the operator takes bearings only on well-defined targets. Objects located offshore and away from the landmass, such as small islands, lighthouses, and large rocks, are the best targets for radar bearings. Center bearings taken to isolated targets should be very accurate and can be used to obtain a radar fix. See figure 1-27.

Figure 1-27 Three-bearing fix

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-50

1.33.1.4 Set and Drift Anyone who has ever rowed a boat across a river or stream in a strong current knows the boat must be pointed in a slightly different direction from the point where it is supposed to land. In other words, a course and speed correction must be applied to offset the effects of wind and current to reach the destination. Ships often experience the same difficulty, requiring the navigator and CIC to respond in the same way.

Two words are used to describe the effect that external forces, usually wind and current, have on a vessel—set and drift. Set is the direction toward which the forces tend to push a vessel. Drift is the velocity of the force, in knots.

The navigator must check through various publications, tide tables, and current tables to predict the amount of set and drift the ship will experience while entering port. Winds, variations in stream discharges produced by heavy rain, and other weather conditions frequently cause actual wind and current conditions to vary from those predicted. It thus becomes necessary for both the navigator and CIC to determine set and drift periodically, especially in restricted waters.

Figure 1-28 Navigation plotting symbols

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-51 You can use the following method to determine set and drift. See figure 1-29.

1. Obtain an accurate fix (shown as time 1405 in the illustration). 2. Dead-reckon (DR) the ship ahead 3 minutes, on course and speed, from the 1405 position. (In figure 1-29 the ship is headed 200° at 12 knots.) When you apply the 3- minute rule, the ship will travel 1200 yards in 3 minutes, or 400 yards per minute. Plot the three DR positions, 400 yards apart, in the direction of 200° from the 1405 fix. 3. At time 1408, or 3minutes later, obtain another accurate fix. 4. Determine the set. The set is the bearing of the 1408 fix from the 1408 DR position. In figure 1-29, the 1408 fix bears 080° from the 1408 DR position. Therefore, the set is 080°. 5. Determine the drift. Drift is the speed that the ship is being offset from its intended course and is determined by measuring the distance between the fix and the DR position. In figure 1-29 this distance is 300 yards. According to the 3-minute rule, 300 yards translates to a drift of 3 knots. 6. By examining the plot on the chart, we can see that although the ship is heading 200° at 12 knots, it is actually tracking (or making good a course of) 185° at 10.8 knots, because of the 080° set and the 3-knot drift. Figure 1-29 Determining set and drift

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-52 Should a situation such as the one in figure 1-29 arise, where own ship is being set off course, your first concern should be to determine the course and speed to get back on track within a specified time. To do so, use the following procedure (See figure 1-30). In this case, we want to be back on track in 3 minutes.

1. After determining set and drift, draw a second set and drift vector from the 1408 fix. (This second vector is the amount of offset your ship will encounter during the next 3 minutes.) 2. Draw a line from the end of the second set and drift vector to the time 11 DR position. This is the course own ship must steer to get back on track. The length of the line indicates the speed that we must use to arrive on track at time 1411. In this case, the course is 219°, and the distance is 1,600 yards. When you apply the 3-minute rule, the speed to use is 16 knots. Figure 1-30 Determining course and speed to return to

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-53 An experienced Quartermaster should be able to recommend a course and speed to return to track in a matter of seconds. Normally, you will use a PMP to determine a course; but if a PMP is not available, you can determine the course, using parallel rulers, by paralleling the course lines to the compass rose printed on the chart. You can use dividers or a compass to measure distance if a PMP ruler is not available.

After you determine the course and speed for returning to the desired track, your next concern should be to determine the course and speed for making good the desired track. Use the following procedure: (See figure 1-31.)

Figure 1-31 Determining course and speed to use to make

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-54 1. From the 1408 fix, draw a line to the time 11DR position. The direction of this line is the course to use. 2. Determine the speed from the length of the line you just drew. In figure 1-31 the length of this line is 1,380 yards. When you apply the 3-minute rule, the speed to use is 13.8 knots. Your DR track is now211°, 13.8 knots from the 1408 fix.

1.34 COASTAL NAVIGATION While your ship is within radar range of land, you are required to keep a coastal navigation plot on a chart by plotting radar fixes. Make sure that the plot displays the following information:

• The intended track, marked with reference points and all proposed changes of course and speed. (These data are available from the navigation department and from the bridge.) • Radar fixes every 30 minutes or as required by own ship’s doctrine. (Compare these fixes with those the navigator obtains.) • The boundaries of the area(s) in which the ship is operating or expects to operate. • The set and drift of the current. • The wind direction and velocity. • The positions of any hazards to navigation. • The locations of any objects of potential interest.

1.35 ANCHORING A SHIP Anchorage charts for the principal harbors of the United States and its possessions are issued to every ship. These anchorage charts are harbor charts with anchorage berths overprinted in colored circles of various diameters. On these charts, series of berths of the same size are laid out in straight lines and are called lines of anchorage. Adjacent circles usually are tangent to each other. The center of the circle is the center of the berth. Each berth is designated by a number, a letter, or a combination of both, printed inside the circle.

If you are to anchor in a harbor for which there is no standard anchorage chart, a berth is assigned by giving the bearing and distance of the center of the berth from a known object, together with the diameter of the berth.

When your ship is ordered to anchor in a specific berth, NAV personnel must take the following actions:

• From the center of the berth, draw the letting-go semicircle. Use a radius equal to the horizontal distance between the hawsepipe and the antenna position of the surface-search radar. (The navigator uses the position of bridge wing gyro repeaters.) • From the center of the berth, lay off the intended track, using the appropriate approach courses and navigational aids for determining the ship’s position. Where turns are necessary, locate turning bearings and ranges.

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-55 If possible, the final approach should be made with the ship heading into the current or the wind. The effects of current and wind and the presence of shipping often preclude a straight course to the anchorage. • Determine the distance from the hawsepipe of the ship to the radar antenna. Lay this distance off from the center of the berth to locate the letting-go point. From there, draw range semicircles. The usual practice is to draw arcs every 100 yards out to 1,000 yards, then arcs at 1,200, 1,500, and 2,000 yards. Also from the center of the berth, draw bearing lines at 5° and 10° in the direction of your approach and label these lines, using reciprocal bearings. These lines and arcs enable the piloting officer to make recommendations to anchorage without interfering with the navigational fixes being taken.

Figure 1-32 shows an anchorage track. In this track, the ship makes its final approach to the anchorage, using a beacon as a range. Notice the course and speeds, DR positions, turning bearing, final approach course, semicircles indicating yards from the center of the berth, letting-go circle, and anchorage bearing. The ship will turn to the approach course when it reaches the turning bearing and anchor when the stack bears 090°T. Remember, the speed of the ship should be such that it has no headway upon reaching the letting-go point. Slight sternway should be on the ship as soon as the anchor is let go for the anchor to take hold, to lay out the anchor chain properly, and to protect bow-mounted sonar domes.

Figure 1-32 Anchorage track

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UNCLASSIFIED 1-56 1.36 SUMMARY

Navigation is a very important part of ships operations. A successful navigation team not only navigates and prepares charts and tracks, but they learn how the ship feels during normal operations and how she reacts to outside elements. As you learn the basics of navigation keep an open mind on how it affects the mission.

Selecting the correct charts, learning how to prepare them and which charts to use during an operation will be a key element in the success of the mission and the smartness of your team. Proper labeling and accurate determination of ships position show professionalism and dedication, which allows the bridge team to remain focus on proper ship handling and station keeping.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-1 2 VOICE COMMUNICATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Identify the types of shipboard internal communication systems and state their uses. 2. Recognize sound-powered phone nomenclature 3. Identify sound-powered phone equipment and describes its operation 4. Demonstrate proper sound-powered phone operating procedures. 5. Identify the basic principles of RF communications. 6. Recognize the basic equipment used for RF communications. 7. Determine frequency spectrums allocated to RF communications.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-2 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter gives you an overall picture of the Bridge’s internal communication systems, methods, and procedures.

Whenever we communicate, we make every effort is to ensure the speed, accuracy, reliability, and security of the communication. Bear in mind that although accuracy, reliability, and security are essential, those efforts will be wasted unless the communication is made in ample time to be completely effective.

The success of all Bridge operations depends on teamwork. What is teamwork? Teamwork is the coordinated actions of two or more members of a team. How do we achieve this coordinated action? By exchanging ideas, information, and orders, we let others know what we are doing or are planning to do. Without communications, the Bridge team is not really a team. It is merely a group of people doing different jobs, with little chance for actually accomplishing the mission. Therefore, every member of the Bridge team must become an expert in voice communications.

2.2 TYPES OF INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS Several types of shipboard internal communications are used in the Pilot House. They are (1) voice tubes, (2) ship’s service telephones, (3) messengers, (4) pneumatic tubes, (5) multi- channel (MC) systems, and (6) Inter Voice Communication System (IVCS), (7) sound-powered telephone systems. Not every ship’s Bridge has all of these means of communication. The larger ships do, but the smaller ones may have only a few of them. As our discussion progresses, we will examine each type of internal communications.

2.2.1 Voice Tubes Voice tubes provide an important means of internal communications, although they are normally used only as a standby measure. This system is merely a network of metal tubes designed to carry the sound of the voice from one station to another. The major value of this system is that it is practically immune to mechanical failure. Consequently, it can be relied upon when accidents or damage disrupts other systems.

2.2.2 Ship’s Service Telephones Although the ship’s service telephones are not part of the battle communication system, they can prove invaluable if the regular systems fail. They are standard telephones powered by the ship’s generators and are normally used in carrying out the administrative routine aboard ship. Two features expedite the telephone-calling process: the executive cut-in telephone and the hunt-the-not-busy-line feature.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-3 Executive cut-in telephones, clearly marked, are for emergency calls and for the use of persons in authority. Operationally, these telephones are the same as a standard telephone but are limited in number and can be used to call a station that is in use. Instead of a busy signal being returned, the cut-in phone breaks into the circuit. The caller then can interrupt the conversation in progress to deliver an important message.

The hunt-the-not-busy-line feature can be used when a call is made to an area that has a group of consecutively numbered telephone stations. After the lowest numbered station has been dialed, the switchboard connects the calling station to the lowest numbered idle telephone. When all the circuits of the group called are in use, a busy signal is returned as with a standard telephone.

2.2.3 Messengers Ships today still use the oldest method of communication—the messenger. Although messengers are a reliable means of communication; they are not as fast as the other methods. You will be called on many times during your naval career to use your knowledge of the ship by serving as a messenger.

2.2.4 Pneumatic Tubes Pneumatic tubes are for relaying written messages between communication stations in some ships. This system has the advantage of routing a message quickly. Two disadvantages are that it needs ship’s power for compressed air and that it is good for written messages only.

2.2.5 Multi-channel (MC) Systems Multi-channel (MC) systems transmit orders and information between stations within the ship, by means of direct, amplified voice communications. There are two types of MC equipment—one type is used in intercommunication (intercom) systems; the other type is used in shipboard announcing systems. Each type has distinguishing features, which we discuss below.

2.2.5.1 Intercommunicating (Intercom) Units Intercommunication (intercom) systems allow two-way transmission of orders and information between stations (in the same space or in different spaces). Each intercom unit contains its own amplifier.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-4 There are several basic types of intercom units in use throughout the Navy, with certain variations to the basic types (fig. 2-1). These types differ mainly in physical appearance and in the materials used in their construction. Regardless of their appearance and construction, all intercom units have the same electrical characteristics. This allows units of different construction and from different manufacturers to be used in one common system. The components consist essentially of a reproducer, controls, and an amplifier.

The reproducer serves both as a microphone and as a loudspeaker. An incoming call can be heard through the loudspeaker because the sound is amplified by the amplifier of the calling unit.

The controls consist of the talk switch, a pushbutton assembly, a busy light, a call light, a volume control, and a dimmer control.

When the talk switch is depressed, the reproducer functions as a microphone and the output of the amplifier is electrically connected to the reproducer of the called station. When the switch is released, the reproducer functions as a loudspeaker. The talk switch is spring loaded and returns to the listen or standby position when released. Figure 2-1 Typical MC unit

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-5 A handset can be used with the intercommunicating unit in place of the reproducer. The operation is the same as that of the reproducer except that the pushbutton in the handset is used as a talk switch in place of the regular talk switch on the front panel. Incoming calls can be heard simultaneously in the handset and in the reproducer. The volume control controls the level of the incoming call to the reproducer only.

A portable microphone can also be used with the equipment. The operation is the same as that of the reproducer except that the pushbutton on the microphone is used as a talk switch instead of the regular talk switch on the equipment.

The station selector buttons are located at the top of the front panel. The locations or designations of the various units in the system are engraved in the station designation plate below the associated selector buttons. When a station selector button is depressed, it will lock in the operative position until the release pushbutton is depressed to return it to the non-operative position.

The “busy” lamp is lighted when a station button is depressed to call another station and the station being called is busy. Do not leave a station selector button depressed when the “busy” lamp is lighted. Depress the release pushbutton and call later.

The dimmer control controls all illumination of the unit. The “busy” and “call” lights are off when the control knob is in the extreme counterclockwise position and are fully lighted for all other positions as the knob is turned clockwise. The station designation lights are lighted for all positions of the control knob and the illumination increases as the knob is turned clockwise.

The volume control varies the volume of incoming transmissions. This control has no effect on the volume of the outgoing sound from the unit. Thus, the volume of each unit in the system can be adjusted to the desired level.

To call a particular station, depress the station selector button of the desired station, depress the “talk” switch, and speak directly into the grille. Release the “talk” switch to listen. When you complete your conversation, depress the “release” pushbutton to return the station selector switch to the non-operative position.

To accept a call from another station, listen to the incoming call through the loudspeaker. Do not operate any of the station selector switches. Depress the “talk” switch to reply to the incoming call. The “call” light illuminates to indicate that the station is being called by another station.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-6 2.2.5.2 Shipboard Announcing (MC) Systems Shipboard announcing systems (also called central amplifier systems), are designed to broadcast orders or information to a large number of stations simultaneously. In each of these systems, a central amplifier is used; hence, the system affords only one-way communication.

The following are a few of the MC systems that you may see and use (some are not located in the Pilot House).

General (1MC)—The general announcing system is a one -way system found on practically all ships—large or small. You may have occasion to use it while st anding in- port quarterdeck watches. It is used for passing general orders and administrative information. Transmissions can be made from key stations—bridge, quarterdeck, and damage control stations—to all or selected groups of stations or compartments within the ship and to all topside areas. The 1MC also provides a means for transmitting emergency alarms throughout the ship.

Ready Room (19MC) — The 19MC provides two- way communications for stations dealing with air operations on aircraft carriers. Stations on the circuit include CIC, ready rooms, flight deck control, hangar deck control station, air intelligence, and the wardroom.

Combat Information (20MC)—The 20MC is used primarily to pass combat intelligence from each main plotting group in CIC to a variety of users. These include primary and secondary conning stations, captain’s tactical plot, open bridge, main battery control stations, anti-air warfare stations, main battery director stations, main and secondary battery plotting rooms, flag bridge, flag command and plotting stations, missile control stations, and electronic warfare (EW) stations.

Captain’s Command (21MC) — The 21MC provides two- way transmission of ship control orders and information among key stations. Key stations include primary and secondary conning stations, signal bridge, main battery control station, air warfare station, radio central, damage control station, main engine control, CIC, primary flight control station, and the captain’s tactical plot. CIC uses the 21MC to send initial contact reports and any emergency information to the bridge. The signal bridge frequently transmits information it receives from flaghoist to the bridge and CIC at the same time.

Radio Room (22MC)— The 22MC is used to pass information and orders concerning radio facilities, as well as data, between radio rooms and certain other radio operating stations.

Flag Command (24MC) — The 24MC system provides two- way transmission of flag orders and information between selected stations, such as flag bridge, signal bridge, flag plot, flag radio, radio central, open bridge, combat information center, and captain’s tactical plot.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-7 Sonar Information (29MC) — The 29MC system provides one -way communication from sonar operators to the captain’s tactical plot, open bridge, pilothouse, CIC, underwater battery plot, and the ASW attack station.

2.2.6 Interior Voice Communication System (IVCS) IVCS is a computer–controlled voice system that serves as the ship’s internal telephone system and replaces the majority of the circuits traditionally associated with sound- powered telephones. IVCS has predefined networks, such as the Lookout net with jack boxes at all lookout watch stations and the pilothouse. IVCS nets are listed in Table 2-1.

CHANNEL PURPOSE 11 Helicopter and Boat Fuel Control 12 Helicopter Control 22 Navigation Coordination 25 Combat System Officer of the Watch (CSOOW) Coordination 26 Electronic Support Supervisor Coordination 29 Underwater Supervisor Coordination 51 Captain’s Battle Net 52 Lookout Reporting 53 Maneuvering Control 54 Navigation Service 55 Visual Signals 56 Docking 60 Gun Coordination and Service 62 Forward VLS Strikedown 63 Aft VLS Strikedown 65 Ordnance Supervisor Coordination 66 Fire Control Supervisor Coordination 68 Light Machine Gun Coordination 80 Damage and Stability Control 81 Repair 2 82 Repair 3 83 Engineering 84 Fuel Control 85 Electrical 86 Repair 5 88 Vehicular Control Helicopter Transfer (VCHT) 90 Firefighting Equipment 91 Emergency Reporting Table 2-1 Common IVCS Nets

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-8 In addition to jack boxes, IVCS provides telephone terminals throughout the ship. The majority of these are standard dial terminals. Some terminals have additional features such as multi-line, remote speakers, or hands-free operation. Besides serving as a telephone, each IVCS terminal can access all IVCS nets.

2.2.7 Sound-Powered Telephone System The commanding officer can fight the ship most effectively when he is provided with adequate and accurate evaluated information. This information must be passed over sound-powered (S/P) telephone circuits from Damage Control (DC) Central, engineering spaces, weapons control, After-steering, Combat Information Center (CIC), radio central, Signal Bridge, lookouts, and other stations in the ship. A good phone talker is vital to the ship and plays an important part in the ship’s overall performance.

Supervisory personnel and S/P telephone talkers can exchange information adequately and accurately and in the most timely and efficient manner only when they know and abide by the rules for talkers. Talkers must use standard phrases and common terminology and know and practice proper care of their S/P telephone. You should already have a basic knowledge about sound-powered telephones. However, because S/P telephones are considered the “workhorses” of shipboard internal communications systems and since their use in the Pilot House is quite extensive, we need to study them further. S/P phone circuits are listed in Table 2-2.

CIRCUIT DESIGNATION CIRCUIT TITLE JA Captain’s battle circuit 1JG Aircraft control circuit JL Lookout circuit 1JS Combat information center information circuit 21JS Surface search radar circuit 61JS Sonar information circuit 1JV Maneuvering and docking circuit 4JV Engineering circuit (fuel and stability) JW Ship-control bearing circuit JX Radio and signals circuit 2JZ Damage and stability control 4JZ Forward repair circuit X1JV Auxiliary maneuvering and docking circuit X2JZ Auxiliary damage and stability control circuit X1J Ship’s administration circuit X8J Replenishment-at-sea circuit Table 2-2 Common S/P phone circuits

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-9 2.2.7.1 Advantages of S/P Telephones Several advantages are afforded by sound-powered telephone equipment for internal communications. A few of them are as follows:

• They are simple to operate. • The equipment is rugged, when given reasonable care. • Talkers are not distracted by external noise, because their ears are isolated by the telephone’s ear pads. • Security or privacy of communications is superior to that provided by MC equipment. • Transmissions do not contribute to station noise levels. • The talker is mobile within the limitations set by the length of the cord and, except while transmitting, is free to perform other tasks, such as those required of a radar operator or plotter. • The earphones may be used for emergency transmissions if the microphone becomes defective, and vice versa. • The system does not require an external source of power for operation.

2.2.7.2 Circuit Nomenclature Each sound-powered telephone circuit is designed for a specific purpose. The groups linked by a sound-powered circuit may include the bridge, the underway and docking stations, and the damage control teams. Each circuit is identified, according to its use, by a letter and number code, as explained below. J—The first letter of a primary sound powered- circuit designation is J. It indicates that the circuit is a sound-powered communication link. JS—The second letter identifies the general purpose of the circuit. 22JS—Numerals preceding the letters indicate the specific purpose of the circuit. In this example, the designation means that the circuit is an air search radar information circuit. 22JS1—Numerals after the le tters indicate a particular station in the circuit—for example, the air summary plotter. X22JS1—The letter X indicates that the circuit is in the auxiliary S/P telephone system.

2.2.8 Sound-Powered Telephone Equipment There are so many varieties of sound-powered telephone equipment that it would serve no practical purpose in this text to discuss all of them. We can, however, discuss a few units, and by studying them you should gain a better understanding of the sound-powered system.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-10 2.2.8.1 Drum-Type Selector Switch The drum-type selector switch (fig. 2-2) makes it possible to cut a single jack into any one of a number of circuits by turning the switch to the desired circuit marked on the face of the dial. Because of the construction of the switch, only one circuit can be connected at a time.

2.2.8.2 Call Signal Station Box The call signal box contains a handset phone (see figure 2-3). The purpose of this circuit is to provide communication between stations that normally do not need to exchange information continually. Two distinct circuits compose the call bell system. The first is the S/P circuit to which all the handsets are connected. The second is the call circuit.

On the call circuit, the operator turns the selector switch to the desired position (this switch is usually numbered 1 through 16), turns the magneto hand crank, and listens on the handset until someone answers the call. This circuit does not have a bell like a standard telephone; instead, it makes a growling noise, and is sometimes referred to as the growler. Although this circuit is not in constant use, it is a good idea to listen in on the circuit before turning the magneto, to avoid having two conversations on the same S/P circuit. A nameplate just above the selector dial lists the stations on the circuit, identified by the appropriate station number.

Figure 2-2 Drum-type selector switch

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-11

2.2.8.3 Care of Telephone Equipment Sound-powered telephones are of sturdy construction. If handled with reasonable care, they should require little attention. Nevertheless, they are fine instruments, perform an important function, and should be treated accordingly. Observe the following precautions.

• Avoid pulling on the electrical connections, and never use the cables for carrying or handling the equipment. • Remember that the length of the cord is limited. If you attempt to walk any farther than the cord permits, the cord may be pulled loose from the jack plug. • Unauthorized persons should not disassemble S/P telephones or tamper with them in any way. • Do not insert any object through the protective screen. The diaphragm may become damaged. • When secured, telephones should be made up and stowed on hooks or in the stowage boxes provided. Never leave the telephone adrift or exposed to the weather. • Never remove a pair of telephones from a stowage box that does not belong to your station. Should general quarters be sounded, the individual who normally used those phones would not be able to man the station, and the safety of your ship could be at stake. • When you wear a pair of phones, always try to keep the excess cord out of the way of people passing by. If you leave the cord in the way, someone may trip on it and sustain injury or cause damage. Figure 2-3 Call signal station box

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-12 Do not leave inoperative telephones on station. Telephones that are out of order should be tagged and turned in at once to the IC room or telephone repair locker. They should then be replaced by sets that are in good operating condition.

2.3 S/P TELEPHONE AND IVCS PROCEDURES The purpose of having standard sound-powered telephone and IVCS procedures is to provide uniformity of expression, enabling messages to be understood more clearly over the phones. In every Bridge in the fleet, day in and day out, Quartermasters deal over and over with the same type of information—bearings, ranges, speed, distances, and other tactical data. Bridge personnel can handle information with speed, accuracy, and reliability when they have a system that is simple, easily understood, and readily usable. They can then place every transmission into a brief and clear form that will be understood instantly and is ready for use when received.

A system that satisfies these requirements is the standard sound-powered-telephone procedure and phraseology. The system is simple. Speed is not achieved by transmitting rapidly and biting off words or running them together. Speed is gained by using standard procedure and terminology with every transmission.

2.3.1 GENERAL RULES The following is a list of some general rules for sound-powered-phone talkers. 1. Be alert. Pay attention to what is said over the phones. If possible, maintain a written log of the activities of other stations on the circuit. Pay attention to the officer or petty officer in charge of the station. 2. Repeat or relay all messages word for word. DO NOT REPHRASE ANY MESSAGE. Changing a single word may change the meaning of the entire message. 3. Do not engage in idle conversation on the phone. Keep your mind on your assigned duty. 4. Speak into the transmitter in a loud, clear tone; do not shout or whisper. Shouting results in mushy, slurred noises. A whisper cannot be heard. Speak distinctly. Pronounce every syllable. Restrict your dialect or accent. 5. When using a headset, hold the button down when talking, but do not touch it when listening. When using a handset, hold the button down both to speak and listen. 6. Hold the headset transmitter about 1/2 inch from your mouth when talking. 7. Do not use alphabetic letters as references. This practice can lead to confusion and errors that may result in a considerable loss of time and can prevent needed action that might have been taken had the message been received correctly. Use words in the phonetic alphabet, such as ALFA, GOLF, PAPA, and XRAY. 8. To be an important member of any team, you must become familiar with all the duties of the Bridge Watch team.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-13 2.3.2 Basic Message Format The basic format for transmitting a message by sound-powered telephone consists of the standard shipboard names for the station called and the station calling, followed by the text (what is to be said) in clear, concise language. In the example below, Combat is passing information about a surface contact to the bridge.

Message from Combat: “Bridge, Combat. Surface contact— TOO SIX ZERO—TWEN - TY TOW-ZAND

Response from the bridge: “Bridge—Aye, Aye “

NOTE: Do not call a station and wait for word to go ahead. Every time you have information to transmit, call the station(s) concerned, identify your station, and send the message. If you do not get a response, repeat your message.

2.3.3 S/P Phraseology If all called stations could receive and entirely understand every transmission on the first transmission, there would be no need for anything more than the procedure mentioned above. Unfortunately, not all transmissions are received perfectly. Operators sometimes make errors during transmissions; communication is difficult at times. To help prevent errors, standardized words or phrases come in handy. Using them helps eliminate transmission errors and misunderstandings. Some of the common terms and their meaning follow:

SILENCE ON THE LINE —Use this term only in emergencies. When a transmission in progress on the circuit is interrupted by a message of extreme importance, the person on the circuit must cease talking to permit the cut-in to send the important message.

AYE, AYE — Use this standard response to all transmissions you receive completely. It means “I have received all of your transmission and will deliver it exactly as received.” Never use this response if you are uncertain that you received all of the transmission. Also, do NOT use it simply as an affirmative answer to a question. After you give an AYE, AYE to a message, either use the information the message contains if you are the “action” addressee or pass the message on to the person responsible for taking action.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-14 SAY AGAIN— With this term, you signify that you did not receive the message. The proper response to the term by the sender is a complete retransmission of the message.

CHANGING PHONES; BACK ON THE LINE — Use the term CHANGING PHONES when you remove the telephone headset to give it to another talker. CHANGING PHONES signifies that your station will temporarily be unable to receive messages. The new talker should report BACK ON THE LINE when he or she is ready to resume normal operations. This process should take very little time to complete.

CORRECTION — The word CORRECTION preceded and followed by a pause during a transmission indicates that the sender made an error and is correcting it. Examples of errors are a mispronounced word, an omitted word or phrase in the text, or the incorrect information. If you make an error, make the correction to the message clearly and distinctly. To correct an error, pause, speak the word CORRECTION, pause, retransmit the last word or phrase that you transmitted correctly, transmit the corrected word or phrase, and then transmit the rest of the message. This procedure is particularly important when you are transmitting a series of numerals.

REPEAT BACK — When you want to be sure the receiving talker has understood your message correctly you may ask him or her to repeat it back to you by saying “Repeat back.”

THAT IS CORRECT (or WRONG) — If you direct another talker to REPEAT BACK a message that you send, you must acknowledge the repeat with either THAT IS CORRECT (or WRONG) —do not use the phrase AYE, AYE.

a. Say “THAT IS CORRECT” if the receiver repeats the message correctly.

b. Say “WRONG” if the receiver repeats the message incorrectly. Then give the correction.

BELAY MY LAST — Sometimes as you are transmitting a message, but before you complete the transmission, you may realize that you made an error that you can correct only by stating the message over. Or, you may realize that you shouldn’t have sent the message. In such instances, use the phrase BELAY MY LAST. Do not use this phrase to cancel a message that you have completely transmitted and had receipted.

WAIT —Use the word WAIT when you need to make a pause of short duration (several seconds) during a transmission. You can also use it when someone requests information that you do not have immediately available.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-15 2.3.4 Numeral Pronunciation Although it is impossible to completely standardize the phraseology used in the text of a sound-powered-telephone message, numerals can be and are standardized. Since numerals are the Quartermaster’s “chief stock in trade” and because most of the information supplied by Bridge is expressed in numerical form (bearings, ranges, speeds, distances, time, and so on), you should learn from the beginning to treat numerals with the care they deserve.

Personnel in the Bridge cannot afford to make errors in the information they handle, because in many instances it is vital to ship control. Numerical errors concerning enemy forces, when passed on to the command, could prove disastrous in wartime. Even in peacetime, numerical errors on tactical maneuvering or navigational data may cause a disaster.

For an example of how numerals can be misunderstood, say the following numbers aloud: 7, 11, 17, 70 (seven, eleven, seventeen, seventy). Notice that the sounds are similar. If they are slurred or are pronounced indistinctly, there is room for error. A carelessly pronounced “seventeen” may sound like “seventy”. If range (in miles) is the subject, mistaking “seventeen” for “seventy” will introduce an error of 53 miles. You can avoid making such an error by following the well-established communications rules listed below.

2.3.4.1 Basic Digits Ten basic digits make up the numerical system. Each digit must be pronounced distinctly so that it will be understood. Learn to pronounce them as they are written in the accompanying list.

Number Spoken as Number Spoken as 0 ZE-RO 5 FIFE 1 WUN 6 SIX 2 TOO 7 SEV-EN 3 TREE 8 AIT 4 FOW-ER 9 NIN-ER

2.3.4.2 Rules for Pronouncing Numerals If the basic digits were the only consideration in using numerals, there would be little problem. Unfortunately, numerals may form an indefinite number of combinations, and the combinations may be spoken in several different ways.

The following rules apply to the pronunciation and expression of numerals. Situations may arise, however, in which these rules are inapplicable. In these cases, try the pronunciation and expression that best fit the situation.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-16 • Always speak the numeral 0 (written ø) as ZE-RO, never as oh. This rule applies to ranges as well as to bearings.

• Speak decimal points as DAY SEE MAL.

• For ranges and distances given in units other than “miles”, transmit the numbers digit by digit except for multiples of hundreds and thousands. Say them as such. Some examples are:

Number Spoken as 44 FOW-ER FOW-ER 9ø NIN-ER ZE-RO 136 WUN TREE SIX 5øø FIFE HUN-DRED 14øø WUN FOW-ER HUN-DRED 1478 WUN FOW-ER SEV-EN AIT 7øøø SEV-EN TOW-ZAND 16øøø WUN SIX TOW-SAND 165øø WUN SIX FIFE HUN-DRED 2øøøø TOO ZE-RO TOW-ZAND 812681 AIT WUN TOO SIX AIT WUN

• Ranges and distances given in mile units, and speed, are transmitted as the integral cardinal number. Some examples are:

Number Spoken as 1ø TEN 13 THUR-TEEN 25 TWEN-TY FIFE 5ø FIF-TY 11ø WUN HUN-DRED TEN 3øø TREE HUN-DRED

• Altitude of raid aircraft is always expressed in feet. Altitude may be spoken either in exact integral cardinal numbers or in multiples of thousands (angels), using the integral cardinal number. Some examples are:

Altitude Spoken as 7øø 700“Altitude SEV-EN HUN-DRED” or “Angels DAY-SEE-MAL SEVEN”

11øø 1100“Altitude ELEV-EN HUN-DRED” or “Angels WUN point WUN”

55øø “Altitude FIF-TY FIFE HUN-DRED” or “Angels FIFE point FIFE”

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-17 1ø5øø “Altitude TEN TOW-ZAND FIFE HUN-DRED” or “Angels TEN day-see- mal FIFE”

2øøøø “Altitude TWEN-TY TOW-ZAND” or “Angels TWEN-TY”

NOTE The brevity code word angels pertain to the height of friendly aircraft only. The word altitude pertains to bogey height, in exact integral cardinal numbers.

• Target altitude information relayed to weapons support is expressed in feet. Exact multiples of hundreds and thousands are spoken as such. Some examples are:

Number Spoken as 1øø WUN HUN-DRED 1øøø WUN TOW-ZAND 11øø WUN TOW-ZAND WUN HUN-DRED

• Courses, bearings, and angles other than position angles are given in three digits and are transmitted digit by digit. Some examples are:

Number Spoken as ø9ø ZE-RO NIN-ER ZE-RO 18ø WUN AIT ZE-RO 295 TOO NIN-ER FIFE

• Position angles, always less than 90º, may be expressed in one or two digits and are pronounced as the integral cardinal number. When so transmitted, the phrase position angle always precedes the numerals. Some examples are:

Number Spoken as 5 POSITION ANGLE FIFE 10 POSITION ANGLE TEN 15 POSITION ANGLE FIF-TEEN 27 POSITION ANGLE TWEN-TY SEV-EN

• Time is always spoken digit by digit and preceded by the word “time”.

TIME: 1215–WUN TOO WUN FIFE

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-18 2.4 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS Navy ships, planes, and shore bases operate as a team working together to accomplish a specific task. Radio equipment is used to coordinate the activities of the many fleet units by linking them with each other and with shore stations.

Radio can be defined as the transmission and reception of electronic impulses or signals through space by means of electromagnetic waves. Usually, the term is used in referring to the transmission of intelligence code and sound signals, although television and radar also depend on electromagnetic waves.

At one time, the term radio communications brought to mind telegraphy (CW), voice (AM), and possibly teletype communications. Today’s radio communications has become a highly sophisticated field of electronics.

The primary means of communicating between ships and between ships and stations is known as telecommunications. Telecommunications refers to communications over a distance and includes any transmission, emission, or reception of signals, writing, images, and sounds. Intelligence produced by visual or oral means or by wire, radio, or other electromagnetic systems is also included. Electrical, visual, and sound telecommunications are all used by the Navy.

2.5 COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS A communications system consists of two or more units, each having its own separate identity, arranged and interconnected to perform a circuit operation that cannot be performed by one of the individual units alone. Navy communications systems vary from simple to very complex, depending upon the circuit operations involved. Each system requires the integrated use of various types of equipment, so flexibility is of the utmost importance. This flexibility is provided through a complex arrangement of interconnections that allow the physically separated sets, groups, and units to be selectively switched (patched) into the different circuit configurations.

Most shipboard communication equipments do not operate independently. A particular piece of electronic gear may be designated “primary” and still be used in many different system operations.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-19 2.6 BASIC SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS Radio equipment can be divided into three broad categories: transmitting equipment, receiving equipment, and terminal equipment. Transmitting equipment generates, amplifies, and modulates a transmitted signal. Receiving equipment receives a radio wave, then amplifies and demodulates it to extract the original intelligence. Terminal equipment is used primarily to convert the audio signals of encoded or data transmission into the original intelligence.

A basic radio communications system may consist of only a transmitter and a receiver, connected by the medium through which the electromagnetic waves travel (see figure 2-4). The transmitting equipment creates a radio-frequency (RF) carrier and modulates it with audio intelligence to produce an RF signal. This RF signal is amplified and fed to the transmitting antenna, which converts it to electromagnetic energy for propagation.

The receiving antenna converts the portion of the electromagnetic wave it receives into a flow of alternating RF currents. The receiver then converts these currents into the intelligence that was contained in the transmission.

Terminal equipment is used primarily where coded transmissions are employed, to convert the modulated signal into the original intelligence. Figure 2-4 Basic radio communication system

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-20 2.7 THE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM Figure 2-5 shows the overall electromagnetic frequency spectrum as defined by the International Telecommunications Union. Pay particular attention to the part used for communications. Rapid growth in the quantity and complexity of communications equipment and increased worldwide international requirements for radio frequencies have placed large demands upon the RF spectrum. These demands include military and civilian applications, such as communications, location and ranging, identification, standard time, industrial, medical, and other scientific uses.

The military has modified the frequency spectrum for its use as shown in table 2-2. A few general characteristics are described in the following paragraphs.

The extremely-low-frequency (ELF), very-low frequency (VLF), and low-frequency (lf) bands require high power and long antennas for efficient transmission (antenna length varies inversely with the frequency). Transmission of these frequencies is normally limited to shore stations.

The commercial broadcast band extends from about 550 kHz to 1700 kHz. This limits naval use to the upper and lower ends of the medium frequency (MF) band.

Long-range shipboard communications were conducted exclusively in the high-frequency (HF) band, so a large percentage of shipboard transmitters and receivers are designed to operate in this band. On board your command, you may find satellite communications has pushed HF into aback-up role.

A significant portion of the very-high-frequency (VHF) band is assigned to the commercial television industry. Some naval uses of the VHF band are mobile communications, repeater operation, navigation, amphibious and special operations, short range line-of sight (LOS) communications, and satellite communications.

Figure 2-5 Frequency Spectrum

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-21 The ultra-high-frequency (UHF) band is used extensively by the Navy for LOS and satellite communications. Mobile communications, radar (over 400 MHz), and special operations are some other uses.

The super-high-frequency (SHF) band is the workhorse of microwave communications. LOS communications, terrestrial, and satellite relay links, radar, and special operations are some other uses.

The Fleet Satellite (FLTSAT) EHF Package (FEP) is attached to two modified UHF FLTSATs. The FEP is currently providing EHF communications capability to Army, Navy, and Air Force ground, airborne, and oceangoing terminals.

FREQUENCY DESCRIPTION 30-300 GHz Extremely-high-frequency 3-30 GHz Super-high-frequency 300 MHz-3 GHz Ultra-high-frequency 30-300 MHz Very-high-frequency 3-30 MHz High-frequency 300 kHz-3 MHz Medium-frequency 30-300 kHz Low-frequency 3-30 kHz Very-low-frequency 300 Hz-3 kHz Voice frequency Up to 300 Hz Extremely-low-frequency Table 2-2 Frequency Bands

2.8 TRANSMITTERS For RF communications to take place, a signal has to be generated. Generating the signal is the job of the transmitter. The following paragraphs will very briefly discuss basic transmitters and transmitter fundamentals.

2.8.1 Transmitter Fundamentals Equipment used for generating, amplifying, and transmitting an RF carrier is collectively called a radio transmitter. Transmitters may be simple, low-power units, for sending voice messages a short distance or highly sophisticated, using thousands of watts of power for sending many channels of data (voice, teletype, telemetry, t.v., etc.,) over long distances.

Basic transmitters are identified by their method of modulation: continuous wave (CW), amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or single side band (SSB). We will first describe the types of modulation. We will then describe briefly the basic transmitters themselves.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-22 2.8.1.1 Modulation Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external signal. The voice frequencies (about 110-3,000 Hz) are contained in the audio frequency spectrum, 10-20,000 Hz. In naval communications the terms voice communications and audio communications are sometimes used interchangeably. The audio signal is impressed upon the RF carrier because it is impractical to transmit frequencies in the audio range due to their excessive wavelength.

Three characteristics of the carrier wave may be varied, or modulated, at an external signal rate: amplitude, frequency, and phase. The following paragraphs discuss each type of modulation.

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Amplitude modulations the process of combining audio frequency and radio frequency signals so that the amplitude of the radio frequency waves varies at an audio frequency rate.

Frequency Modulation (FM) Frequency modulation is a process in which the frequency of the carrier wave is made to vary. An FM signal should remain constant in amplitude and change only in frequency.

Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) Frequency-shift keying is considered a form of FM. It is a digital mode of transmission commonly used in radioteletype applications. In FSK the carrier is present all the time. In a keyed condition, the carrier frequency changes by a predetermined amount called the mark frequency. The unkeyed state is called a space.

Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) Phase-shift keying is similar to FSK except that the phase, not the frequency, is shifted. The primary advantage of PSK is that it can be accomplished in an amplifier stage.

Pulse Modulation Pulse modulation is accomplished by varying the characteristics of a series of pulses. This can be done by varying the amplitude, duration, frequency, or position of the pulses. It can also be done through coding. Pulse modulation is especially suited for use with communications systems incorporating time-division multiplexing.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-23 2.9 RECEIVERS Earlier you were introduced to one link in a communications system, the transmitter. All that is needed to complete the system is a radio receiver. A receiver processes modulated signals and delivers, as an output, a reproduction of the original intelligence. The signal can then be applied to a reproducing device, such as a loudspeaker or a teletypewriter.

2.9.1 Receiver Functions To be useful, a receiver must perform certain basic functions. These functions are reception, selection, detection, and reproduction.

Reception occurs when a transmitted electromagnetic wave passes through the receiver antenna and induces a voltage in the antenna.

Selection is the ability to distinguish a particular station’s frequency from all other station frequencies appearing at the antenna.

Detection is the extraction of the modulation from an RF signal. Circuits that perform this function are called detectors. Different forms of modulation require different detector circuits.

Reproduction is the action of converting the electrical signals to sound waves that can be interpreted by the ear.

2.10 TRANSCEIVERS A transceiver is a unit, usually enclosed in a single case that combines a transmitter and receiver using a common frequency control. Transceivers are used extensively in two- way radio communications at all frequencies, and in all modes.

The primary advantage of using a transceiver rather than a separate transmitter and receiver is cost. In a transceiver, many of the components can be shared during both transmit and receive operations. Another advantage is that transceivers can be tuned more easily than separate units.

A disadvantage of using a transceiver is that while duplex operation is not possible with most transceivers, communication must sometimes be carried out on two different frequencies. Although this is a problem with most transceivers, some do have provisions for separate transmit and receive operations, allowing them to overcome the problem.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-24 2.11 RADIO SET CONTROL The radio set control provides the capability to control certain transmitter functions and the receiver output from a remote location. Some control units contain circuits for turning the transmitter on and off, voice modulating the transmission, keying when using CW, controlling receiver output, and muting the receiver when transmitting.

2.12 TRANSMITTER TRANSFER SWITCHBOARD The transmitter transfer switchboard allows the remote control station functions and signals to be transferred selectively to the transmitters.

2.13 REVEIVER TRANSFER SWITCHBOARD The receiver switchboard allows the audio outputs from the receivers to be transferred to remote control station audio circuits.

2.14 ANTENNAS An antenna is a conductor or system of conductors that radiates or intercepts energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. An antenna can be simply apiece of wire; but in practice, other considerations make the design of an antenna system complex. The height above ground, conductivity of the earth, antenna shape and dimensions, nearby objects, and operating frequency are just a few of the factors affecting the radiation field pattern.

2.15 COMMUNICATIONS NETS Radio circuit between several stations (ships or aircraft) established on a radio frequency for a specific purpose. Figure 2-6 Radio set control

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-25 Controlled Net • One station designated as Net Control Station (NECOS) • NECOS • opens, closes and controls net • stations must request permission from NECOS to transmit

Uncontrolled Net • No Net Control Station

Unsecure Net • No protection • Everyone in the world can hear and understand you • “Red light” on handset • Use call signs • Sensitive information must be encoded manually

Secure Net • Protected by cipher • Everyone in the world hears static • “Green light” on handset • Tone burst when you key handset • Voices sound “artificial” • Call signs not used

2.15.1 Call Signs Every station on a comm net has a call sign.

• Plain Language (USS) Vincennes • Daily Changing R6D • JANAP Trinity Sword

2.15.2 Collective Call Sign (Call sign to refer to all stations)

CARGRU THREE G4J Carl Vinson M9X Antietam A4V Stetham L6R

Collective Call Sign = G4J Spoken as: ALL UNITS IN G4J Answered back as: Unit’s individual Call Sign.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-26 2.15.3 Monitoring Comm Nets There are four ways to monitor a communications net, each is briefly described below:

Guard • listen, ready to transmit • keep log on all transmissions

Cover • listen, may not be ready to transmit • keep log on all transmissions

Copy • listen • keep log on all transmissions

Listen • listen • log required on transmissions to or from your station

2.15.4 General RT Procedures Before going over the radio: • Know what you are going to say. • Write message down if you must. • Keep messages brief and concise. • Use standard military phraseology and brevity codes.

On the air: • Speak clearly, slowly and naturally. • Keep your pitch level. • Don’t yell or shout. • Use standard pronunciation, use phonetic alphabet and numbers as necessary. • Keep transmissions short, pause in the middle of long messages. • Avoid double call-ups.

2.16 SUMMARY Communications are an important aspect for success of any unit. As part of your training and development, you will serve as a phone talker or have the opportunity to transmit information throughout your ship using an MC circuit while on watch. The exchange of accurate information between phone talkers during special evolutions will make the difference not only on the ship’s ability to perform her mission but also to the smartness and professionalism of her crew.

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UNCLASSIFIED 2-27 As a member of the navigation team, your ability to master the use of various phone circuits will determine how quickly and effectively the navigation detail itself can maintain the ship out of danger and built confidence within the chain of command, the Officer of the Deck and the Commanding Officer.

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3-1 UNCLASSIFIED 3 COMPASSES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe the components of the magnetic and gyroscopic compasses. 2. Identify and correct for compass errors. 3. Explain the procedure used to determine magnetic compass error. 4. Record entries in the Magnetic Compass Record Book. 5. Describe the process of swinging ship, conducting compass sensibility tests, and filling out the compass deviation card. 6. Determine gyrocompass error. 7. Identify the major components of the Mk 23 gyrocompass systems, and explain the procedures for starting, standing watch on, and securing the Mk 23 gyrocompasses. 8. Identify the major components of the Mk 27 gyrocompass system, and explain the procedures for starting, standing watch on, and securing the Mk 27 gyrocompass. 9. Identify the major components of the AN/WSN-2 stabilized gyrocompass set, and explain the procedures for starting, standing watch on, and securing the AN/WSN-2 stabilized gyrocompass set. 10. Explain the purpose of the ship’s course indicators used with the various gyrocompass systems.

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3-2 UNCLASSIFIED 3.1 INTRODUCTION The compass is the best known and most widely used of all navigational instruments. It would be almost impossible to obtain precise information on headings and directions without the compass.

There are two types of compasses in use. The gyrocompass is the compass that is used the most aboard ship. The magnetic compass is used as a backup because it requires no electricity to operate. This chapter will explain the operation and use of each type of compass and its related equipment.

Before we proceed to determine the proper compass heading to steer, we must first learn about the workings of the magnetic compass.

To enable you to understand the principles, we will explore the properties of magnetism.

3.2 MAGNETISM Magnetism is a phenomenon of nature known only by its effects. It appears as a physical force between two objects of metal, at least one of which has been previously magnetized and has become a magnet.

A magnet is a metallic element that has the property for attracting iron and producing a magnetic field around itself. For the purpose of illustration, this magnetic field is usually pictured as lines of force.

Figure 3-1 Magnetic lines of force

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3-3 UNCLASSIFIED 3.2.1 Types of Magnetism There are two types of magnetism: permanent and induced. A metal bar having permanent magnetism will retain its properties when it is removed from a magnetic field.

A metal bar having induced magnetism, however, will lose its properties when it is removed from the same field.

3.3 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD Earth has magnetic properties and can be thought of as having a powerful magnet near its center (see fig. 3-2). The lines of force radiate and may be detected on the surface.

This internal magnet is not aligned with Earth’s axis. This results in the magnetic poles being in different locations than Earth’s poles. At Earth’s surface, lines of force become magnetic meridians having horizontal and vertical components. These components will be discussed in the next topic, Variation.

3.3.1 Law of Magnetism There are certain characteristics of magnetism that are important to remember. Every magnet has two poles: a north pole (blue) and a south pole (red). Each pole has opposite characteristics and they each follow the Law of Magnetism:

"OPPOSITES ATTRACT; LIKES REPEL"

A north pole attracts a south pole but it repels another north pole. This law is of importance to you because it will help you understand the relationship between the magnetic compass and the magnetic properties of Earth. Figure 3-2 Earth's magnetic field

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3-4 UNCLASSIFIED 3.4 VARIATION As stated in the topic on magnetism, Earth has magnetic properties and can be thought of as having a powerful magnetic bar near its center. The lines of force appear as illustrated in figure 3-3.

3.4.1 Facts

• Earth’s magnetic properties are not uniformly distributed. • Earth’s magnetic poles are not at the same position as the geographic poles. • Magnetic lines of force are called magnetic meridians.

The variation for any area on Earth is always equal to the difference between the value of true north and magnetic north.

Example: True north 000° Mag. north 358° Variation = 2° East

Figure 3-3 Chart No. 42 showing lines of variation Figure 3-4 Variation equals the angular difference between true north and magnetic north

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3-5 UNCLASSIFIED 3.5 HOW TO DETERMINE LOCAL VARIATION While standing the QMOW, you will routinely be tasked with determining variation. This is a simple procedure using simple mathematics and the chart’s compass rose. Use the following steps to find your local variation.

STEP ACTION 1. Locate the compass rose nearest to the area in which the ship is operating. 2. Locate the variation and annual increase/decrease from the center. 3. Locate the year from the center of the compass rose. 4. Subtract the year indicated from the current year. 5. Multiply the number of years times the annual change. 6. Add the sum (or subtract if decreasing) from step No. 5 to the variation in the center of the compass rose. 7. Round the total off to the closest ½°.

Figure 3-5 Steps followed to determine variation

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3-6 UNCLASSIFIED 3.6 STANDARD AND STEERING COMPASSES

COMPASSES ARE REQUIRED!

The Chief of Naval Operations requires that each self-propelled ship and service craft of the United States Navy be equipped with one or more magnetic compasses suitable for navigation.

Except for modern nuclear-powered submarines, all ships and craft, regardless of size or classification, must have a magnetic steering compass at the primary steering station.

3.6.1 Steering Compass Many ships carry more than one magnetic compass. The primary magnetic compass is called the steering compass. It is normally located on the centerline in the ship’s pilothouse (except aboard aircraft carriers and large deck amphibious ships), where it can best be seen by the helmsman. The readings from the steering compass are labeled “per steering compass” (PSTGC).

3.6.2 Standard Compass If a ship has two magnetic compasses, the second compass is called the standard compass. The ship’s standard compass is normally located on the ship’s centerline at the secondary conning station. The readings from the standard compass are expressed as “per standard compass” (PSC).

NOTE: The readings from the ship’s gyrocompass are “per gyrocompass” (PGC). Courses and bearings by these compasses must be carefully differentiated by the abbreviations.

CAUTIONS: A magnetic compass cannot be expected to give reliable service unless it is properly installed and protected from disturbing magnetic influences. Certain precautions must be observed in the vicinity of the magnetic compass.

• If possible, a compass should not be placed near iron or steel equipment that will be moved frequently. Thus, a location near a gun, boat davit, or boat crane is not desirable.

• The immediate vicinity should be kept free of sources of magnetism, particularly those of a changing nature.

• When possible, no source of magnetism should be permitted within a radius of several feet of the magnetic compass.

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3-7 UNCLASSIFIED 3.7 MAGNETIC COMPASS OPERATION AND COMPONENTS

3.7.1 Operation The operation of a magnetic compass is very simple and can be stated as follows: “A small bar magnet freely suspended in the magnetic field of Earth will always align itself parallel to the lines of force of that field and thus will establish a direction.”

3.7.2 Components Use the following table, figure 3-6, and figure 3-7 to learn the parts of a magnetic compass.

PART FUNCTION Card The card is an aluminum disk graduated in degrees from 0 to 359. It has a jeweled bearing that rides on a hard, sharp pivot point. Bowl The card is supported by the bowl. A lubbers line is marked on the bowl and is used as visible index. The bowl is filled with Varsol to dampen overswings by the card. An expansion bellows in the lower bowl serves to allow expansion of the liquid with temperature changes. Magnets Several bar magnets are used to correct and align the compass. Gimbals The bowl has two pivots that rest in a metal ring, which also has two pivots resting in the binnacle. This arrangement (gimbals) permits the compass to remain level despite the motion of the ship. Binnacle The binnacle serves as a housing for the compass. It is made of a nonmagnetic material. It also serves as a housing for the Compasses correctors: magnets, flinders bar, and quadrantal spheres. A lighting system is normally installed.

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3-8 UNCLASSIFIED The following illustrations should help you visualize the working parts of a basic magnetic compass.

Figure 3-6 Compass binnacle

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3-9 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 3-7 Parts of a magnetic compass

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3-10 UNCLASSIFIED 3.8 MAGNETIC COMPASS ERROR Before we use a magnetic compass aboard a ship, we must first correct for the magnetic influences that make the compass deviate from true or geographic north.

The first influence is variation, which we have already covered. The second is deviation.

3.8.1 Deviation Deviation may be defined as the amount that the compass is deflected from the magnetic meridian because of the effects of the ship’s iron. This is where permanent and induced magnetism come in to play.

3.8.1.1 Permanent Magnetism Also known as hard-iron magnetism, permanent magnetism is created in the ship’s structure during the building process. The ship’s structure gains its own unique magnetic field based on the angle that the keel was laid.

3.8.1.2 Induced Magnetism Also known as soft-iron magnetism, induced magnetism varies according to the intensity of the component of Earth’s field in which it was induced.

3.8.2 Compass Error The amount of deviation varies as the ship changes course. The ship’s magnetic effects may be corrected by the proper placement of various correctors.

The process of correcting for deviation error is called swinging ship. The navigator and QM gang will swing the ship through 360 degrees, stopping each 15 degrees and comparing the compass heading against a properly functioning gyrocompass. The results are recorded on the magnetic compass deviation table.

Example: While swinging ship and steady on course 015° by gyro, the magnetic compass reads 016°. It should read 015°; the 1° difference is the amount of deviation. In this case, it is labeled westerly deviation 1.0° W.

The next topic deals with the magnetic compass deviation table. From there we will look at degaussing, and then you will learn how to perform compass calculations to correct for variation and deviation.

3.9 MAGNETIC COMPASS DEVIATION TABLES The purpose of the magnetic compass deviation tables, commonly referred to as “deviation tables,” is to provide a means of knowing the deviation of the magnetic compass for any heading. This information is crucial to safe navigation if the gyrocompass fails.

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3-11 UNCLASSIFIED 3.9.1 Table Composition The following figure is an example of a deviation table. The top portion of the table contains the name of the ship, location of the compass (pilothouse), binnacle type, and compass type.

The middle section of the table contains the ship’s heading and deviation data.

Example: You want to steer course 090° magnetic. By inspecting the table for ship’s heading 090°, you’ll notice that the deviation is equal to 1.0° West with DG OFF (DG is an abbreviation for degaussing) and 1.5° West with DG ON. To make good 090°, you would have to actually steer course 091°.

The bottom portion of the table contains information on magnet and flinders bar placement that corrects for excessive deviations.

Figure 3-8 Magnetic compass

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3-12 UNCLASSIFIED 3.10 HOW TO DETERMINE DEVIATION As you learned in the last topic, the deviation tables contain information on the deviation for headings. The deviation table must be updated annually and posted on or near the magnetic compass. Follow the steps in the step action table to determine the deviation and magnetic course to steer.

Example: Refer to figure 3-8. Your ship is on course 090° T, the gyro fails and the OOD now wishes to make good course 117° (magnetic course) by magnetic compass. Find the proper deviation from the magnetic compass deviation table and recommend the correct magnetic course to steer to make 117° good. In this example we will assume that degaussing is turned OFF.

DETERMINING YOUR DEVIATION Step Action Example/Result 1. Determine if degaussing is ON or OFF

If Then OFF Use left column ON Use right column OFF 2. In the deviation table, locate the course nearest your desired course. The nearest course is 120 3. Read the deviation. Deviation equals 3.0 W 4. Apply the deviation correction to the ordered course. RULE: Westerly deviation means that the compass reads less than it should. You must add W deviation to the magnetic course.

Easterly deviation is opposite, you must subtract the deviation from the magnetic course to get your course to steer or “compass course.”

Magnetic Course 117° Deviation + 3° W Compass Course 120°

Because of the compass deviation you must steer compass course 120° to make magnetic course 117° good.

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3-13 UNCLASSIFIED 3.11 THE SHIPBOARD DEGAUSSING SYSTEM When a ship is close to a magnetic mine or magnetic torpedo, the magnetic field of the ship actuates the firing mechanism and causes the mine or torpedo to explode. Degaussing is an electrical installation designed to protect ships against magnetic mines and torpedoes. The purpose of degaussing is to counteract the ship’s magnetic field and establish a condition such that the magnetic field near the ship is, as nearly as possible, just the same as if the ship were not there.

3.11.1 Components Shipboard degaussing installation consists of permanently installed degaussing coils, a control unit to control the coil current, and compass compensating equipment to prevent disturbances to the magnetic compasses by the magnetic field of the degaussing coils. Figure 3-9 illustrates the types of coils that are found on a typical degaussing installation.

Figure 3-9 Typical degaussing coil layout

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3-14 UNCLASSIFIED 3.11.2 Degaussing Coils The degaussing coil is actually a large diameter electrical wire. As you might have guessed, when it is energized it produces an electromagnetic field.

The following table gives a description of each coil and its effect on the ship’s magnetic field.

Coil Description A The A, or athwartship, coil is made up of loops in vertical fore-and-aft planes. The function of the A coil is to produce a magnetic field that will counteract the ship’s athwartship permanent and induced magnetism. F The F, or forecastle, coil encircles the up to the forward l/3 of the ship. It is usually located just below the forecastle or uppermost deck. The function of the F coil is to produce a magnetic field that will counteract the ship’s longitudinal permanent and induced magnetism. L The L, or longitudinal coil is made up of loops in vertical planes parallel to the ship’s frames. The function of the L coil is to produce a magnetic field that will counteract the ship’s longitudinal permanent and induced magnetism. Q The Q, or quarterdeck, coil encirles the after l/3 of a ship. It serves the same purpose as the F coil. M The M, or main, coil encircles the ship in a horizontal plane, usually just below the waterline. The function of the M coil is to produce a magnetic field that will counteract the ship’s vertical permanent and induced magnetism.

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3-15 UNCLASSIFIED 3.11.3 Degaussing and the Magnetic Compass The deviation to the magnetic compass resulting from these currents is neutralized as much as possible by a procedure called compensation. The remaining deviations caused by the degaussing coils are observed and plotted on the left side of the deviation table.

3.12 COMPASS ERROR CALCULATIONS In navigational work, you have to develop the ability to quickly and accurately convert directions between true, magnetic, and compass (headings, courses, and bearings).

A heading or course is the same as an angle. It is the angle that the centerline of the ship or boat, or a line marked on a chart makes with some other reference line.

3.12.1 Reference Three lines of reference have been established: the direction of true north, or the true meridian; the direction of magnetic meridian; and the direction of the north point of the compass. Ship’s heading is the same. How you describe it depends on the reference point used.

There are three ways to name a course or heading:

• True heading • Magnetic heading • Compass heading

Figure 3-10 Use of Reference

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3-16 UNCLASSIFIED Whether you are determining courses the helmsman is to steer, obtaining bearings to be plotted on a chart, laying track lines on the chart, or recording courses in the Magnetic Compass Record Book, knowing how to apply variation and deviation comes into play. The big question is “how do we convert one to the other?” Practice is needed to perform this task. However, keep in mind that you first need to reason each step, until later when the process becomes habit.

3.13 MEMORY-AIDS There are several sets of “memory-aids” available to assist you in performing compass calculations. The following simple phrases are designed to assist you in remembering how to convert from one heading expression to another and how to name errors.

Memory Aid Set 1 Memory Aid Set 2 Can = Compass Timely = True Dead = Deviation Vessels = Variation Men = Magnetic Make = Magnetic Vote = Variation Distance = Deviation Twice = True Count = Compass At = Add At = Add Elections = Easterly D and V War = Westerly D and V If the Compass is Best the Error is West. If the Compass is Least the Error is East.

3.13.1 Meanings The first set of aids were designed to help you remember the arrangement of the first letters of each word in the phrase. These are arranged representing the three ways of naming a direction (compass, magnetic, true) with the respective differences (deviation and variation) properly placed between them: (CDMVT) compass, deviation, magnetic, variation, true. The first letters in the words at elections stand for add east (subtract west), when converting the direction from compass to true. When converting in the opposite direction, the letters are reversed (TVMDC) and the memory aid “timely vessels make distance count at war” informs us to add west (subtract east) error when converting from true to compass.

The second set of memory aids deal with comparison of two compass headings to determine whether to call the difference east or west. If the comparison is between magnetic and compass, and compass is a greater number (best), the difference is west. The same comparison can be made between true and magnetic. In this case, magnetic is considered the same as compass.

Correcting: converting from compass course to a true course Uncorrecting: converting from a true course to a compass course

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3-17 UNCLASSIFIED 3.14 HOW TO PERFORM COMPASS CALCULATIONS The following table will allow you to visualize the steps necessary to perform compass calculations. The table is followed by several example exercises that should be completed before you move on to additional material.

Step Action 1. Write down the first letters from the phrase "Can Dead Men Vote Twice." 2. Ordered course is 180°T; you want to find the compass course to steer. You already know what T is, so write it down. 3. Let’s say that the corrected variation from the center of the compass rose is 11°E 4. When uncorrecting, remember that you add westerly errors and subtract easterly errors. The variation is easterly, so subtract it from the true heading to find the magnetic heading. 5. Next, from the deviation table, figure 3-8, find the value closest to 169°, interpolating as necessary; write it down. 6. Remember, when uncorrecting you add westerly errors. 15 + 169 = 184.

Now you can see that to head 180° true, you must steer 184° by this particular magnetic compass. In this example, we were uncorrecting (changing from true to compass). We could have used the same method to change from compass to true; but we must remember that when correcting, we add easterly and subtract westerly errors. With an understanding of these rules, we can now go on to applying the lessons learned to a functional part of a Quartermaster’s job—recording entries in the Magnetic Compass Record Book. But first, complete the training examples on the next page.

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3-18 UNCLASSIFIED 3.15 EXERCISES Now that you have been shown how to perform calculations using the magnetic compass and its error, you need to practice these skills. The following problems give you one or more values; you are to fill in the blanks with the correct answer. Take your time and refer back to previous material to complete each exercise.

3.15.1 Exercise 1 Find the missing values.

C D M V T 022 4E 026 6W

C D M V T 090 1.5W 3E

C D M V T 210 1.5E 220

C D M V T 328 325 332

3.15.2 Exercise 2 Using the memory-aids “Compass Best, Error West” and “Compass Least, Error East,” fill in the missing values.

Compass Course Actual Compass Reading Error 180 182 2W 225 229 196 193

True Course Actual Gyro Reading Error 339 337 196 194.5

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3-19 UNCLASSIFIED 3.16 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Compass Comparison: Whenever a ship is under way, it is necessary to compare the ship’s compasses to make sure that they are operating properly. This is accomplished by using the compass calculations and checking the compasses against the true course.

The following table represents an excerpt from the Magnetic Compass Record Book.

Date Time Latitude Longitude Gyro Compass True Heading ---- Gyro ------Gyro Gyro Reading Error Gyro Reading Error 10Mar2011 1000 36 24W 074 12W 120 1.0E 121 1012 36 04W 074 14W 270 1.0E 271 1025 36 05W 074 18W 297 1.0E

In this example the date, time, latitude, and longitude of the observation are noted. The master gyro is reading 120; the error determined by the morning azimuth is 1.0 E. Remember, if the compass is least the error is east; you would add the error to obtain the true heading. Knowing our true heading, we can now apply our variation and compare the magnetic compasses.

Variation Magnetic Magnetic Compasses DG ON/OFF REMARKS Standard Steering Compass Reading Dev Compass Reading Dev 14 W 135 136 1W 134 1E OFF 14 W 285 289 4W 283 2E OFF Energized degaussing at 1022 14.5 W 313 311 ON

As you can see, this is the practical application of your newly acquired compass calculation skills. Practice by filling in the blanks for the 1025 entry. When under way, the compasses must be compared every one-half hour and at each course change.

Note: There is an exception; if a ship is in a formation and changing course frequently, or the ship is alongside another ship, each course change does not need to be recorded. Use the following statement in the Remarks column: “Steering various courses while alongside (in formation).” A comparison must still be made every one-half hour! For ships equipped with DFGMC refer to the CO’s Standing Orders and Navigation bill.

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3-20 UNCLASSIFIED 3.17 MAGNETIC COMPASS ADJUSTMENT The magnetic compass must be adjusted at least once a year. The process of adjustment is called “swinging ship.” This is required as a safety precaution; also as the ship steams, its magnetic properties will change.

The process of swinging ship is too detailed and complicated to be completely taught within this training manual. As the magnetic compass is considered a piece of equipment, it is covered by the Planned Maintenance System (PMS). Training on compass adjustment is normally done by OJT.

The following table lists the basic steps to be followed to adjust a magnetic compass. It cannot be used solely as a guide for compass adjustment.

Rule: When performing actual adjustment, you must use the PMS card and publication 226.

Step Action 1. Meet with the navigator to schedule PMS. 2. Twenty-four hours prior, inform QM gang of intentions. 3. Four hours prior review MRC; gather all tools. 4. Four hours prior, calculate the true courses to steer. 5. Man all stations and begin swinging ship. 6. Fill out a new magnetic compass deviation table. 7. Have the new table signed by the Commanding Officer.

The process of swinging ship is often tedious and very time consuming. In most cases a minimum of 4 hours should be set aside for this task. It is not advisable to attempt to adjust a compass in moderate to heavy weather. Doing so will often render the results inaccurate.

EXERCISE ANSWERS:

EX 1; 020; 088.5, 091.5; 211.5, 8.5 E; 3.0 W, 7.0 E. EX 2; 4.0 W, 3.0 E, 2.0 E, 1.5 E.

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3-21 UNCLASSIFIED 3.18 THE GYROCOMPASS The gyrocompass was developed as the answer to the need for an instrument that would indicate TRUE NORTH rather than MAGNETIC NORTH. The gyrocompass is now the main source for determining direction. Specific Gyrocompass Systems will be covered in more detail later in the chapter.

3.18.1 Operation The basis for the gyrocompass is the gyroscope. A rapidly spinning body having three axes of angular freedom constitutes a gyroscope. This may be illustrated by the heavy wheel rotating at high speed in supporting rings or gimbals.

The gyrocompass must be lit off a minimum of 4 hours prior to use. This allows the gyro to warm up and settle. It is desirable to lite off the gyrocompass 24 hours prior to the scheduled underway time.

3.18.2 Components The gyrocompass is powered by electricity and consists of two main components. They are the master gyro and repeaters. The master gyrocompass consists of a control cabinet, power supply, speed unit, alarm unit, and transmission units. It is normally located within the ship’s hull where it is least affected by pitch, roll, yaw, and battle damage. The IC electricians are responsible for its upkeep.

3.18.3 Accuracy A properly functioning gyrocompass will often have a mechanical error of 2° or less. The gyrocompass must be checked for error at least once daily while the ship is under way.

Figure 3-11 Gyroscope

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3-22 UNCLASSIFIED 3.18.4 Repeaters Repeaters are designed to receive the signal transmitted from the master gyro. This allows the ship’s control stations to receive real-time gyro data. The chief advantage of repeaters is that they may be set up nearly vertical for use by the helmsman. Repeaters may also be placed flat for taking bearings of navaids or ships with alidades and bearing circles.

Figure 3-12 illustrates a standard repeater. The card is laid out with relative bearings on the outside circle and true bearings on the inside circle. In upcoming topics you will learn how to use related tools to measure angles (bearings) using repeaters.

Repeaters are normally found at all the ship’s control stations, these areas include but are not limited to the following spaces: • The pilothouse and bridgewings • Aftersteering • Secondary conn

Additional repeaters are normally placed in the following spaces: • Commanding officer’s stateroom • CIC • Navigator’s stateroom

The QMOW must check the repeaters occasionally against the master gyro to determine errors. Figure 3-12 Standard gyro repeater

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3-23 UNCLASSIFIED 3.19 TOOLS USED TO MEASURE DIRECTION The QM uses several pieces of navigational equipment to determine direction. Remember that direction may be labeled in many ways, such as course, azimuth angle, bearing... The following contains information about tools and their uses.

TOOL MOST OFTEN USED: Bearing Circle to obtain the bearings of other ships to determine relative motion, also to find the bearing of any object.

Azimuth Circle to obtain an azimuth of the Sun for checking gyrocompass error, also as a bearing circle.

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3-24 UNCLASSIFIED Telescopic Alidade to obtain bearings of aids to navigation to determine the Ship’s position, also to obtain data for amplitudes for checking gyrocompass error.

Parallel Motion Protractor (PMP) to determine and plot bearings and courses on charts

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3-25 UNCLASSIFIED Obtaining amplitude is a method of checking the error of the gyrocompass. Amplitude is normally taken of the Sun rising or falling, but it may be used for any celestial body.

3.19.1 Gyrocompass Error The gyrocompass is normally the main reference for direction for the surface navigator. When properly used, serviced, and maintained, the modern gyrocompass is extremely accurate. However, as is the case with all electronic instruments, it is subject to error and damage.

One power failure or other casualty can render the entire system useless. All naval ships are equipped with gyro failure alarms. The alarms sound when a loss of power is experienced. It is during this time that the magnetic compass comes into play. As you learned earlier, the magnetic compass does not require electricity to operate. It’s always ready for use by the Navigator.

3.19.2 Errors Most normally functioning gyrocompasses will not have an error of more than 2.0°. More often than not, the error is between 0.0° and 0.5°.

Rule: When at sea, the Quartermaster must determine the gyrocompass error at least once a day. However, the prudent navigator will take advantage of every opportunity to check the accuracy of a gyro.

There are many methods of checking the accuracy of a gyrocompass. The following methods are commonly used on U.S. Navy ships:

• Terrestrial range • Trial and error (Franklin technique) • Azimuth of the Sun • Amplitude of the Sun

The first two methods are used only when a ship is near land. They use aids to navigation and geographic locations shown on a chart for reference. The last two methods are used when the ship is at sea, and they use the Sun as a reference.

Before we learn these methods, we have to learn how to use the bearing circle, alidade, and PMP. They play a large part in the first two methods. The last two methods use celestial navigation methods to determine error and will be discussed in length in the Celestial Navigation chapter.

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3-26 UNCLASSIFIED 3.19.3 Bearing Circle and Azimuth Circle Figure 3-13 is a diagram of a bearing circle and figure 3-14 is a diagram of an azimuth circle. The table below lists the major parts and functions of each of these circles.

Figure 3-13 Parts of a bearing circle Figure 3-14 Parts of an azimuth

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3-27 UNCLASSIFIED Part Bearing Circle Azimuth Circle Function Ring Yes Yes Fits upon a 7 ½ inch gyro repeater. Sight Vanes Yes Yes Allow the observer to take bearings of objects by aligning the two vanes to the object. The near vane contains a peep sight while the far vane contains a Yes vertical wire. The far vane is mounted on top of a housing that contains a reflective mirror inside enabling the observer to read the bearing from the reflected portion of the compass card. Reflector Vanes Yes Yes Allow the observer to observe azimuths of celestial bodies (stars and planets) at various altitudes by picking up their reflection in the black mirror. When the body is observed, its reflection appears behind the vertical wire in the far vane. Levels Yes Yes Indicate if the ring is level with the horizon. NOTE: Bearings read when the ring is not level are inaccurate Concave Mirror No Yes Reflects the Sun’s rays onto the prism housing on the other side of the ring when the observer is taking an azimuth of the Sun. Prism Housing No Yes Directs the beam of light from the concave mirror downward in a narrow beam onto the compass card enabling the observer to read the azimuth to the Sun.

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3-28 UNCLASSIFIED 3.19.4 How to Use a Bearing Circle Follow the steps in the table to obtain a bearing properly.

Step Action 1. Place the ring on top of the repeater, and then gently twist the handles to lock in place. 2. Orient the bearing circle with the peep sight nearest to you and the far vane closest to the object to be sighted. 3. Look through the peep sight and view the object inside the far vane. 4. Rotate the bearing circle left or right to align the vertical wire in the far vane with the center of the object. 5. Keep the bearing circle level by observing the spirit level. 6. When the object is in line with the peep sight and wire, observe the bearing reflected from the mirror in the housing from the compass card. 7. Determine which compass mark is aligned with the crosshair seen in the mirror, and read the bearing.

NOTE: Information concerning how to use the azimuth circle will be presented in the Celestial Navigation chapter.

3.19.5 Parallel Motion Protractor The PMP is a valuable tool for plotting direction quickly and accurately. When in restricted waters and plotting fixes every 3 minutes, you will greatly appreciate this instrument. The PMP is usually anchored to the top of the chart table.

The PMP is designed to keep the moveable compass rose oriented to the longitude and latitude of any chart. An arm is attached to the moveable compass rose which can be rotated to whatever bearing you require and then moved to the object on the chart that the bearing was taken to, so an LOP can be drawn.

Part Description of Function Anchor plate Allows the PMP to be attached to the chart table. Friction control knob Allows adjustment of movement of the arms at the two linkage points. Bearing scale A 360° circle marked in 1° increments. When locked it will maintain its orientation when moved around the chart table. Index marks Used to align the ruler on the desired bearing. The four marks spaced every 90° are inscribed on a plate that is directly linked to the handle and the ruler. Protractor lock switch Locks the bearing scale when aligning the PMP. Scale lock switch Locks the PMP ruler on a desired bearing.

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3-29 UNCLASSIFIED

3.19.5.1 How to Set Up the PMP The PMP is normally set up to automatically compensate for gyrocompass error. The error may be “dialed in”; this allows the LOPs and course lines to be plotted without correction.

Follow these steps to set up the PMP. See figures 3-16 and 3-17 on the next page to see what the scale looks like with 0° gyro error and also with gyro error dialed in.

Figure 3-15 Parts of a PMP

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3-30 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 1. Tape the chart you are using onto the chart table by its corners. 2. Take the PMP out of its storage box. 3. Place the mounting plate inside the anchor plate and tighten the anchor screw to secure the PMP to the chart table. 4. Attach the ruler to the PMP by placing the ruler on the table and sliding it into the attachment arm. 5. Unlock both the protractor and the scale locks. 6. Twist the handle to align the ruler with the latitude line on the chart. 7. Rotate the bearing scale to the appropriate position.

IF gyro error is... THEN align the scale . . . Zero To the 0° index mark Westerly To the index mark on the scale to the left of zero, equal to the amount of gyro error Easterly To the index mark on the scale to the right of zero, equal to the amount of gyro error

8. Lock the bearing scale using the protractor lock switch.

3.19.5.2 How to Align with 00 Error Figure 3-16 illustrates how the PMP looks when it is aligned with no with 0° Error gyro error. The ruler is aligned on any parallel (latitude line) and the scale lock is released, the moveable compass rose is aligned as shown and the scale lock is tightened. The PMP is now aligned to true north and is ready to plot LOPs or courses.

Figure 3-16 PMP dialed in with 0° gyro error

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3-31 UNCLASSIFIED 3.19.5.3 Aligning the PMP with Gyro Error Figure 3-17 illustrates how the PMP looks when aligned with 30° W or 2° E gyro error. The ruler is aligned on any parallel (latitude line) and the scale lock is released, the moveable compass rose is aligned as shown, and the scale lock is tightened.

3.19.5.4 How to Plot with a PMP With the PMP properly aligned, it’s easy to use the tool to plot bearings or lay out course lines. Use the following steps and figure 3-18 to plot with a PMP.

Step Action 1. Locate the index mark closest to the ruler. 2. Rotate the handle, which moves the index mark and ruler, so the index mark points to the bearing you want to plot. 3. Maintain the index mark in that position by either locking the scale lock switch or holding the bearing scale and index mark plate tightly with your thumb and forefinger. 4. Move the ruler to the charted object that you took a bearing to. 5. Draw the line of position on the chart.

Figure 3-17 PMP dialed in with gyro error

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3.19.6 Telescopic Alidade The following are the parts and functions of the telescopic alidade shown in figure 3-19.

Part Description of Function Ring Fits upon a 7½ inch gyro repeater. Light filter knob Enables the observer to switch to an internal light filter, which protects your eye from the brightness of the Sun. Polarizing adjustment knob Enables the observer to adjust the light filter from light to dark, depending on the brightness of the Sun. Level Indicates if the ring is level with the horizon. Bearings read when the circle is not level are NOT ACCURATE! Focus knob Enables the observer to adjust the internal telescope lens so the view is focused.

Figure 3-18 How to plot with a PMP

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3.19.6.1 How to Use the Telescopic Alidade View Through the Alidade The optical system simultaneously projects the image of the compass card, together with a view of the spirit level, onto the optical view of the telescope. By this means, both the object and its bearing can be viewed at the same time through the alidade eyepiece.

Figure 3-20 illustrates taking a visual bearing with a telescopic alidade. In this example, the bearing to the lighthouse is 022°.

Follow these steps to properly take a bearing with a telescopic alidade.

Figure 3-19 Telescopic alidade

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Step Action 1. Place the ring on top of the gyro repeater and twist locks into the gyro repeater. 2. Point the front lens of the alidade towards the object to be sighted. Tip: Sight along the handle to quickly find an object. 3. Look into the eyepiece and rotate the alidade right or left until the object is aligned with the crosshair. 4. Keep the alidade level by observing the spirit level in the top part of the view. 5. With the object lined up and level, read the bearing from the reflected compass card. Read the inside compass card for true bearings.

Figure 3-20 View through an alidade

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3-35 UNCLASSIFIED 3.20 DETERMINING GYRO ERROR BY TERRESTIAL RANGE An excellent opportunity to check the accuracy of the gyrocompass presents itself each time a ship enters or departs port. Most harbors will have at least one set of range markers set. This method of checking a gyrocompass is often referred to as obtaining a range of opportunity. To determine gyro error by terrestrial range, you should follow the steps in the table and refer to figure 3-21.

Step Action 1. View the range markers through the alidade. 2. The ship maneuvers “on range” (range markers are in line). 3. “Shoot” (take) a bearing on the range markers while they are lined up. 4. Compare the bearing taken against the chart.

It is also possible to mark a range as it passes down the port or starboard side of the ship. The steps in the action table are still basically the same; the exception is that the ship will not maneuver on range. The bearing taker must shoot the bearing to the range markers the instant that they are in line. This method is only as accurate as the experience and ability of the bearing taker.

Figure 3-21 Determining gyro error by terrestrial range

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3-36 UNCLASSIFIED 3.21 DETERMINING GYRO ERROR BY TRAIL AND ERROR The Franklin technique is extremely useful just prior to getting a ship under way. The Franklin technique provides an alternative and must be used if the gyro error cannot be checked by another method prior to getting under way. To determine gyro error using the Franklin technique follow the steps in the table and refer to figure 3-22.

Step Action 1. Select three to five navaids from the chart. For the best results, the selected navaids should be about 120° apart. (The ship must be pierside or anchored, large towers and conspicuous buildings may be selected). 2. Compare the repeater(s) to be used against the master gyro; note errors. 3. Take a round of bearings on the selected navaids, and apply any repeater error to the bearing.

Example: The repeater reads 187° and the master gyro reads 187.5°. The repeater is reading ½° less than (compass least error east). Since the error is 0.5° east (less than), 0.5 must be added to all bearings taken from that repeater. 4. Plot the corrected bearings on the chart with the PMP set for 0° gyro error. 5. Observe how the lines intersect, if they meet in a point the gyro is “ON” and has no error. If the lines do not intersect, subtract or add 1.0° at a time until the triangle closes. The amount of correction is the total gyro error. Log it in the deck log and Magnetic Compass Record Book.

Figure 3-22 Determining gyro error by adjusting bearings

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3-37 UNCLASSIFIED 3.22 GYROCOMPASS SYSTEMS For further information on gyrocompasses installed on your ship, refer to the applicable manufacturer’s technical manual.

3.23 DIGITAL FLUX GATE MAGNETIC COMPASS SYSTEM (DFGMC) The MV103AC, MV103ACS and MV103DG Digital Flux Gate Magnetic Compass (DFGMC) Systems constitute an integral part of the ship’s navigation system. These systems were designed as a replacement for the wet globe magnetic compasses found on many older vessels. DFMGC systems are electronic compass systems, which use digital processing techniques to determine the heading of a vessel referenced to magnetic North. Magnetic heading data is displayed to the operator in numerical format on a liquid crystal display at the helm and may be sent to other equipment in the form of RS-232 or RS-422 serial data.

3.23.1 Equipment Description The basic DFGMC System consists of the (1A3) Sensor / Processor Unit, (1A2) Junction Box, (1A1) Main Display, (PS1) Uninterruptible Power Supply, plus associated power and signal cabling. System specific equipment may include the (1A6) Degaussing Interface Unit, (1A4) RS232/422 Display Driver, and (1A5) RS232/422 Remote Displays. All system components are shown in figure 3-23.

Figure 3-23 DFGMC System

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3-38 UNCLASSIFIED 3.23.2 DFGMC Operation The DFGMC is an “output only” type system and does not require any operator input for normal operation. When power is applied, the system automatically enters the Compass Heading mode. The Digital Display shows the present compass heading relative to magnetic north using the last calibration data stored by the system.

3.23.3 Controls Figure 3-24 illustrates MV103AC (1A2) Junction Box controls. Figure 3-25 illustrates MV103ACS and MV103DG (1A2) Junction Box controls. Use of these controls is further described in Section 2, Compass System Operation. The Main Power Switch located on the KH1000B Power Supply and the Alarm Override Switch on the BH2000 Power Supply, are the only other controls on this system.

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Figure 3-24 MV103AC (1A2) Junction Box Controls

Key Nomenclature Function 1 POWER Controls power to the DFGMC OFF: no power applied. ON: applies power to the DFGMC (no display lighting). LIGHT ON: applies power to the DFGMC and lighting to (1A1) Main Display. 2 DIMMER Controls (1A1) Main Display lighting when POWER switch is at LIGHT ON. 3 F1 3/10A Fuse under screw-off cap; protects the DFGMC from short circuits and overloads. 4 DECL Used to enter variation or declination to convert magnetic to true North. Also used to enter (1A3) Sensor / Processor alignment correction factor. 5 GPS/NAV Used to toggle between compass heading and GPS input display modes. GPS Input not used at this time. 6 RESPONSE Adjusts display response time (damping factor). SLOW: displayed value averaged over a 17-second period. MED: displayed value averaged over a 9-second period. FAST: displayed value averaged over a 3-second period. 7 SET CRS Used to enter a reference course or to enter and exit the calibration mode.

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Key Nomenclature Function 1 POWER Controls power to the DFGMC. OFF: no power applied. ON: applies power to the DFGMC. 2 DIMMER Controls (1A1) Main Display lighting. 3 F1 3/10A Fuse under screw-off cap; protects the DFGMC from short circuits and overloads. 4 OFFSET Used to enter (1A3) Sensor / Processor alignment correction fact 5 RESPONSE Adjusts display response time (damping factor). SLOW: displayed value averaged over a 9-second period. NORMAL: displayed value averaged over a 3-second period. 6 CAL Used to select the type of calibration for the DFGMC. ON: Calibration is on. The display cycles “CAL” “CAL score” “heading”.

AUTO: Calibration is monitored and adjusted by the DFGMC as required. The (1A2) Junction Box will beep 4 times indicating a new calibration has been accepted by the DFGMC.

Figure 3-25 MV103ACS and MV103DG (1A2) Junction Box Controls

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3-41 UNCLASSIFIED 3.23.4 Operating Procedures Compass Heading Mode - MV103AC When the DFGMC is powered up, the present declination value is displayed for two seconds, and then automatically enters the Compass Heading mode. The LCD area shows the present compass heading relative to magnetic North; no other symbols are activated. Figure 3-26 shows the LCD display at initial power-up in Compass Heading mode. The factory default declination value is 00 o and the present heading is 270o.

Adjusting Display Response Damping - MV103AC The RESPONSE toggle switch (Fig. 4-18) selects any of three fixed values of display damping. The function of display damping is to average a number of headings over time to present a stable display to the operator. This function has no effect on the response time of the (1A3) Sensor / Processor electronics. When a damping time is selected, the LCD shows “d-1” (FAST position), “d-2” (MED position), or “d-3” (SLOW position) for two seconds. Selection of the response damping value is largely a matter of operator preference and the vessel’s operating condition. For example, when operating in rough seas or at high speeds where heading is apt to change rapidly, the operator may select SLOW which causes the display data to be averaged over a 17- second period. The heading continues to update at one-second intervals, but the display is the average of the most recent 17 seconds. Conversely, when operating in calm seas or slow speeds where heading changes slowly, the operator may select FAST, which causes the display data to be averaged over a 3- second period. MED averages the heading data at a 9- second interval. Response damping time may be selected at any time in the Compass Heading or Set Course operating modes. RESPONSE has no effect in the GPS mode.

Compass Heading Mode - MV103ACS and MV103DG When the DFGMC is powered up, the system automatically enters the Compass Heading mode. The LCD area shows the present compass heading relative to magnetic North. No other symbols are activated. Figure 3-27 shows the LCD display in Compass Heading mode. The illustrated heading is 270 o.

Figure 3-26 Compass Heading MV103AC

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Adjusting Display Response Damping - MV103ACS and MV103DG The RESPONSE toggle switch selects any of two fixed values of display damping. The function of display damping is to average a number of headings over time to present a stable display to the operator. This function has no effect on the response time of the (1A3) Sensor / Processor electronics. Selection of the response damping value is largely a matter of operator preference and the vessel’s operating condition. For example, when operating in rough seas or at high speeds, where heading is apt to change rapidly, the operator may select SLOW, which causes the display data to be averaged over a 9- second period. The heading continues to update at one-second intervals, but the display is the average of the most recent 9 seconds. Conversely, when operating in calm seas or slow speeds, where heading changes slowly, the operator may select NORMAL, which causes the display data to be averaged over a 3- second period. Response damping time may be selected at any time in the Compass Heading mode.

Calibration All magnetic heading sensors operate on the principle that a magnetized needle or card aligns itself with the Earth’s magnetic flux field. These devices are also influenced by nearby distortions or disturbances caused by magnetized or magnetizable materials or electrically generated flux fields. The DFGMC has the ability to compensate itself for these disturbances by executing on-demand or continuous self-compensation routines. “Auto-compensation”, or calibration, refers to a process in which the DFGMC assesses the local magnetic environment and applies correction factors through embedded software routines.

Figure 3-27 Compass Heading MV103ACS and MV103DG

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3-43 UNCLASSIFIED The DFGMC is calibrated at the factory during assembly. However, every vessel has its own magnetic characteristics, which require that the DFGMC be compensated after installation. In addition, auto-compensation should be done whenever the Processor Unit is replaced, if it is moved to a new location on the vessel, or whenever the vessel goes to an area where the magnetic environment differs. The MV103DG system also has the capability of maintaining correct compensation regardless of the status of the ships Degaussing System.

3.24 ADDITIONAL GYROCOMPASS SYSTEMS There are a wide variety of gyrocompass installed on Navy ships in the fleet systems today. Gyrocompasses are identified by the mark (Mk)–modification (Mod) system. The Mk number designates a major development of a compass. The Mod number indicates a change to the major development. The most common type of gyrocompasses found in the fleet today are the electrical gyrocompass systems, such as the Sperry Mk 23 and the Sperry Mk 27.

There are also other gyrocompass systems currently being installed on Navy ships today. These are the Stabilized Gyrocompass Set AN/WSN-2, Inertial Navigation Set AN/WSN-5, Ring Laser Gyrocompass (RLG) Inertial Navigation System AN/WSN-7B, and AN/WSN-7 RLG. Operation of the AN/WSN-5 is classified; therefore, only the AN/WSN-2, WSN-7 and 7B will be discussed in this training manual.

3.24.1 Sperry MK 23 Gyrocompass Systems The Sperry Mk 23 gyrocompass is a small electrical compass that is used aboard many naval vessels to furnish heading data. On many of the small combatant vessels and larger auxiliary vessels, it is used as the master compass. On some of the larger combatant vessels, it is used as a backup compass. The compass is capable of indicating true north accurately in latitudes up to 75°N or S. The compass also can be used as a directional gyro when nearer the poles.

Unlike the mechanical gyrocompass, which uses weights that are affected by gravity to cause the desired period of damping, the Sperry Mk 23 gyrocompass uses a special type of electrolytic bubble level (gravity reference), which generates a signal proportional to the tilt of the gyro axle. This signal is then amplified and applied to an electromagnet which applies torque about the vertical and/or horizontal axes to give the compass the desired period and damping. The gyrocompass is compensated for speed error, latitude error, unbalance, and supply voltage fluctuations. An electronic follow-up system furnishes accurate transmission of heading data to remote indicators.

The original Sperry Mk 23 gyrocompass (Mod 0) has had several minor modifications and one major modification (Mod C-3). Only the Mk 23 Mod 0 and the Mk 23 Mod C-3 will be discussed in this training manual.

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3-44 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.1.1 MK 23 MOD 0 Gyrocompass System The Mk 23 Mod 0 gyrocompass system (fig. 3-28) consists of the master unit, control cabinet, speed unit, alarm control unit, a compass failure annunciator, and an alarm belt.

Figure 3-28 Mk 23 Mod 0 gyrocompass equipment

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3-45 UNCLASSIFIED Master Unit The master unit consists of a shock-mounted, oil-filled binnacle and the gyrocompass element. The master unit is designed for deck mounting and weighs approximately 100 pounds. The compass element is the principle unit of the compass system and is gimballed in the binnacle to allow ±45° of freedom about the pitch and roll axes. Drain plugs are located in the lower bowl for draining the oil.

Control Cabinet The control cabinet contains all the equipment required for operating and indicating the condition of the master compass except the visual alarm indicator and the alarm bell. The control cabinet houses the control panel, control amplifier, follow-up amplifier, and power supply.

Speed Unit The speed unit contains the necessary components to produce an electrical signal proportional to ship’s speed. Speed information is received from the ship’s underwater log equipment or is set in manually by the ship’s dummy log system. The speed range of the unit is 0 to 40 knots.

Alarm Control Unit The alarm control unit contains the necessary relays and components to actuate the lamp on the visual alarm indicator or the bell alarm when certain portions of the system become inoperative.

Compass Failure Annunciator The compass failure annunciator is a visual alarm indicator. It provides a visual indication of problems within the gyrocompass system. Under normal conditions, the lamp on the indicator is lighted continuously. When a failure occurs within the system, the lamp flashes or goes out. A test push button is provided on the annunciator. In some installations a type B-51 or B-52 alarm panel is used in place of the annunciator.

Alarm Bell The alarm bell is used with the annunciator to provide an audible indication of problems within the gyrocompass system.

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3-46 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.1.2 Operating the MK 23 MOD 0 Gyrocompass Instructions for starting and stopping (securing) the compass under normal conditions are on an instruction plate (fig. 3-29). This plate is located on the front of the control cabinet. There are two modes of operation, normal and directional gyro (DG). The normal mode of operation is used for latitudes up to 75°. The DG mode of operation is used for latitudes above 75°. Normally, the compass should be started at least 2 hours before it is needed for service. For additional information on starting the compass, refer to the manufacturer’s technical manual.

Figure 3-29 Operating procedures for the Sperry Mk 23 Mod 0 gyrocompass

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3-47 UNCLASSIFIED If it becomes necessary to stop the compass in a heavy sea for any reason other than failure of the follow-up system, the following procedure should be used:

1. Place the power switch in the AMPL’S position.

2. Wait 30 minutes, and then place the operation switch in the CAGE position.

3. Place the power switch in the OFF position.

In case of follow-up system failure, place the operation switch in the CAGE position immediately and the power switch in the OFF position.

If power to the compass fails, place the power switch in the FIL’S position and the operation switch in the CAGE position. When the power is restored, restart the compass in the usual manner.

Setting Correction Devices Correction device settings for the Mk 23 gyrocompass include the manual speed setting on the speed unit, the latitude control knob setting on the control panel, and the latitude switch setting on the rear of the control panel.

When you operate the speed unit manually, adjust the speed settings to correspond to the average ship’s speed. Change the latitude control knob setting on the control panel when the ship’s latitude changes as much as 2°, or as ordered by the ship’s navigator. Throw the latitude switch on the rear of the control panel to the 65° position for normal operation when the ship’s latitude is above 60°. The position of the latitude switch is immaterial for directional gyro operation.

Indications of Normal Operation Normal operating conditions for the compass are indicated by the following:

1. The follow-up failure and corrector failure lamps on the control panel should be dark.

2. The master unit should be lukewarm.

3. The speed dial should indicate the ship’s speed for normal operation or zero for directional gyro operation.

4. The tilt indicator pointer should be oscillating evenly about the zero position.

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3-48 UNCLASSIFIED Watch Standing When you are assigned the gyrocompass watch, you will be required to maintain the gyrocompass log and to respond to any alarms associated with the gyrocompass system. The gyrocompass log contains hourly readings showing the conditions of the gyrocompass and the power sources available. During an alarm condition, the compass is no longer considered reliable.

3.24.2 MK 23 MOD C-3 Gyrocompass System The Mk 23 Mod C-3 gyrocompass system is identical to the Mk 23 Mod 0 system with the exception that the Mk 23 Mod C-3 system uses solid-state devices in place of vacuum tubes in the control cabinet. In addition, two more units are used in the C-3 system. These two additional units arc the power supply unit and the power supply control unit.

The power supply unit and the power supply control unit, together with a 120-volt dc battery, are used to form a standby power supply for the compass. This standby power supply provides uninterrupted 120-volt, 400-Hz, 3-phase power to the compass for a limited period of time if the normal ship’s supply fails. If the normal ship’s supply fails, a red light located on the power supply control unit will come on. When the compass is being supplied power from the standby power supply, power will be cut off to some of the remote repeaters.

The starting and stopping procedures for the compass are basically the same as for the Mk 23. Instructions for starting and stopping the compass under normal conditions are given on the instruction plate (fig. 3-30) located on the front of the control panel. Make sure the ON-OFF switch located in the power supply control unit is in the ON position before starting the compass. For additional information on starting and stopping the compass, refer to the manufacturer’s technical manual.

Watch-standing procedures are basically the same as for the Mk 23 Mod 0 gyrocompass system. Figure 3-30 Mk 23 Mod C-3 control cabinet

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3-49 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.3 SPERRY MK 27 Gyrocompass System The Sperry Mk 27 gyrocompass is a rugged, low-voltage electrical compass used as the master compass on small craft and as the auxiliary compass on larger ships. The Mk 27 gyrocompass is designed to operate on 24-volt dc or 115-volt, 60- or 400-Hz, single- phase power.

The Mark 27 Mod 0 Gyrocompass Equipment, shown in figure 3-32 and described in this manual, is small, compact, has a low power demand, and is capable of furnishing an accurate heading indication under the severe operating conditions encountered in small boats, amphibious vehicles and craft, submarines, and larger combatant vessels. The compass can be read directly or heading data can be transmitted to remote systems and indicators.

Design Features The Mark 27 Gyrocompass contains a gyroscope controlled in a manner to make it seek and continuously align itself with the meridian and thereby point to true north. The properties of the gyroscope in combination with the rotation of the earth and the effect of gravity produce this result. The Mark 27 Gyrocompass differs from previous gyrocompasses in that a gimbal system is used which reduces the complexity of the equipment.

Figure 3-31 Mark 27 Master Unit

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The gyrosphere containing the gyroscope rotor is immersed in silicone fluid, and is designed and adjusted to have neutral buoyancy. The weight of the gyrosphere in the fluid is canceled by the buoyant force of the displaced fluid. This feature is a distinct advantage in that (1) the weight of the gyrosphere is removed from the sensitive-axis bearings, (2) the gyrosphere and bearings are protected from excessive shock loads, (3) sensitivity to shifts of the center of mass of the gyrosphere relative to the sensitive axis are eliminated providing improved accuracy, and (4) the effects of accelerations are minimized because the center of mass of the gyrosphere and the center of buoyancy are made coincident.

Figure 3-32 Mark 27 Mod 0 Gyrocompass Equipment

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3-51 UNCLASSIFIED The compass is compensated for the effects of varying latitude. In addition, a servo follow-up system is provided in the azimuth axis to keep the phantom yoke support aligned with the gyrosphere as the vessel turns; it also drives the compass card and any data transmission system that may be included. Provision is made so that the gyrocompass may be equipped with a step transmitter, a I-speed synchro transmitter, a 36-speed synchro transmitter, or any combination of these units. Either 60 or 400 cps heading data synchros can be supplied. The compass card is visible for direct reading, and has the normal sense of relative rotation for direct steering purposes. A built-in alarm is utilized to give a direct indication of failure in power supply or follow-up amplifier. Because of the low viscosity of the suspension and ballistic fluids, no heaters are required in the Mark 27 Gyrocompass.

3.24.3.1 General Description The Mark 27 Gyrocompass consists of three major assemblies: Master Unit, Electronic Control Assembly and Power Converter.

Master Unit The Master Unit consists of a shock-mounted, fluid-filled binnacle which houses the sensitive element. The unit is sealed and designed for deck mounting. To prevent damage when not in use, the sensitive element can be caged by depressing a button on the top of the unit. The viewing window for the compass card is oriented on the after side of the compass. The dial has dark-adapted illumination and its brightness is adjustable at the Electronic Control Assembly.

Electronic Control Assembly The Electronic Control Assembly is a watertight, deck-mounted unit which houses the control panel, power supply, servo amplifier, latitude compensation circuit, and alarm circuit. The servo amplifier printed circuit board and the power supply section (except for the power amplifier transistors) are easily removable for maintenance. The power amplifier transistors are attached to the cabinet frame for adequate heat dissipation. The Master Unit and Electronic Control Assembly will operate directly from an external 24- volt d-c power source or from the Power Converter described below. The Electronic Control Assembly may be mounted directly under the Master Unit or remotely, although the assembly should not be separated from the Master Unit by more than an arm’s length to permit ease of operation during starting or adjustment of dial illumination. This will be discussed in further detail later in the chapter.

Power Converter The Power Converter is used for applications where the gyrocompass equipment must operate from a single phase 115-volt, a-c, 60 or 400 cps power source. The converter is housed in a watertight enclosure and its purpose is to convert a-c input power to 24-volt d-c for operation of the compass equipment.

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3-52 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.3.2 Operation These instructions will enable operating personnel to start and settle the compass in azimuth in a minimum of time under all sea conditions. Although operation of the Mark 27 Gyrocompass does not require continuous attention to the controls and adjustments, operating personnel should have a full knowledge of the meaning and purpose of the various indicating lamps, meters, switches, and alarms.

STARTING THE COMPASS Where practical, starting procedures should begin at least 2 hours before the gyrocompass is required for service.

• Normal Sea Starting For use where roll and pitch are less than 10 degrees and compass has been stopped for at least 1 hour.

(1) Insure that the RPTR switch and the MODE SELECTOR switch are in the OFF position.

(2) Place MODE SELECTOR to SLEW

(3) CAGED lamp should be lighted. If lamp is off, push the cager button on the top of the binnacle to cage gyro and wait 5 minutes to allow ballistic fluid to stabilize.

NOTE: Compass will slew rapidly if gyro is uncaged.

(4) Use the TILT/AZIMUTH switch to slew the compass as close as possible to ship's heading. Pushing the switch in the + direction will make the compass card rotate counterclockwise; pushing in the - direction will make the card rotate clockwise. (Wait 5 to 10 seconds between reversals of the switch to allow the follow-up servo amplifier to stabilize.)

(5) Turn MODE SELECTOR to START. Wait 10 minutes for gyro to come up to speed. Then firmly push cager button on top of the binnacle to uncage the gyro. CAGED lamp must go out or gyro has not been uncaged.

(6) Switch MODE SELECTOR to MANUAL LEVEL immediately after uncaging.

(7) Operate the TILT/AZIMUTH switch to bring the gyro to a level position as indicated by the LEVEL meter. Push the switch in the direction of desired pointer movement and hold it until the meter pointer has reached its center position. If it overshoots, reverse direction as needed until the pointer has been centered.

(8) Place MODE SELECTOR to RUN.

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3-53 UNCLASSIFIED (9) Set N -S switch for north or south latitude.

(10) Set LATITUDE corrector control to ship's latitude.

(11) To operate repeater, place RPTR switch to ON.

NOTE: When step repeaters are used they should be synchronized to the compass card reading prior to turning RPTR switch ON.

(12) Adjust DIMMER control for satisfactory dial brightness.

• Heavy Sea Starting During the starting period when the gyro is caged, the eager mechanism will apply torques to the gyro if any rolling or pitching is taking place. When these motions are 10 degrees or more, they will cause the gyro to move away from the desired heading. This can increase the time required to settle the compass. The following procedure uncages the gyro before this movement in azimuth takes place and enables operating personnel to get the compass settled in a minimum of time.

(1) Insure that the RPTR switch and the MODE SELECTOR switch are in the OFF position.

(2) Place MODE SELECTOR to SLEW.

(3) CAGED lamp should be lighted. If lamp is off, push the eager button on top of the binnacle and wait 5 minutes for the ballistic fluid to stabilize.

NOTE: Compass will slew rapidly if it is uncaged.

(4) Use the TILT/AZIMUTH switch to slew the compass as close as possible to ship's heading; Pushing the switch in the + direction will make the card rotate counterclockwise; pushing the switch in the - direction will make the card rotate clockwise. (Wait 5 to 10 seconds between reversals of the switch to allow the follow-up servo amplifier to stabilize.)

(5) Place MODE SELECTOR to START

(6) Wait from 30 to 35 seconds only and then uncage the gyro by depressing the eager button. CAGED lamp must go out.

NOTE: The compass will move away from heading rapidly if a longer period is allowed between starting and uncaging. The compass should be uncaged if possible when the ship is at the center of its roll and pitch motions so the gyro will be released near a level position.

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3-54 UNCLASSIFIED (7) Note the average position of the swings of the pointer of the LEVEL meter. If they average around zero, proceed to step 10. If they do not, operate the TILT/AZIMUTH switch to reverse the polarity of the average position and to make it about one-half of what is was. Push the switch in the direction of desired pointer movement.

(8) Watch the compass card for about 1 minute to determine in which direction it is moving with respect to the desired heading.

(9) If the card is moving toward heading, allow it to continue until it is within 2 degrees of the desired heading and then operate the TILT/AZIMUTH switch to level the gyro and make the average position of the LEVEL meter pointer zero.

(10) If the card is moving away from heading, reverse the polarity of the average pointer position by operating the TILT/AZIMUTH switch. Wait until the direction of the card movement changes and when it is within 2 degrees of the desired heading, operate the TILT/AZIMUTH switch to level the gyro and make the average position of the LEVEL meter pointer zero.

(11) Place MODE SELECTOR to RUN.

(12) Set N-S switch for north or south latitude.

(13) Set LATITUDE corrector control to ship's latitude.

(14) Wait 10 minutes from the time the compass was uncaged before placing RPTR switch to ON.

NOTE: When step repeaters are used they should be synchronized to the compass card reading prior to turning RPTR switch ON.

(15) Adjust DIMMER control for desired dial brightness.

• ROUTINE OPERATION Because operation of the compass is almost completely automatic, the only routine operating procedures that need to be performed are the following checks for each watch:

(1) Check setting of LATITUDE corrector control and reset to local latitude, if required.

(2) Check setting of N-S switch and reset to proper hemisphere, if required.

(3) Make normal azimuth checks on compass to determine accuracy of heading indication.

(4) Record LEVEL meter reading when compass is settled for reference.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

3-55 UNCLASSIFIED • STOPPING THE COMPASS To stop the compass:

(1) Place RPTR switch to OFF.

(2) Place MODE SELECTOR to SLEW.

NOTE: When seas are rough, turn MODE SELECTOR to OFF. Wait 30 minutes and then cage the gyro.

(3) Push cager button on top of binnacle to cage the gyro. CAGED lamp should light.

(4) Place MODE SELECTOR to OFF.

• OTHER PROCEDURES The procedure to be used if the compass is dumped or must be started with the wheel running is as follows:

(1) If the compass should become dumped after the wheel has come up to speed, as indicated by a full scale LEVEL meter reading and a rapidly slewing compass, place the MODE SELECTOR in AUTO LEVEL. This will stop the slew and level the gyro, but will leave the compass at some heading other than the desired heading. To restore the compass to heading, perform steps (1) through (8).

(1) Place MODE SELECTOR to MANUAL LEVEL.

(2) Push cager button on top of binnacle to cage the gyro. CAGED lamp should light.

(3) Push the TILT/AZIMUTH switch in the same direction as that in which the card should rotate to return to the desired heading. Release the switch when the LEVEL meter indicates its maximum.

(4) Compass card will slowly rotate toward desired heading.

(5) Allow compass to rotate past desired heading by 2 or 3 degrees and immediately uncage the gyro by depressing the cager button on the binnacle. CAGED lamp should go out.

(6) Move MODE SELECTOR to AUTO LEVEL. This will approximately level the gyro.

(7) Move MODE SELECTOR to MANUAL LEVEL and operate TILT/AZIMUTH switch to center the pointer of the LEVEL meter.

(8) Place MODE SELECTOR to RUN.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

3-56 UNCLASSIFIED • Latitude Correction The tilt of the ballistic causes horizontal torques which precess the gyro in azimuth. Horizontal earth rate affects a gyro when located anywhere except at the poles. Horizontal earth rate likewise causes the gyro to tilt. The torque developed by the tilted ballistic will be just enough to keep the gyro precessing at a rate equal and opposite to the vertical component of earth rate. The higher the latitude, the greater must be the tilt of the spin axis to keep up with the higher vertical earth rate.

As a result of this tilt, the damping weight produces a vertical torque which causes the north end of the gyro axle to settle eastward from the true meridian in north latitudes, westward in south latitudes. This displacement from the true meridian, increasing with latitude, is called latitude error. In the Mark 27 Gyrocompass, latitude error is corrected by applying an opposing vertical torque to the gyrosphere of a magnitude to just cancel out the steady torque produced by the damping weight. The gyro settles with a tilt, but with no latitude error.

The E-core pickoff is used to produce this torque. A d-c current is introduced in one output winding of the E-core pickoff on the vertical ring. The magnetic field produced attracts the armature on the gyrosphere and a counteracting vertical torque is created.

Because the latitude error reverses sign between north and south latitudes, the d-c current is introduced in one output winding of the pickoff for north latitudes and in the other output winding for south latitudes. This reverses the direction of the corrective torque. The switching function is manually performed as an equipment control function. Magnitude of the torque is varied to agree with the latitude of operation.

3.24.3.3 Gyrocompass Equipment Detailed Description

Master Unit The Master Unit, shown in figure 3-33 contains the compass element. The two basic parts of the Master Unit are the binnacle and the base. The binnacle is shock-mounted in the base and the shock mounts are positioned to act through the center of gravity of the binnacle. The base is a casting which is fixed to the deck by four bolts with plus or minus 5 degrees of freedom in azimuth to permit accurate alignment with the ship.

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Binnacle The binnacle contains the compass element and is completely filled with flotation fluid. In addition to the sensitive element, it contains a bellows located inside the bottom cover, which accommodates the contraction and expansion of the fluid with temperature changes. Also on the binnacle are the card viewing window, the cager diaphragm, the binnacle electrical connector, and the evacuating and filling nozzles. Figure 3-33 Mark 27 Master Unit

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

3-58 UNCLASSIFIED Compass Element The heart of the compass is the compass element and it is shown in figure 3-34 as removed from the binnacle. It consists of the support plate, follow-up system components, compass card, phantom fork, vertical ring and gyrosphere.

Figure 3-34 Compass Element

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3-59 UNCLASSIFIED Gyrosphere - The gyrosphere, shown in figure 3-35, is the north seeking part of the gyrocompass. It derives its name from the fact that the gyro wheel is mounted within a spherical enclosure. The sphere is 6.5 inches in diameter; at running temperature, the specific gravity of the sphere is the same as that of the fluid in which it is immersed. Because the sphere is in neutral buoyancy, it exerts no load on the vertical bearings which, therefore, serve only as guides for the sphere. Flotation of the gyro in this manner not only reduces pivot friction, but serves to protect the gyro pivots from destructive shocks. The sphere has been evacuated and partially filled with helium gas. This gas serves to transfer the heat generated by the gyro motor windings to the surface of the sphere.

Figure 3-35 Gyrosphere

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3-60 UNCLASSIFIED Electronic Control Assembly The electronic control assembly shown in figure 3-36, houses the operating controls, follow-up servo amplifier, alarm circuitry, power supply, latitude control circuitry, and gyrocompass control functions. It can be mounted directly under the gyrocompass to form a compact arrangement or conveniently nearby for easy access to both units. All internal components are easily accessible by removal of the chassis and panel combination through the front.

A plug-in connector on the rear cabinet frame connects external cables to the chassis and permits removal of the chassis from the cabinet. Cables to the Electronic Control Assembly are routed through three stuffing tubes on the rear of the cabinet.

Figure 3-36 Control Cabinet

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3-61 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.4 AN/WSN-2 Stabilized Gyrocompass Set The AN/WSN-2 stabilized gyrocompass set provides precision analog dual-speed roll, pitch, and heading signals to the ship’s navigation and fire control systems. The set uses an accelerometer controlled, three-axis, gyro-stabilized platform to produce vital heading synchro data and reference, nonvital heading synchro data, and both roll and pitch angle synchro data.

3.24.4.1 Equipment Description The AN/WSN-2 stabilized gyrocompass set (fig. 3-37) consists of an electrical equipment cabinet and five major assemblies. The five major assemblies are contained within the cabinet. These assemblies are the control indicator, control power supply, battery set, synchro signal amplifier, and inertial measuring unit (IMU).

Figure 3-37 Stabilized gyrocompass set, AN/WSN-2

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

3-62 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.4.2 Electrical Equipment Cabinet The electrical equipment cabinet (fig. 3-37) provides the mechanical and electrical interface for the five major assemblies. The cabinet also provides forced air cooling for the IMU.

The cabinet contains a wiring harness, alarm relays, power relays, electromagnetic interference (EMI) filters, an elapsed time meter, capacitor assemblies, a blower for IMU cooling, and the IMU rack. A connector panel located on the rear of the cabinet provides the electrical cable interconnections for cabling to external equipment, including primary power.

Control Indicator The control indicator (fig. 3-38) is a hinged assembly located in the top of the electrical equipment cabinet. It is secured to the cabinet with quick-release fasteners. The control indicator contains all the operator controls and indicators for the gyrocompass set. The control indicator also contains built-in test equipment (BITE) for the major assemblies and subassemblies. BITE circuits identify equipment faults and provide visual indications of the faulty assembly or subassembly.

Figure 3-38 Controls and indicators

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1. BATTERY, STAT indicator 15. REF SP, OFF indicator 2. FAULTY, CTR indicator 16. MODE, NAV indicator 3. BATTERY, OPR indicator 17. MODE switch 4. FAULT, PS indicator 18. MODE, ALIGN switch 5. HDG FAIL indicator 19. PANEL potentiometer 6. FAULT, BFR indicator 20. ENTER LAT switch-indicator 7. ALARM indicator 21. DISPLAY potentiometer 8. FAULT, IMU indicator 22. Latitude thumbwheel switch 9. FAULT, AIR indicator 23. PWR circuit breaker 10. Display 24. SYN REF circuit breaker 11. DSPL Test push-button switch 25. FAULT, RESET push-button switch 12. DSPL SEL switch 26. FAULT, SET push-button switch 13. REF SP, OVRD LOG indicator 27. FAULT, DI indicator 14. REF SP switch

3.24.4.3 WATCH STANDING The AN/WSN-2 operates unattended after a mode of operation has been selected and the automatic alignment sequence is completed. Audible and visual extension alarms will alert watch standers at various locations upon loss of normal power to the compass or if a malfunction exists within the compass.

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3-64 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.5 AN/WSN-7B(V) Ring Laser Gyrocompass (RLG) Inertial Navigation System The AN/WSN-7B(V) (Figure 3-39) is a self-contained system whose Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU) employs three RLGs and three accelerometers, in strapdown configuration. Unlike a stabilized gimballed system, high speed digital processing is employed to determine the ship’s attitude (pitch, roll, and heading). The AN/WSN-7B(V) requires external ship’s speed input and periodic input of position data. It uses ship’s log speed to provide damping of vertical gyro loops. Position data from the Global Positioning System (GPS) is used to calibrate gyro drifts and to provide position resets to the inertial navigation function. The inertial sensor, speed, and position reset data are processed to generate continuous, accurate position and velocity data, in addition to heading, roll, and pitch reference.

3.24.5.1 Normal Operation The AN/WSN-7B(V) is designed to operate automatically after application of power and requires minimum operator intervention during normal operation. A six-line, 40-character display and 28-key keypad provide display and operating controls for selection of a wide range of functions. These functions can be accessed for monitoring and modifying operating parameters, for evaluating system performance, and for selecting test and calibration modes.

3.24.5.2 Test Features A Built-In Test (BIT) function, incorporating both hardware and software tests, continuously monitors operation and periodically performs self-tests to determine the integrity of the AN/WSN-7B(V) and its inputs/outputs. Faults are automatically announced and fault codes which indicate the type of fault detected are displayed on the local control panel.

3.24.5.3 External Data Interfaces The basic digital data interface to the AN/WSN-7B(V) includes an RS-422 Input/Output (I/O) channel which provides interface for Doppler Sonar Velocity Log (DSVL) digital speed input, an RS-422 interface for an external (optional) Remote Control Display Unit (RCDU), and one spare RS-422 interface which can be configured for specific serial data requirements.

3.24.5.4 Units and Assemblies The AN/WSN-7B(V) cabinet is a single unit which is bolted directly to the ship’s deck in a sheltered naval environment (i.e., not on the weather deck). The cabinet can be oriented in azimuth to any multiple of 90 degrees relative to the ship’s keel. The AN/WSN-7B(V) must be optically aligned at installation using an alignment fixture which is temporarily mounted to Indexer Assembly mounting surfaces inside the unit. Alignment is then obtained by measuring offsets between the Alignment Fixture and the ship’s reference lines.

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Figure 3-39 AN/WSN-7B(V) Ring Laser Gyro

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3-66 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.5.5 Operation This section identifies all operation control functions and describes their use, provides instructions for turning on and operating the AN/WSN-7B(V) Ring Laser Gyro (RLG), and presents information for identifying system fault conditions. The top panel controls and indicators are shown in Figure 3-40.

Figure 3-40 Top Panel Controls and Indicators

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3-67 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.5.6 System Operating Controls System operating controls (Figure 3-40) consist of the power controls and indicator; a system fault indicator; a keypad, which provides all operator control interface; a menu display, which provides all mode and status information; and displayed menus, which allow selection of various control functions and display of specific data.

Power Controls and Indicators. The AN/WSN-7B(V) top panel contains the primary power controls and indicators for the system. The power control functions on the AN/WSN-7B(V) are:

• MAIN POWER Circuit Breaker (CB1) protects ship’s 115 VAC main power input to the system and breaks power to SYSTEM POWER switch (S1).

• SHIP’S REF Circuit Breaker (CB2) protects ship’s 400 Hz synchro reference input to the system.

• VITAL REF Circuit Breaker (CB3) protects AN/WSN-7B(V) generated 400 Hz synchro vital reference output.

• SYSTEM POWER switch (S1) operates to turn on the AN/WSN-7B(V). ON position - Applies ship’s 115 VAC input to the 24-volt power supply in the AN/WSN-7B(V) and selects the system power control function, to turn on the AN/WSN-7B(V).

• SYSTEM POWER indicator (DS1) illuminates whenever ship’s 115 VAC power is applied to the AN/WSN-7B(V) power supply (SYSTEM POWER switch set ON).

Keypad Functions and Menu Selection. The keypad on the AN/WSN-7B(V) (Figure 3- 41) is used in conjunction with the displayed menus to perform all control and data entry functions. The keys are grouped into three categories; these are Menu Selection, Data Entry, and Display Control.

Some keys perform dual functions. The operation of these keys is automatically determined by the selected menu, mode, or operation being performed. Each key and its general function is listed below:

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Menu Selection keys consist of:

MODE Selects Page 1 of Mode Functions Menu.

AUX FUNC Selects Page 1 of Auxiliary Functions Menu.

SENSOR Selects Page 1 of Sensor Functions Menu.

DISPLAY Selects Page 1 of Display Functions Menu.

TEST Enables Self-Test Functions Menu (operates only during power-up).

NEXT PAGE Sequentially selects display of menu pages.

Figure 3-41 Keypad

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3-69 UNCLASSIFIED Data Entry keys consist of:

0 through 9 Selects numbered function on displayed menu; and used to enter numeric data.

A through F Alternate functions reserved for entry of hexadecimal values.

CLEAR Clears displayed or manually entered data without accepting the value.

ENTER Accepts displayed or manually entered data for entry into selected function.

BACKSPACE Erases last entered numeric character for re-entry.

N/E/+ Enter North (N) or East (E) for position or positive (+) for numeric values requiring sign.

S/W/- Enter South (S) or West (W) for position or minus (-) for numeric values requiring sign.

Display Control keys consist of:

TRACK HOLD “Freezes” display of any continuously changing data which is selected for viewing.

BRIGHT Increases display illumination.

DIM Decreases display illumination.

ALARM ACK Removes the fault code from the display when a fault condition is detected.

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3-70 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.5.7 Operation Procedures (Normal Operations) NOTE: The following procedure assumes that the AN/WSN-7B(V) has been installed correctly and configured for available external reference (GPS, Speed log). Data from all configured external references should be available.

To turn on the AN/WSN-7B(V), first turn on and check operation of speed sensor source, external GPS receiver, and any other devices which accept data from the AN/WSN- 7B(V). Follow the procedure outlined below for turning on and operating the AN/WSN- 7B(V) in a normal situation.

An off-line Test Mode is also available. This mode is selected by turning off the AN/WSN-7B(V) and then setting the SYSTEM POWER switch to ON while the TEST key on the keypad is held depressed. When Test Mode is selected, the unit does not provide valid attitude or heading output data. Selection of the Test Mode and test functions is covered in Section 5.2.1. of S9427-AT-MMO-010/WSN-7.

Turning On the AN/WSN-7B(V). The following procedures are required when turning on the AN/WSN-7B(V).

a. Set the POWER, SHIP’S REF, and VITAL REF circuit breakers to ON.

b. Set SYSTEM POWER switch to ON. Observe that SYSTEM POWER indicator illuminates, and that the SYSTEM FAULT alarm indicator remains OFF.

c. Observe that a configuration mode message appears briefly and no fault codes are indicated in the upper right corner of the Display.

d. Press AUX FUNC key to select AUXiliary Functions menu and then select Display Test function by pressing <3> key and verify that display is functioning properly.

e. Exit Display Test by pressing any Menu Selection.

Turning Off the AN/WSN-7B(V). The following procedures are required when turning off the AN/WSN-7B(V).

a. Set the SYSTEM POWER switch to OFF. The system will save all valid data to be used when the system is turned on again.

b. Set the POWER circuit breaker to OFF.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

3-71 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.6 Ring Laser Gyro Navigation Inertial Navigation, AN/WSN-7(V)1, -7(V)2, - 7(V)3 The AN/WSN-7(V) Ring Laser Gyro Navigator (RLGN) (Figure 3-42) is part of the AN/WSN-7(V) INS. Each RLGN is a self-contained unit that employs an Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU) using three single-axis Ring Laser Gyros (RLGs) and three accelerometers as the inertial reference to determine ship’s position, velocity, heading, roll and pitch. The system continuously accepts ship’s speed information from a speed log and/or Global Positioning System (GPS), and periodically accepts ship’s position information from an external navigation reference (GPS), manually via a keypad and display on the RLGN control panels, or from the IP-1747/WSN Control Display Unit (CDU).

Normal Operation The RLGN is designed to operate automatically after application of power and acceptance of the first position reset and requires minimum operator intervention during normal operation. A 6-line, 40-character display and 28-key keypad provide display and operating controls for selection of a wide range of functions. These functions can be accessed for monitoring and modifying operating parameters, for evaluating system performance, and for selecting test and calibration modes. Figure 3-42 PART NUMBERS CN-1695/WSN-7(V), CN-1696/WSN-7(V), and CN-1697/WSN-7(V)

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3-72 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.6.1 WSN-7 Operation All operations, including mode control, sensor selection, data entry, and parameter display, as well as initiation of calibration, self-test, and installation setup, are performed using displayed menus and the keypad on the front of the RLGN.

The keypad is used in conjunction with the displayed menus to perform all control and data entry functions. The Front Panel controls and indicators are shown in Figure 3-43 and the keypad is shown if Figure 3-44.

The keys are divided into four categories: Menu Selection, Data Entry, Display Control, and Alarm Acknowledge. Some keys perform dual functions. The operation of these keys is automatically determined by the selected menu, mode, or operation being performed. The function of each key is listed in the Table.

Figure 3-43 Front Panel Controls and Indicators Figure 3-44 Keypad Controls

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3-73 UNCLASSIFIED KEY FUNCTION Menu Selection keys consist of: MODE Selects Page 1 of Mode Menu. AUX FUNC Selects Page 1 of Auxiliary Functions Menu. SENSOR Selects Page 1 of Sensor Menu. DISPLAY Selects Page 1 of Display Menu. TEST Selects Page 1 of Self-Test Functions Menu. (Functions only during power-up) NEXT PAGE Sequentially selects display of additional menu pages for each function. Data Entry keys consist of: 0 through 9 Selects numbered function on displayed menu and used to enter numeric data. A through F Alternate function reserved for entry of hexadecimal values. (Hexadecimal entry is not active in normal operating modes.) CLEAR Clears displayed or manually entered data without entering the value. ENTER Accepts displayed or manually entered data for entry into selected function. BACK SPACE Erases last entered numeric character for re-entry. N/E+ Enter North (N) or East (E) for position or positive (+) for numeric values requiring sign. S/W– Enter South (S) or West (W) for position or minus (-) for numeric values requiring sign. Display Control keys consist of: TRACK/HOLD Toggle on/off function used to freeze display of any continuously changing data which is selected for viewing. BRIGHT Increases display illumination. DIM Decreases display illumination. ALARM ACK Removes the fault code from the display and clears the Advisory Relay and the Malfunction Relay when a fault condition is detected. The general procedure for key/menu operation is: 1. Press a Menu Selection key (MODE, AUX FUNC, SENSOR or DISPLAY) to select the menu with desired function. 2. If selected menu has more than one page, press the <NEXT PAGE> key to step through pages (page display sequence cycles back to Page 1 after last page is displayed). 3. When function is located, press the Number key corresponding to number beside function to select the function. 4. If data entry is required, either press the <ENTER> key to accept displayed value or press the <CLEAR> key to clear displayed value for entry of new value. 5. Enter value using Data Entry keys and press the <ENTER> key to accept value. Correct error during data entry using the <CLEAR> key or the <BACK SPACE> key.

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3-74 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.7 AN/SSN-6(V)2 Navigation Sensor System Interface System (NAVSSI) The AN/SSN-6 Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) System is an integrated shipboard system that automatically accepts, processes, and disseminates navigation and time information from various shipboard navigation sources.

The AN/SSN-6 provides a means for users to obtain data verification, digital mapping, and the programming of selected way points. The AN/SSN-6 utilizes inputs from the Inertial Navigation System (INS), AN/UQN-4 Sonar Sounding Set, and EM Log to provide extremely accurate position (latitude and longitude), velocities (N-S, E-W, and vertical), ownship heading (OSH), roll, pitch, depth below keel, speed through the water (OSS), own ships distance (OSD), and extremely accurate time. The AN/SSN-6 also receives GPS satellite data via two embedded GPS VME Receiver Cards (GVRC).

The inputs to the AN/SSN-6 are processed, and in the AUTO mode, NAVSSI selects the best source selection for each output component. In the manual mode, the source selection is made by the operator to provide the appropriate output.

The AN/SSN-6 is composed of three units: the Display Control Subsystem (DCS), the Real Time Subsystem (RTS), and the Bridge Work Station (BWS). The DCS provides overall system control, data processing, data storage, and Man-Machine Interface (MMI) for both operation and maintenance. The DCS also houses the Sensor Interface Unit (SIU) for processing depth below the keel sonar signals from the AN/UQN-4. The DCS monitor can be utilized as a backup to the BWS. The RTS is the primary means for communicating between the various sensors to obtain inputs for the AN/SSN-6 and to provide usable output information to various ships systems. The BWS provides parallel operator control, query, and readout of the DCS.

The Block 3 system is configured as a dual RTS. The current Block 3, Build 2 systems are all dual RTS systems. Figure 3-45 shows a typical NAVSSI system with dual RTSs. A Local Area Network (LAN) links these hardware components via fiber-optic cabling.

The DCS enables the operator to display the ownship's navigation sensor information, control the RTS(s), and display from the Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS data is initially received at the GPS Antenna, and then is sent to the Global Positioning System (Versa Module Europa) Receiver Card (GVRC) that is installed in the Versa Modular Europa (VME) chassis of the RTSs. The GPS receiver cards (GVRC) together with the Digital Nautical Charts (DNC) database (supplied via CD-ROM) provide the information that may be displayed on the DCS and BWS monitors. For dual RTS systems, the RTSs exchange data via a reflective memory link. This feature allows the RTSs to share all incoming and outgoing data, thereby improving overall system robustness. In dual RTS configurations, the DCS communicates with each RTS via a Local Area Network (LAN). The BWS provides remote workstation access to the DCS.

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3.24.7.1 System Capabilities and Interfaces The primary capabilities and purpose of NAVSSI AN/SSN-6 Block 3 system is to distribute common position, velocity, time, and almanac data to onboard Command & Control and Combat Systems. This is done in real time, with the Global Positioning System (GPS) as the primary source of navigation data.

To elaborate, the system gives users a Human-Machine Interface (HMI) to perform navigation planning, execution, and manipulation of Digital Nautical Charts (DNCs). Figure 3-45 Typical Dual-RTS NAVSSI Block 3 System

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3-76 UNCLASSIFIED The system provides consistent, accurate, timely Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT) data to all navigation dependent shipboard systems. It provides autonomous almanac data to the Tomahawk missile system. It also provides, voyage planning and voyage management functionality, using Digital Nautical Charts (DNCs) and other National Geospatial Agency (NGA) products. Users include other navigation systems; Command, Control, Communications and Computer Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance systems; weapon systems; and the shipboard navigation teams. This composite PVT enhances the ability of surface ships to perform navigation, ship control, and combat missions. The AN/SSN-6 composite PVT will normally be the most accurate information onboard.

The NAVSSI AN/SSN-6 Block 3 system software uses two Computer Software Configuration Items (CSCIs): the DCS CSCI and the RTS CSCI.

The DCS CSCI is the operator interface for the NAVSSI operator's console and the Bridge Workstation. The software resides on the hard drive of the TAC-4. It enables NAVSSI operators to do the following:

• Control and monitor RTS operations

• Display navigation sensor data

• Record and retrieve navigation information

• Display Digital Nautical Chart (DNC) data

• Provide the capability for route planning

• Route monitoring and voyage recording functions

The RTS CSCI is firmware that resides on EPROMs of the CPU module (in slot 0 of the VME chassis) and provides the following:

• Real-time interface, analysis, and selection of incoming navigation data as well as a real-time interface with the shipboard navigation sensors and users

• It can analyze sensor data to select the best source for navigation data users

• Provides Inertial Navigation System (INS) position fix data to the inertial GVRC

• Has the capability to distribute data to the user systems within the required timing constraints.

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3-77 UNCLASSIFIED Each Computer Software Configuration Item (CSCI) is identified with unique names, acronyms and numbers (software Identification). CSCls are assigned a unique identifier composed of SUBSYSTEM DESIGNATOR, BLOCK #, BUILD # RELEASE #, and REVISION of a given release.

The main interfaces for the NAVSSI navigational system are the shipboard sensors, weapons, and information systems and the primary source of navigation data used by NAVSSI AN/SSN-6 Block 3 is the GPS satellite system. NAVSSI is the host for the GVRC and provides GPS-unique source data along with the digital navigation charts for use by the navigator. Additionally, NAVSSI supplies a common time source and enables the navigator to monitor navigation data sources and the distribution of data to other shipboard users.

External interfaces supported by the NAVSSI Block 3 system are dependent on the hardware that has been installed on the particular ship. This available hardware will dictate which software functions are available to the NAVSSI system. If the hardware interface is not available, the NAVSSI system software will gray out the applicable (non- functional) features in the operator displays.

CD-ROM Library (Jukebox) The CD-ROM is a random access, read-only, mass storage device that uses removable CD-ROM disks.

The jukebox has a capacity of storing up to 240 CD-ROMs. Information can be read from the drive like any other disk drive, except that CD-ROMs cannot be written to. CD-ROM discs are 120mm (4.7 in.) in diameter, and use one data surface with a capacity of over 600 megabytes. Early versions of the systems require the loading of DNC CD-ROMs manually via the TAC-4 computer's CD-ROM drive, as the jukebox is not functional (as no software exists to operate the jukebox). Later versions of the systems may provide functionality of the CD-ROM library Jukebox), whereby, the CD-ROMs are no longer loaded by hand and access to all of the DNC CD-ROMs is provided by software control. But, more than likely, later versions of the systems may not use the jukebox at all and may use the RAID drives instead.

DAT Tape Drive The Hewlett Packard DAT (Digital-Audio Tape) format tape drive is a 3.5" half-height sequential-access tape drive that can handle multiple capacity removable 4mm DDS data cassettes. The DDS-format tape drive is located on a shelf in the rack of the DCS and is used primarily for re-installation of the NAVSSI and GCCS-M system software. The DAT tape drive is a SCSI device.

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3-78 UNCLASSIFIED Monitor The DCS monitor in the NAVSSI system provides a color graphical interface to the DCS. The monitor can be either a CRT or LCD depending on ship class. The monitor receives signals from the G-2 Graphics Board in the DCS TAC-4 workstation.

Keyboard and Trackball The keyboard is a TAC 4-specific keyboard and the trackball provides 4-buttons with the upper-left and lower left having redundant functions, based on operator preference. The Bridge Work Station (BWS) keyboard features back-lighting.

TAC-4 Computer (HP9000-J210) The NAVSSI AN/SSN-6 Block 3 DCS subsystem is hosted on a TAC-4 workstation (HP 9000 Series J210). The workstation handles all user and peripheral input/output (I/O) as well as system booting. The workstation executes the UNIX operating system that provides an environment for executing application software on the system. The DCS software is run within this environment as a group of UNIX applications. The TAC-4 computer is enclosed in the DCS rack and is equipped with a CD ROM drive, a 3.5" floppy drive and two 4.5-GB hard drives with RAM that is configured with 256 Megabyte.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) The RTS and DCS subsystems both contain Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) units. The DCS and RTS UPSs are functionally equivalent. The UPS protects the digital circuitry from damage during a sudden power loss or surge. The UPS contains rechargeable batteries that are kept fully charged during normal operation. If power is lost, the batteries in the UPS supply power to operate the system for a short time during power interruptions. This allows for an orderly shutdown of the system.

During normal operation, AC input power from the PDU is brought into the UPS. The UPS provides circuit protection for the electronic equipment in the rack. The noise filter reduces EMI/RFI electrical noise and to provide protection against high voltage transients on the input to the electronics.

When AC input is within limits, the UPS constantly converts the incoming AC power to DC, and then the DC back to AC to power the electrical loads attached to the UPS. The UPS maintains the battery pack in a ready state. When the AC input is outside the limits or has failed the UPS supplies power from its battery pack (without any interruption of power) to the load. Power status indicators are provided at the UPS.

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3-79 UNCLASSIFIED Real Time Subsystem (RTS 2) – Aft The forward and aft RTSs are similar subsystems; they however contain different equipment in the racks as noted below. Each RTS is mounted in a 19-inch ruggedized rack with shock isolation and that minimizes the effects of any ship sustained battle damage. It is powered by an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) that provides backup power if primary power fluctuates or there are power interruptions. This ensures continued power and provides the crucial data.

The aft RTS, shown in Figure 4-63, operates independently of the DCS TAC-4. The RTSs communicate directly with navigation data sources and navigation data users. This is done by running real-time software that provides the data processing functions.

The aft RTS communicates with the DCS over the FDDI LAN and in dual-RTS configurations, the RTSs also communicate with each other via the same FDDI LAN. Dual RTS configurations provide reflective memory to each other, whereby current data is always available to the DCS.

The NAVSSI RTS system software resides in the RTS on EPROMs. The currently installed RTS software version may be determined by accessing the DCS "Help" pull- down menu.

The forward and aft RTSs are essentially the same, except that in most cases, the aft RTS contains the Battle Force Tactical Trainer (BFTT) and the Control Display Unit (CDU) Assembly. The CDU (part of WSN-7 systems) includes a CPU, display, printer and peripheral devices. This equipment is not part of the NAVSSI system, but is housed in the same rack as the NAVSSI equipment.

Bridge Workstation The interactive workstation, located on the bridge. It provides bridge personnel with parallel control, query capability, and a display of NAVSSI system data, as supplied by the DCS.

Monitor The bridge monitor in the NAVSSI system provides a color graphical interface to the DCS. The monitor can be either a CRT or LCD depending on ship class.

GPS Antenna Signals received through the Global Positioning System (GPS) antenna module, transmitted by Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, enables the computation of accurate position coordinates, elevation, speed, and time information. GPS navigation is based on satellite ranging that involves measuring the time it takes the satellite signal to travel to from the satellites to the navigation user. By ranging three satellites, a three-dimensional position can be determined that accurately pinpoints where the signals intersect on the earth surface.

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3-80 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.8 Ship’s Course Indicators (Repeaters) The trend to transistorized equipment has resulted in gyro installations being equipped with highly reliable transistorized ship’s course indicators, or repeaters as they are commonly called. Ship’s course indicators are used to visually display gyrocompass heading data for navigational purposes. They are installed at the helm, on the bridge wings, in the after steering room, and other remote locations aboard ship.

TYPE FREQUENCY SPEED DRIVE DIAL MOUNT A 400 1 Servo Single Bulkhead B 400 1X + 36X Servo Single Pelorus Bulkhead E 400 1X + 36X Servo Dual Bulkhead F 400 1X + 36X Servo Dual Console G* 60 1 Servo Dual Bulkhead H* 60 1 Servo Dual Bulkhead L 400 1 Synchro Single Console Bulkhead

Figure 4-70 shows a type E repeater minus terminal block and cord. The inner dial is single speed and the blocked out outer dial is 36 speed. These repeaters are generally located in enclosed spaces, such as the OOD’s repeater on the bridge.

3.24.8.1 Features • Ship's Course Indicators (SCI) function as remote repeaters to indicate the ship's heading or course-to-steer. These devices may be installed at any desired location on the ship and oriented at the location in any convenient direction.

• A number of types are available. Each is designated by a type number and by mark and modification numbers. Figure 3-46 Type E ship’s course indicator (designed for bulkhead mounting)

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3-81 UNCLASSIFIED • Types A, B, E, F and M indicators are servo-driven. Types L and N are synchro- driven. A servo-driven version of Type L is available. Types G and H have a servo-driven course-to steer dial and a synchro-driven heading dial.

• All indicators receive synchro heading data from the ship' gyrocompass or other synchro transmitting equipment. The gyrocompass signals and the reference power from the ship's supply actuate the indicators to position graduated dials which show the ship's heading.

• There are two basic types: one-speed and two-speed (1X and 36X) units. Two- speed indicators provide greater accuracy because lX synchro only provides coarse control of the dial and the 36X synchro provides fine control.

• Types E and F may have two dials geared together 10 be read as a mechanical vernier. Types G and H have two independent concentric dials, one displaying ship's heading and the other dial displaying course-to-steer.

• Any SCI is available in either low or non-low noise variations. In the non-low noise variation, the servo and dial assembly mount directly to the cast housing. In the low-noise variation, the servo and dial mount on vibration isolators inside the cast housing.

Figure 3-47 Type A 1-Speed Bulkhead Mount

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3-82 UNCLASSIFIED • All types, except F and H, have integral dimmer rheostats for dial illumination control. Types F and H require a remote dimmer rheostat. Type l can be used with either an integral dimmer control or remote rheostat.

• Each Ship's Course Indicator is complete unit with facilities or mounting and for external electrical connections. (Figure 3-48).

Figure 3-48 Ship’s Course Indicator Types

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3-83 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.8.2 Indicator Types

TYPE A, Mark 3 Mod 6, is a400 Hz, one-speed single dial servo-driven Ship's Course Indicator. Available for bulkhead mounting.

TYPE B , Mark 2 Mod 6, is a 400 Hz, two-speed single dial SCI. Housing mounts in a gimbal which is supported by a bracket, mounted on a shelf or on a pelorus stand for bearing determination.

TYPE E , Mark 1 Mod 6, is a 400 Hz, two-speed vernier dial servo SCI for steering. Available for bulkhead mounting.

TYPE F , Mark 1 Mod 6A, is a 400 Hz, two-speed vernier dial servo SCI for steering. Housing mounts to the sub-plate of a console panel.

TYPE G , Mark 6 Mod 6, is a 60 Hz, one-speed dual dial unit. The outer dial contains only a solitary diamond-shaped mark which indicates course-to steer. It is driven through a servo. The inner dial indicates heading and is directly gear-driven by a receiver synchro. The drive mechanisms and dials mount as a single assembly inside the cast housing. The housing, in turn, mounts to a bulkhead.

TYPE H , Mark 6 Mod 6A, is identical to the Type G, except for the housing which mounts to the sub-plate of a control panel.

TYPE L , Mark 7 Mod 6, is a one-speed, single dial synchro motor-driven miniature SCI. Mod 6 is a400 Hz unit and Mod 6A is 60 Hz. The servo-driven Type L uses a special servo built into a standard BuOrd Size 23 configuration. It can be used on either60 or 400 Hz. Housing for all variations mounts either to a bulkhead or to a panel.

TYPE M, Mark 9 Mod 6, is a 400 Hz, one-speed, single dial servo SCI for bulkhead mounting. Its large dial makes it suitable for distant viewing.

3.24.8.3 Accessories

GIMBAL RING and BRACKET (SURFACE) provides mechanical mounting for Types Band N, usually on a Pelorus Stand.

PELORUS STAND is a deck mounting stand. It contains a terminal board which serves as a junction between ship's wiring and the SCI. A Gimbal Ring and Bracket can be bolted on top of the stand.

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3-84 UNCLASSIFIED Pelorus stands must be aligned to benchmarks for accuracy, repeater error corrections and relative bearing navigation. If adjustment is required locate the correct benchmark for your repeater, loosen the bolts on the top stand unit, then gently tap the mount in the correct direction to realign to your benchmark. Once the alignment is completed you’ll need to fasten the bolts carefully as you could misalign your benchmark in the process.

GIMBAL RING and BRACKET (SUBMARINES) provides for mounting of Type N SCI for use on submarines. The indicator and ring are quickly removable from the bracket; and the bracket is, in turn, removable from the mounting plate.

SINUOUS CLOCK ADAPTER RING provides for the use of a clock with Types E and F SCI's by replacing the bezel with an adapter ring.

3.24.9 Digital Indicators

Figure 3-49 Integrated Digital Indicator Panel

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3-85 UNCLASSIFIED 3.24.9.1 Features

• Microprocessor-controlled unit.

• Operates on 115VAC, 60Hz input power via MS3406DJ14S-2S connector. • Separate adjustable panel (dial and legends) and digital display dimmer controls (dimmable to a full off position).

3.25 SUMMARY In this chapter, we have discussed basic gyroscopic principles and the making of the gyroscope into a gyrocompass. We have identified and discussed the major components of some of the most common gyrocompass systems installed on board Navy ships today and described the procedures for starting, standing watch on, and securing these gyrocompasses. We have also described the purpose of ship’s course indicators used with the various gyrocompass systems.

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4-1 UNCLASSIFIED 4 NA VIGATIONAL PUBLICATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Select the use of and match publications from a list.

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4-2 UNCLASSIFIED 4.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter you learn of the various publications that are routinely used by the Quartermaster. The QM uses many types and forms of written documents to make possible the full and efficient execution of his or her duties. The majority of these documents are prepared by various governmental agencies, although some originate from commercial sources. The term document here is used in a broad sense to include charts, tables, books, and pamphlets, and devices that relate to navigation.

Government agencies conduct field surveys and research studies of their own. They collaborate with each other and with similar activities in many foreign nations to make sure their charts and other publications will contain the most recent and accurate information. A very valuable input to all types of navigational documents results from reports made by vessel’s crews as to new and changed situations.

This chapter is divided into three areas:

• Transit Planning Publications • Almanacs and Sight Reduction Tables • Publication Correction and Ordering

The following table has been provided as a quick reference guide. It gives a description of many of the publications that Quartermasters use routinely. Many of these publications will be covered in greater detail in this chapter or elsewhere in this text.

Navigational Publication Quick Reference Guide

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4-3 UNCLASSIFIED

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4-4 UNCLASSIFIED 4.2 TRANSIT PLANNING PUBLICATIONS Transit planning can best be described as the process of gathering and compiling information to ensure a safe and efficient voyage. There are many publications that the Quartermaster uses for transit planning. The publications listed in this section must be studied thoroughly. You should make every attempt to establish an in-depth working knowledge of all publications that are available to the QM.

4.2.1 Coast Pilots Charts are limited in what can be shown by symbols and abbreviations regarding channels, hazards, winds and currents, restricted areas, port facilities, pilotage service, and many other types of information needed by a navigator for safe and efficient navigation. These deficiencies are remedied by the Coast Pilots published by NOS and the Sailing Directions published by DMAHTC.

U.S. Coast Pilots are published in nine numbered volumes to cover the waters of the United States and its possessions. They are of great value to a navigator when used with charts of an area both during the planning stage of a voyage and in the actual transit of the area. The contents of Coast Pilots have been stored in a computerized data bank, and volumes are reprinted annually with all intervening changes included (except CP8 and CP9, which are revised every 2 years). Interim changes are published in Notices to Mariners and Local Notices to Mariners.

4.2.2 Fleet Guides The Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center publishes, for U.S. Navy use only, Fleet Guides. These are Pub. No 940, Atlantic Area, and Pub. No 941, Pacific Area. These guides contain a number of chapters, each of which covers a port of major interest to naval vessels. They are prepared to provide important command, navigational, repair, and logistic information. This information is much like that contained in Coast Pilots and Sailing Directions, but it is oriented toward naval interests and requirements; they are not needed by, nor are they available to, non-naval vessels.

The information in Fleet Guides is corrected and updated through the publication of changes and/or new editions when required; interim corrections are published in Notices to Mariners if the urgency so warrants.

4.2.3 Sailing Directions The DMAHTC Sailing Directions provide information comparable to the Coast Pilots for foreign coasts and coastal waters. They also provide detailed information for the navigation team that cannot be shown on charts. The appropriate volume of Sailing Directions, used with charts of a suitable scale, should enable a navigator to approach strange waters with adequate information for the vessel’s safety.

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4-5 UNCLASSIFIED The Sailing Directions are based on a division of the world’s water into eight “ocean basins” (but these are not the same as those used for two and three-digit chart numbers). Sailing Directions are given three-digit identification numbers starting with DMAHTC Pub No. 121. The Sailing Directions are made up of two components and contain information as follows:

Planning Guides. Each Planning Guide covers an ocean basin containing chapters of useful information about countries adjacent to that particular ocean basin; information relative to the physical environment and local coastal phenomena; references to publications and periodicals listing danger areas; recommended ship routes; detailed electronic navigation systems and buoyage systems pertaining to that ocean basin.

Changes for each Planning Guide and En route volume are prepared and published on an as-required basis determined by the number of accumulated revisions.

En Route Volumes . Each En route volume includes detailed coastal and port approach information, supplementing the largest scale chart available from DMAHTC. It is intended for use in conjunction with the Planning Guide for the ocean basin concerned. Each En route volume is divided into a number of sectors, and for each sector information is provided on available charts (with limits shown on an overall diagram as in U.S. chart catalogs); winds, tides, and currents (shown on an outline chart); off-lying dangers; coastal features; anchorages; and major ports (an annotated chartlet with line drawings of aids to navigation and prominent landmarks). Figure 4-1 shows the limits for all Sailing Directions volumes.

Figure 4-1 Limits of Sailing Directions

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4-6 UNCLASSIFIED 4.2.4 List of Lights The DMAHTC List of Lights, seven volumes, cover foreign coasts of the world (and limited portions of U.S. coasts); these are Pubs. No. 110 through 116 (see fig. 4-2). The List of Lights volumes include descriptive information similar to Lights Lists, but because of their greater coverage areas, they list only lighted aids to navigation and fog signals (lighted buoys within harbors are omitted). Each List of Lights is published in a new edition at intervals of approximately 12 months; changes and corrections are included frequently, as they are required, in Notices to Mariners.

Figure 4-2 List of Lights

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4-7 UNCLASSIFIED 4.2.5 Tide Tables and Tidal Current Tables The Tide Tables are prediction tables published in four volumes by the National Ocean Service. They are East Coast of North and South America, including Greenland; West Coast of North and South America, including the Hawaiian Islands; Europe and the West Coast of Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea; and Central and Western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean (annual editions). Each volume includes information on the height and time of high and low water at thousands of locations; also included is information on times of sunrise and sunset, moonrise and moonset, and other astronomical phenomena. The Tide Tables will be covered in detail in chapter 7.

Tidal Current Tables are prediction tables published in two volumes by NOS— Atlantic Coast of North America, and Pacific Coast of North America and Asia (annual editions); each volume includes data on the times and strengths of flood and ebb currents and the time of slack water for thousands of locations; also included are diagrams for certain heavily traveled bodies of water that facilitate determination of optimum transit times and speeds, and astronomical data similar to that in Tide Tables. The Tidal Current Tables will be covered in detail in chapter 7.

4.2.6 Pilot Charts The Pilot Charts present available data in graphic form that will assist the mariner in selecting the safest and fastest routes. Besides timely information of a varied nature, Pilot Charts graphically depict magnetic variation, currents, prevailing winds and calms, percentage of gales, tracks of tropical and extratropical cyclones, wave heights, surface air and water temperatures, percentage of fog, surface barometric pressure, ice and iceberg limits, the location of ocean weather-station ships, and recommended routes for steam and sailing vessels. Additionally, such topics as winds (including gales and cyclones), pressures, temperatures, visibility, and wave heights are discussed in brief paragraphs at the sides of each chart. Pilot Charts are published quarterly with each sheet containing three monthly charts and an article of general information.

4.2.7 Distance Between Ports The Distances Between Ports publication contains information on ports of entry for the world. It is useful and easy to use. Ports are indexed by number and name and laid out in a tabular format. The World Port Index should be used as a quick reference guide only. Up-to-date information and specific planning information must be obtained from the applicable Sailing Directions, Coast Pilot, or Fleet Guide.

Another useful publication that gives information concerning the distance a ship must travel between two ports is Distances Between United States Ports, published by NOS; it tabulates approximately 10,000 distances along the shortest routes marked by aids to navigation.

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4-8 UNCLASSIFIED

4.3 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION PUBLICATIONS

4.3.1 Almanacs Nautical Almanacs, volumes of information that tabulate the position of various celestial bodies, the times of sunrise and sunset, moonrise and moonset, and other astronomical data used by navigators, are prepared jointly by the U.S. Naval Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory in England. However, the almanac volumes are printed both in the United States and in England.

The Nautical Almanac is published annually, and the Air Almanac is published twice each year. These publications give ephemeristic data for marine and air navigation respectively (the Air Almanac can be, and sometimes is, used by marine surface navigators). These volumes are used in many others countries with minor modifications, chiefly changes in the language used for page headings and in the explanatory material. The Almanac for Computers is also published by the U.S. Naval Observatory with mathematical data and instructions for the computation of ephemeristic data using electronic computers or advanced models of calculators. These almanacs are discussed in greater detail in later text.

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4-9 UNCLASSIFIED 4.3.2 Tables Sight Reduction Tables for Marine Navigation, Pub. No. 229, published by DMAHTC, in six volumes, each volume covering 16° of latitude, North or South (1° overlap between volumes).

Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation, Pub. No. 249, published by DMAHTC in three volumes; offers somewhat greater ease and speed in sight reduction, but has a limited range of declination and gives a lower order of precision as to position.

4.4 PUBLICATION CORRECTION AND ORDERING As charts and other publications accumulate a sufficient number of changes and corrections, they are reprinted as a revision with the same edition number or as a new edition. Certain publications, such as Light Lists and Coast Pilots, are reprinted on an annual schedule. Other publications may have numbered “changes” issued, usually in the form of reprinted pages for direct insertion into the volume after the superseded pages are removed.

4.4.1 Publication Correction Publication correction procedures are the same as those listed in chapter 1 for charts using the Notices to Mariners each week. The exception is that you will either make direct pen and ink changes to the text in publications or you may cut and paste information into the affected publication.

Caution: Do NOT use tape to make changes to publications, when cutting and pasting information, use a glue stick to paste information.

4.4.2 Ordering Most publications are available from DMAHTC. Refer to chapter 10 of the DMA Catalog of Maps, Charts, and Related Products to obtain the correct DMA stock number. Follow the same procedures as you would to order a chart as listed in chapter 1 of the Catalog.

4.5 CLASSIFIED CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS Your ship will undoubtedly have some classified charts and publications on board. These charts and publications must be handled and stored according to the requirements of the Department of the Navy Information Security Program Regulation, SECNAVINST 5510.36. The following basic provisions apply to the handling and storing of these materials.

1. Only persons with the necessary security clearance and a definite need to know should be granted access to the information.

2. When classified material is not under the direct observation of an authorized person, it must be locked up or given equivalent protection.

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4-10 UNCLASSIFIED 3. Charts must be stored in locked drawers. Publications must be stored in locked safes or cabinets.

4. Money, jewels, or other valuables must never be stored in containers used for storing classified material.

5. Combinations (or keys) to safes or locks must be accessible only to persons whose official duties require access to the material in the containers.

4.6 SUMMARY In this chapter you learned about the various publications that are routinely used by the Quartermaster. The QM uses many types and forms of written documents to make possible the full and efficient execution of his or her duties. The majority of these documents are prepared by various governmental agencies, although some originate from commercial sources. The term document here is used in a broad sense to include charts, tables, books, and pamphlets, and devices that relate to navigation.

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5-1 UNCLASSIFIED 5 AIDS TO NA VIGATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Identify buoyage systems. 2. Recognize buoy types and state their purpose. 3. Compute the visibility of navigational lights. 4. Recognize day and range markers and state their purpose. 5. List at least four elements that make up an ATON’s characteristics. 6. Identify the following characteristics of ATON: a. Color b. Light rhythm and cycle c. Number 7. State the two factors that determine the visibility of a lighted ATON. 8. Identify the following terms associated with light visibility computations: a. Horizon distance d. Nominal range b. Meteorological visibility e. Geographic range c. Luminous range f. Computed range g. Computed visibility

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5-2 UNCLASSIFIED 9. List the three elements used to identify a light at night. 10. State the differences between primary and secondary lights. 11. List two purposes of ranges. 12. Identify the differences between directional lights, daybeacons, and minor lights. 13. Describe how light sector bearings are plotted on charts. 14. State the reason why sound signals are used on ATONs. 15. State the purpose of a RACON. 16. Identify the function of a buoyage system. 17. List the characteristics of lateral and cardinal buoyage systems. 18. Identify the differences between IALA region A and IALA region B. 19. State which IALA region applies to the United States. 20. Identify and explain variations in the following U.S. Systems of ATONs: a. Intracoastal waterway (ICW) b. Western rivers c. Uniform State Waterway Marking System (USWMS)

5.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, you will be introduced to the components of the maritime highway. Just as you would travel along a roadway in your car by referring to a map and the road signs, the high seas, coastal approaches, and harbors all have unique signposts to help ships find their way.

Aids to navigation are indicated on a chart by appropriate symbols, shown in the numerous graphics comprising Chart No. 1, Nautical Chart Symbols and Abbreviations.

As much information as possible is printed in standard abbreviations near the symbol. For instance, printed near a light might be “Fl 10sec 55ft 12M HORN”. This string of symbols tells us almost all that we need to know about the light.

1. Fl is the abbreviation for flashing. When a light is off for a longer period of time than it is on, it is said to be flashing. If it is on longer than it is off, it is said to be occulting (Occ). Lights can also be fixed (F), group flashing (Gp Fl), quick flashing (Qk Fl), and group occulting (Gp Occ). This list is by no means complete. You can find all of the types in the latest edition of Chart No. 1.

2. 10sec indicates the period of the light. That is, the time for the light to complete one full on-off cycle.

3. 55ft is the height of the light above mean high water.

4. 12M indicates that the light is visible, on a clear dark night, for 12 nautical miles.

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5-3 UNCLASSIFIED 5. HORN indicates that this light has a horn sound signal.

There are four standard colors for lights; red (R), green (G), yellow(Y), and white. If there is no R, Y, or G symbol on the chart, the buoy light is assumed to be white.

The chart symbol for a buoy is a diamond shape. There is a small dot near every buoy symbol. That dot represents the buoy’s approximate location. If the dot is enclosed in red, as are the channel buoys, the buoy is lighted. The diamond shape is not actually drawn to scale and may be set down considerably off the buoy’s actual position.

5.2 NAVIGATIONAL LIGHTS A ship cannot suspend operations merely because darkness falls and daytime aids cannot be distinguished. For that reason, aids to navigation are lighted whenever it is necessary and practical. For purposes of identification, lights have individual characteristics regarding color, brilliancy, and system of operation.

A light’s characteristics are usually printed on the chart near its symbol. Detailed information on any particular aid to navigation may be found in the appropriate volume of the Light List.

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5-4 UNCLASSIFIED As you learned in the previous chapter, the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/ Topographic Center (DMAHTC) publishes List of Lights in seven volumes which cover aids to navigation outside the continental United States.

Aids located in the United States and its possessions are described in Light List volumes published by the U.S. Coast Guard.

5.3 LIGHT LIST Since the Light List is such an important publication for the Quartermaster, and because you will no doubt use it frequently, we will review it in greater detail here.

Light List for the United States and its possessions, including the Intracoastal Waterway, the western rivers, and the Great Lakes for both the United States and Canadian waters, are published annually by the U.S. Coast Guard in six volumes.

Figure 5-1 Light List

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5-5 UNCLASSIFIED Each volume provides information on ATONs within a specific area of the country; for example, Volume I, Atlantic Coast, describes aids to navigation from St. Croix River, Maine, to Toms River, New Jersey. Volume VI, Pacific Coast and Pacific Islands describes aids to navigation on the Pacific Coast and outlying islands and so on.

The aids are listed such that seacoast aids appear first, followed by entrance and harbor aids from seaward to the head of navigation. Light List Numbers (LLNR) are assigned to all ATONs to facilitate reference in the Light List and to resolve ambiguity when referencing ATONs. Table 5-1 explains the page layout of the Light List.

Table 5-1 Sample of Light List

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5-6 UNCLASSIFIED 5.3.1 How to Use the Light List Using the Light List is simple. As an example, suppose you need to know the position and characteristic of Key West Harbor Range. To find this information in the Light List follow these three steps while referring to table 5-2.

Step Action 1. Look up the LLNR for Key West Harbor Range in the index. 2. Next, find the page listing LLNR 12990 in the main pages. Each aid to navigation is listed numerically by LLNR. 3. Extract the information you need for the aid. In this case, the position of the light is 24°34.7'N, 081°48.0'W; characteristic is quick flashing white.

Key West Harbor Main Channel 12890 Key West Harbor Range………….LLNR 12990

Table 5-2 Excerpt from Light List, Volume III, 1993

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5-7 UNCLASSIFIED 5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTED AIDS TO NAVIGATION Lights displayed from ATONs have distinct characteristics (rhythms) which help you identify them. They all exhibit a distinctive flashing rhythm. Use figure 5-2 to find the characteristic for any light.

Figure 5-2 Light characteristics

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5-8 UNCLASSIFIED Some aids, such as safe-water marks always use the same rhythm (Morse “A”), while others may display one of several different rhythms. Figure 5-2 on the previous page gives a description and definition of light characteristics (rhythms) as well as their chart symbol abbreviations. Abbreviations are used on charts because of space restrictions.

When working with composite light abbreviations, you must carefully distinguish between the meanings of the numbers in parentheses following a composite-flashing light. In the case of the composite-flashing light, the numbers refer to the pattern of the flashes of light. On the contrary, when the light is a composite-occulting light, the numbers within the parentheses denote the pattern of the eclipses in the light.

5.4.1 Light Cycle The “Light Cycle,” or period of a light, is the time it takes a light to complete one full cycle of ON and OFF changes. By varying the length of the cycles, a clear distinction can be made between numerous aids in the same area.

5.4.2 Numbering and Lettering All solid red and solid green ATONs are numbered. Red aids have even numbers; green aids have odd numbers. The numbers for each increase from seaward, proceeding in the conventional direction of buoyage. Numbers are kept in approximate sequence on both sides of the channel by omitting numbers where necessary.

Letters may be used to augment numbers when lateral aids are added to channels with previously completed numbering sequences. If letters are used, they will increase in alphabetical order from seaward and will be added to numbers as suffixes.

No other aids are numbered. Preferred-channel, safe-water, isolated danger, special marks, and information or regulatory aids may be lettered, but not numbered.

5.5 VISIBILITY OF LIGHTS The visibility of a lighted ATON depends upon two factors: the light’s intensity and the light’s height above water. There will be times when you will want to know the specific distance at which you will be able to see a light, such as approaching land from sea. This information can be helpful in determining the ship’s position.

Rule: When a ship is under way all navigational lights that will be sighted during periods of darkness must be identified in the Captain’s Night Orders. It is desirable to also define the time at which the light should be sighted.

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5-9 UNCLASSIFIED Refer to the following table to view the process of determining the visibility of a light.

Step Action Result 1. Locate the light on the chart and note the name of the light. Information gained for obtaining LLNR from the Light List. 2. Extract the characteristics from the Light List. Height of eye computation can now be done. 3. Compute the distance at which the light should be sighted from the height of eye table. Information concerning when a light should be sighted is obtained.

Table 5-3 Height of Eye

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5-10 UNCLASSIFIED 5.5.1 Understanding the Relationships among Terms There are several terms associated with any light’s visibility. Figure 5-3 will help you to visualize the relationships existing among these terms as they apply in a situation in which an observer with a height of 50 feet is located exactly at the computed range to a light having a geographic range of 11.7 miles and a nominal range of 15 miles. Review figure 5-3 and the associated terms list on the next page.

Figure 5-3 Relationship of light visibility terms

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5-11 UNCLASSIFIED 5.5.2 Terms The following is a list of terms associated with light visibility computations:

Horizon distance - This is the distance expressed in nautical miles from the position above the surface of Earth along a line of sight to the horizon; the line along which Earth and sky appear to meet. The higher the position, the farther the horizon distance will be. Figure 5-3 shows the relationship of height of eye to horizon distance.

Meteorological visibility - Meteorological visibility results primarily from the amount of particulate matter and water vapor present in the atmosphere at the location of an observer. It denotes the range at which the unaided human eye can see an unlighted object by day in a given set of meteorological conditions.

Luminous range - Luminous range is the maximum distance at which a light may be seen under the existing meteorological visibility conditions. Luminous range does not take into account the height of the light, the observer’s height of eye, or the curvature of Earth. It depends only on the intensity of the light itself.

Nominal range - Nominal range is the maximum distance a light can be seen in clear weather (meteorological visibility of 10 nautical miles). Nominal range is similar to luminous range in that it does not take into account elevation, height of eye, or curvature of Earth, but it depends on the intensity of the light. Nominal range is listed in column 6 of the Light List for all lighted aids to navigation except range lights, directional lights, and private aids to navigation.

Geographic range - Geographic range is the maximum distance at which a light may be seen in perfect visibility by an observer whose eye is at sea level.

Computed range - Computed range is the geographic range plus the observer’s distance to the horizon based on the observer’s height of eye.

Computed visibility - Computed visibility is the visibility determined for a light using the light’s height, nominal range, and height of eye of the observer.

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5-12 UNCLASSIFIED 5.6 HOW TO COMPUTE THE VISIBILITY OF A LIGHT Frequently, the navigator will want to know at what time and position on the ship’s track a given light might be sighted. This information is especially important when the ship is making a landfall. Failure to sight certain lights when expected could mean that a navigational error has been made. The distance calculated is termed the computed visibility of the light.

Rule: When you compute the visibility of a light, the computed visibility will NEVER exceed the light’s luminous range.

5.6.1 Examples The following examples illustrate the recommended procedure for determining the visibility of a light. Bear in mind that computed visibility cannot be greater than the luminous range.

Example 1: Determine the visibility of light Alpha for an observer with a height of eye of 50 feet.

Solution: From the Light List, the nominal range is determined to be 20 miles; the height of light Alpha is 90 feet above the water. Determine horizon distance from table 5-1.

Height of eye for 50 feet 8.3 miles Height of light (80 feet) 11.1 miles Computed visibility 9.4 miles Nominal range 20.0 miles Answer: 19.4 miles

Example 2: Determine the visibility of light Bravo for an observer with a height of eye of 35 feet.

Solution: From the Light List, determine the nominal range (10 miles) and the height of the light above water (80 feet). Determine horizon distance from table 5-1.

Height of eye for 35 feet 6.9 miles Height of light (80 feet) 10.5 miles Computed visibility 17.4 miles Nominal range 10.0 miles Answer: 10.0 miles

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5-13 UNCLASSIFIED luminous range diagram The luminous range diagram (fig. 5-4) enables the mariner to determine the approximate range at which a light may be sighted at night in the existing meteorological visibility at the time of observation.

Figure 5-4 Luminous range diagram

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5-14 UNCLASSIFIED 5.6.2 How to Use the Luminous Range Diagram The diagram is entered from the top or bottom border, using nominal range obtained from the Light List. The figures along the curves represent the estimated meteorological visibility at the time of observation, and those along the left-hand border represent the luminous range under those conditions.

Example: A light has a nominal range of 20 miles. If the meteorological visibility is 20 miles, the light would be sighted at about 33 miles. If the meteorological visibility is only 5 miles, the luminous range of the light is about 12 miles.

When using this diagram, you must remember that:

• the range obtained is approximate. • atmospheric conditions may not be consistent between the observer and the light. • the glare of background lighting will reduce the range at which light is sighted.

5.7 TYPES OF LIGHTS AND LIGHT STRUCTURES Primary and secondary lights are so designated because of their importance as ATONs. Primary seacoast aids are distinctive lights in the U.S. system of ATONs. They are “fixed” as opposed to “floating” and are maintained on the mainland, or on offshore islands and shoals to warn mariners of the nearness of land or dangers. They are usually the first ATONs that the navigator sees when making a landfall. The navigator can use these lights to keep farther offshore at night. When lights are located offshore, they mark a specific hazard or serve as a marker for ships approaching a major harbor.

Many lights are classified as primary lights because of the importance of their location, their intensity, and the prominence of their structures. Other aids are classed as secondary or minor lights because of their lesser qualities in one or more of these characteristics. The dividing line is not clear cut, and the difference is of no significance when applied to piloting situations.

5.7.1 Lighthouses These familiar structures are typical primary lights found along the coastlines around much of the world. Lighthouses are placed on prominent headlands and other points such as harbor entrances and isolated dangers to warn mariners of danger or to guide them. The principal purpose of the structure is to support a light source and lens at a considerable height above the water. The same structure may also house a fog signal, a radiobeacon, RACON, and other equipment.

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5-15 UNCLASSIFIED Lighthouses vary greatly in shape and construction (fig. 5-5), which is determined in part by their location (whether in the water or on shore), the importance of their light, the kind of soil on which they are constructed, and the prevalence of violent storms. Since lighthouses are nonlateral aids, their paint color schemes are quite different than traditional lateral marks. Lighthouse structures are painted in various patterns such as stripes and solids, which help mariners to easily distinguish them from other such structures in the same vicinity.

Figure 5-5 Typical lighthouses

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5-16 UNCLASSIFIED 5.7.2 Light Towers For many years, lightships were used to mark offshore dangers or mark the entrances to important harbors. Today, however, lightships are no longer used in the United States. Instead, they have all been replaced by light towers or large navigational buoys (LNBs) which, especially in the case of the LNB, are much more economical to maintain.

A typical tower deckhouse is 60 feet above the water, 80 feet square, and supported by steel legs in pilings driven nearly 300 feet into the ocean bottom. Though once manned, these light towers are now automated. The light tower has a helicopter landing deck and houses equipment such as a radiobeacon, RACON, fog signal, and communications equipment.

On one comer of the deckhouse is a radio tower supporting the radiobeacon antenna and a powerful light. At an elevation of 125 feet above the water, the light is visible for over 20 miles. Although construction details of other towers vary slightly, they are of the same general type.

5.7.3 Ranges One purpose of a range is to assist mariners in keeping their vessels on the centerline of a channel. The range may be lighted or unlighted and consists of two lights and daymarks located some distance apart with the front display lower than the rear. When the range markers appear one over the other as shown in figure 5-6, the vessel will remain within the limits of the channel. Another purpose of a range is to determine a ship’s gyro error.

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For a given range, the true bearing of the range axis will be listed in column 2 of the Light List immediately below the name of the rear range. As you approach this range and line up the lights and daymarks as shown in figure 5-6, you are on channel centerline. In figure 5-6, if the channel axis is listed as 020° and your ship has the markers in line, your gyro compass should read 020°. If it does not, the difference in degrees will equal your gyro error.

While the range markers discussed above are precisely positioned to mark a channel, you should also be aware that natural ranges are also used on occasion. For example, a tank and a radio antenna, when observed in line, may form a natural range marking safe water.

Figure 5-6 Using range markers

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5-18 UNCLASSIFIED 5.7.4 Directional Lights In certain situations where range lights are desirable but not practicable to build, a less effective, but generally accepted substitute known as a directional light is used. A directional light illuminates a sector or displays a very narrow angle light beam for a ship to follow. In some cases, three colors of light are used. A high intensity white light will be bordered on each side with a green and red light. The green sector will mark the side of the channel with green buoys, and the red sector marks the side with red buoys. Remaining in the white sector keeps you in the channel.

Figure 5-7 Daymarks

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5-19 UNCLASSIFIED 5.7.5 Daybeacons There are many ATONs that are not lighted, especially in the inland waters of the United States. Structures of this are called daybeacons (fig. 5-7). They are not buoys, but are permanently mounted in position. Daybeacons vary greatly in design and construction, depending on their location and the distance from which they must be seen. A daybeacon may consist of a single pile with a daymark on the top, a multi-pile structure, a tower, or a structure of masonry or steel. Daybeacons are fitted with reflecting tape to facilitate their identification by searchlight at night. Daymarks marking the sides of channels are colored and numbered in the same manner as buoys, with red even-numbered marks indicating a starboard-side channel boundary and green odd-numbered marks on the portside channel boundary. The shapes for channel, preferred-channel, nonlateral, and safe-water daymarks, together with their chart symbols, are shown in chart No. 1 and on plate 1.

5.7.6 Minor Lights Just as daybeacons are sometimes substituted for unlighted buoys, lighted buoys are often replaced by minor lights (fig. 5-8). Minor lights are fixed structures of the same overall physical features as daybeacons, but are equipped with lights generally similar in characteristics to those found on buoys. Minor lights can be used in a series with other aids to mark channels, rivers, or harbors and can be used to mark some isolated areas.

The term minor light does not include the more important lights marking harbors, peninsulas, major shoals, and so on, which have lights of greater intensity and/or special characteristics and were discussed earlier in this manual. Daymarks are placed on the structures for identification, and reflective material is added for nighttime safety in case the light is extinguished. A minor light normally has the same color, flash, and phase characteristic as that of a lighted buoy. Intensity of the light is generally of the same order as that of a lighted buoy, but visibility may be increased by its greater height above water.

Figure 5-8 Minor light

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5-20 UNCLASSIFIED 5.7.7 Light Colors There are only three light colors in common use on fixed lighted navigation aids—white, green, and red. All lighted navigation aids, regardless of the color of their light, are symbolized on a chart either by a magenta colored ray in the form of an exclamation point or by a one eighth-inch magenta circle, superimposed over a black dot indicating the location of the light.

On charts, the color of the light, if other than white is indicated by the abbreviations R for red and G for green, written near the light symbol. A white light has no abbreviation on a chart. Thus, if a magenta light symbol appears on a chart with no color abbreviation nearby, the navigator should assume its color to be white.

In the Light List and List of Lights, however, the color of a white light is indicated by the abbreviation W.

5.7.8 Alternating Lights If a light is made to change color in a regular pattern, either by alternately energizing different color lights or by passing colored lenses around the same light, the light is an alternating light, abbreviated Al.

Alternating lights used in conjunction with different phase characteristics show a very distinctive appearance that cannot be easily mistaken. Their use is generally reserved for special applications requiring the exercise of great caution, such as airport beacons, harbor entrance lights, and lighthouses.

5.8 SECTOR LIGHTS Sectors of colored glass are placed in the lanterns of certain lighthouses to indicate danger bearings within which a ship will be in danger of running on rocks, shoals, or some other hazard. The arcs over which a red light shows are the danger sectors whose bearings usually appear on the chart. Although the light is red within the danger arc, its characteristics remain the same. It should be noted, however, that the red light within the red sector may not be as visible as the white light outside that sector.

Sectors may be only a few degrees in width, marking an isolated obstruction, or they may be so wide that they extend from the direction of deep water to the beach.

In most instances, red sectors indicate water areas to be avoided. A narrow green sector may signify a turning point or the best water across a shoal. Exact significance of each sector may be obtained from the chart.

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5-21 UNCLASSIFIED Exercise caution so that the danger sectors are not mistaken for the sectors of good water or that incorrect bearings are taken from the chart.

All sector bearings are true bearings in degrees running clockwise around the light as a center and are expressed as BEARINGS OBSERVED FROM THE SHIP TOWARDS THE LIGHT.

Take a look at the example presented in figure 5-9. The Light List Remarks column shows Cape Henry Light (LLNR 365) as having a red sector from 154° to 233°. As long as your ship is within this sector, the light will appear red. In this same example you will also note that the nominal range of the red light is 15 miles, while the same light in the white sector has a nominal range of 17 miles. The reason for this difference is that a white light of a certain intensity is visible for a longer distance than a red light of the same intensity.

Figure 5-9 Light sectors are expressed as observed from the ship to the light

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5-22 UNCLASSIFIED On either side of the line of demarcation between colored and white sectors, there is always a small sector whose color is doubtful because the edges of a sector cannot be cut off sharply. Under some atmospheric conditions, a white light may have a reddish appearance. Consequently, light sectors must not be relied upon entirely; but position must be verified repeatedly by bearings taken on the light itself or by other fixed objects.

When a light is cut off (obscured) by adjoining land, the arc of visibility may vary with a ship’s distance away from the light. If the intervening land is sloping, for example, the light may be visible over a wider arc from a far off ship than from one close inshore.

5.8.1 Emergency Lights Emergency lights of reduced intensity are displayed from many primary lights when the main light is extinguished. These emergency lights may or may not have the same characteristic as the main light. The characteristic of the emergency lights are listed in column 8 of the Light List. Again, refer to the example shown in figure 5-9 for Cape Henry Light (LLNR 365).

5.8.2 RACONs A RACON is a radar beacon that produces a coded response, or radar paint, when triggered by a radar signal. The coded response appears on your radar screen as a series of dots and dashes. RACONs are placed on important ATONs (buoys or structures) to assist in positive identification of the aid. Column 8 of the Light List will describe the RACON signal both as a Morse code letter and the equivalent dots and dashes, for example RACON: X (-..-).

5.9 BUOYS Buoys are, in effect, floating sign posts for the mariner. Their color, shape, number, light, or sound characteristic tell the mariner how to transit safe water and avoid navigational hazards, and assist the mariner in following the proper course.

Buoy symbols shown on charts (see fig. 5-10) indicate the approximate position of the buoy and of the sinker that moors the buoy to the bottom. The approximate position is used because it is difficult to keep a buoy and its moorings in an exact geographical location. These difficulties include, but are not limited to, imprecise methods of position fixing, existing atmospheric and sea conditions, and variations in the seabed’s slope and makeup. The position of the buoy can be expected to shift inside and outside the area shown on the chart because they are moored with excess chain. In addition, buoys and sinkers are normally checked only during periodic maintenance visits, which often occur more than a year apart.

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5.9.1 Types of Buoys There are many different types of buoys in our buoyage system, with each type designed to meet certain requirements. All buoys assist mariners during daylight hours, and those with light, sound signals, or both, serve the mariner during darkness or periods of low visibility. The following are the principal types of buoys you will encounter:

Spar buoys are cylindrical in shape and are often constructed from large logs, which are trimmed, shaped, and appropriately painted. Some are metal, plastic, or fiberglass.

Can buoys (fig. 5-11) are built such that the upper portion that you observe resembles a can. These buoys are unlighted and will be painted green or have green and red horizontal bands.

Nun buoys (fig. 5-11) are built such that the upper portion you observe resembles a cone with a rounded tip. Like cans, these are also unlighted and will be painted red or have red and green horizontal bands.

Spherical buoys are unlighted and are round in shape. These buoys are painted with red and white vertical stripes.

Bell buoys have a flat top, surmounted by a skeleton steel framework supporting a bell. The bell usually has four clappers, which strike the bell as the buoy moves with the sea.

Gong buoys are similar to bell buoys except they have a series of gongs, each with a different tone.

Whistle buoys are similar to bell buoys except they carry a whistle sounded by the sea’s motion or a horn that is sounded at regular intervals by electrical means.

Lighted buoys (fig. 5-12) carry batteries and are surmounted by a framework supporting a light. The framework has no navigational significance; it simply supports the light and sound equipment. Many lighted buoys carry a solar panel atop the light to recharge the battery during daylight hours. Figure 5-10 Buoy symbol

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5-24 UNCLASSIFIED Combination buoys have a combined light and sound signal, such as a lighted bell, gong, or whistle buoy. Some of the most important combination buoys also carry a RACON.

Figure 5-11 Can buoy on the left and nun buoy on the right Figure 5-12 Lighted buoy

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5-25 UNCLASSIFIED 5.9.2 Large Navigational Buoys Large navigational buoys (LNBs) are disc-shaped buoys that may be as large as 40 feet in diameter.

LNBs provide a platform for a light, fog signal, radiobeacon, and meteorological sensors that transmit data ashore. LNBs were developed primarily to replace manned lightships and light towers.

They are normally stationed many miles from shore and are moved from time to time. Special attention must be paid to these buoys when laying coastal and open ocean tracks.

5.10 BUOY IDENTIFICATION All buoys are fitted with retroreflective materials that show well when illuminated with a spotlight, and most buoys are fitted with radar reflectors.

Retroreflective material is applied to lighted as well as unlighted buoys to increase their visibility. This application greatly assists you in locating aids at night using a searchlight. Retroreflective material may be red, green, white, or yellow; the coloring has the same significance as the colors of lights.

Many buoys are equipped with radar reflectors, which are vertical metal plates, set at right angles to each other in such a manner as to greatly increase the echo returned to a radar receiver aboard ship. The plates are shaped and mounted in order to preserve the overall characteristic shape of an unlighted buoy or the general appearance of a lighted buoy. Some buoys have a radar reflector mounted inside the actual body of the buoy.

CAUTION Although buoys are valuable ATONs, you must never depend exclusively on them—they may fail. Some of the reasons for their failure are as follows:

Passing vessels may hit a buoy and shift it, overturn it, or set it adrift.

Buoys can drag their moorings in heavy weather.

The light on a lighted buoy may fail or be extinguished. Sound signals may not function because of ice, storm damage, collisions, or other accidents.

Whistles, bells, and gongs actuated by the sea’s motion may fail to function in smooth water. For these reasons, a prudent mariner must not rely completely upon the position or operation of buoys, but must also navigate using bearings from fixed structures and ATONs on shore.

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5-26 UNCLASSIFIED 5.11 BUOYAGE SYSTEMS A buoyage system consists of fixed, floating, lighted, and unlighted ATONs. These aids are used to mark waterways. There are two buoyage systems that are in use throughout the world-the lateral system and the cardinal system.

5.11.1 Lateral System In the lateral system, aids are placed to mark the sides of a navigable channel. They also mark junctions and bifurcations, indicate the safe side on which to pass hazards, and mark the general safe centerline of wide bodies of water.

In U.S. waters, a vessel returning from seaward and proceeding toward the head of navigation is generally considered as moving southerly along the Atlantic Coast, westerly along the Gulf Coast, and northerly along the Pacific Coast. This is what is known as the “conventional direction” of buoyage. Virtually all U.S. lateral marks are located in what is known as IALA region B and follow the traditional “red right returning” rule.

5.11.2 Cardinal System In the cardinal system, aids generally mark the geographic relationship to the aid of a hazard in terms of 90-degree quadrants centered on the cardinal directions of north, east, south, and west. The cardinal system is not widely used in the United States and will not be discussed in this text. For more information on the cardinal system, consult Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting or Bowditch.

5.12 INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF LIGHT AUTHORITIES (IALA) In years past, mariners had to be familiar with many different types of buoyage systems worldwide, because there was no standardized system in use. Some of the features of these different buoyage systems had completely opposite meanings, which often led to confusion and accidents. In the mid 1970’s, the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) developed and secured acceptance of two systems of buoyage known as IALA A and IALA B. Both systems use a combination of cardinal and lateral marks plus unique marks for isolated dangers, safe-water, and special-purpose areas.

5.12.1 IALA Systems The IALA system uses buoy shape, color, and, if lighted, rhythm of flashes to convey the desired information to the navigator. The system also uses special topmarks, which are small distinctive shapes above the basic aid to facilitate identification.

IALA System A is used in Europe, Africa, and most of Asia, including Australia and New Zealand. In this system, cardinal marks are widely used. Red buoys are kept to port when entering from seaward; green buoys are kept to starboard.

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5-27 UNCLASSIFIED IALA system B is used in North, Central, and South America, Japan, South Korea, and the Philippines. Cardinal marks are permitted in this system but are seldom used. Red buoys are kept to starboard (red right returning) when entering from seaward, green buoys are kept to port. Figure 5-13 shows how the two IALA regions are divided worldwide.

5.13 THE UNITED STATES SYSTEM OF AIDS TO NAVIGATION The system of ATONs used in the United States consists of buoys, lights, and daybeacons conforming to the IALA region B guidelines as well as certain variations which are used exclusively in this country. Figures 5-14 through 5-16 graphically display the variations that exist in the U.S. system.

Figure 5-14 shows the U.S. ATONs system as seen entering from seaward.

Figure 5-15 represents a visual buoyage guide for IALA region B.

Figure 5-16 shows how the visual guide would appear on a nautical chart.

Figure 5-17 shows ATONs as they appear on the western rivers of the United States.

Figure 5-13 The IALA buoyage system

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Figure 5-14 Lateral system as seen entering from seaward

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Figure 5-15 Visual buoyage guide for IALA region B

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Figure 5-16 How the visual guide would appear on a nautical chart

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Figure 5-17 Aids to navigation as they appear on the western rivers of the United States

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5-32 UNCLASSIFIED 5.14 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIDS TO NAVIGATION The characteristics of ATONs include such things as color, light rhythms, cycle, number, and sound signal. In the pages that follow, we’ll discuss these characteristics as they apply to the buoyage system used in the United States.

5.14.1 Solid Colors During daylight hours, the color of an aid to navigation tells you which side of a channel the aid marks, regardless of whether the aid is a buoy, light, or daybeacon. At night, the color of a lighted aid serves the same purpose. Only ATONs with green or red lights have lateral significance. When proceeding in the conventional direction of buoyage in IALA region B, you may see the following ATONs:

Green buoys (and lights and daybeacons with square-shaped green daymarks) mark the port side of a channel when returning from seaward. Green buoys will only have green lights.

Red buoys (and lights and daybeacons with triangular-shaped red daymarks) mark the starboard side of a channel when returning from seaward. This is the “red right returning” rule you may have heard of. Red buoys will only have red lights.

5.14.2 Striped Buoys Green and red (or red and green) horizontally striped buoys (daymarks for daybeacons and lights) are called preferred-channel marks. These aids are used to mark junctions (the point where a channel divides when proceeding seaward) or bifurcations (the point where the channel divides when proceeding from seaward). They may also be used to mark wrecks or obstructions that may be passed on either side. Here is how they are used in our buoyage system:

If the topmost band is green, keep the buoy to port to follow the preferred channel.

If the aid is a light or daybeacon and the topmost band is green, the daymarks will be square-shaped and the light color will be green regardless of the type.

If the topmost band is red, keep the buoy to starboard to follow the preferred channel.

If the aid is a light or daybeacon and the topmost band is red, the daymarks will be triangular-shaped and the light color will be red regardless of the type.

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5-33 UNCLASSIFIED 5.14.3 Safe Water Marks Red and white vertically striped buoys (daymarks for daybeacons and lights) are called safe-water marks. They are used to mark a mid-channel, fairway, or landfall. Safe-water marks have white lights.

Black and red horizontally banded buoys are called isolated danger marks. They are used to mark an isolated danger that has navigable water all around it. Isolated danger marks have white lights.

Yellow buoys and beacons are called special-purpose marks. They are used to mark anchorages, dredging, and fishnet areas. These aids have yellow lights.

Nonlateral aids are lights and daybeacons that have no lateral significance in our system of buoyage. Daymarks for these aids are diamond-shaped and will either be red and white, green and white, or black and white. The light color will always be white. These aids are used primarily as landmarks for navigation.

5.15 SOUND SIGNALS A sound signal is a term used to describe ATONs that produce an audible signal designed to assist the mariner in fog or other periods of reduced visibility. Sound signals can be activated by several means, such as manually, remotely, or by a fog detector device. It should be noted, however, that in patchy fog conditions, a fog detector may not always activate the signal.

Sound signals are distinguished by their tone and phase characteristics. The tones are determined by the devices producing the sound, such as a horn, bell, or gong. Phase characteristics are defined by the signal’s sound pattern, or the number of blasts and silent periods per minute when operating. In the case of fixed structures, sound signals generally produce a specific number of blasts and silent periods every minute; buoy sound signals generally do not because the sound signal is generated by wave action.

The characteristic of a sound signal can be found in column 8 of the Light List. For example, for Chesapeake Light (LLNR 355) it reads “Horn: 1 blast ev 30 s (3s bt).” What this means is that 30 seconds is the time required for one complete cycle to occur. During this 30-second cycle, there are 27 seconds of silence and 3 seconds of blast. You can time this cycle with a stopwatch just like a light. Timing a sound signal is another method of positively identifying an ATON. Unless it is specifically stated that a sound signal “Operates continuously,” or the signal is a bell, gong, or whistle on a buoy, it can be assured that the sound signal only operates during fog, reduced visibility, or adverse weather.

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5-34 UNCLASSIFIED CAUTIONS TO OBSERVE IN USING SOUND SIGNALS: Sound signals depend upon the transmission of sound through the air. As ATONs, they have certain inherent limitations that you must consider. Sound travels through air in a variable and unpredictable manner. At times, these signals may be completely inaudible even when close by. At other times, they may appear to be coming from a direction quite different than the actual bearing of the signal source. Mariners should not rely on sound signals to determine their positions.

5.16 INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY The Intracoastal Waterway (ICW) is a largely sheltered waterway, suitable for year-round use, extending some 2,400 miles along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States. In general, it follows natural waterways.

ATONs along the ICW have some portion of them marked with yellow. Otherwise, the coloring and numbering of the ATONs follow the same system as that in other U.S. waterways.

So vessels may readily follow the ICW, special markings consisting of yellow triangles and squares are employed. When you are following the ICW from the north along the Atlantic Coast and west along the Gulf Coast, aids displaying yellow triangles should be kept to starboard; those aids displaying yellow squares should be kept to port, regardless of the color of the aid on which they appear. Nonlateral aids in the ICW, such as ranges, safe-water, and other nonlateral daymarks, will be identified by the addition of a yellow stripe instead of a triangle or square.

The conventional direction of buoyage in the ICW is generally southerly along the Atlantic Coast and generally westerly along the Gulf Coast.

5.16.1 Western Rivers Aids to navigation on the western rivers of the United States—the Mississippi River and its tributaries above Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and on other certain rivers that flow towards the Gulf of Mexico—are generally similar to those on other U.S. waters, but there are a few differences that should be noted (see fig. 5-17).

ATONs are not numbered. Numbers on ATONs do not have lateral significance, but instead, indicate mileage from a fixed point.

Diamond-shaped crossing daymarks, red or green as appropriate, are used to indicate where the river channel crosses from one bank to another.

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5-35 UNCLASSIFIED Lights on green aids show a single flash, which may be green or white. Lights on red aids show a double flash, which may be red or white. Isolated danger marks are not used.

5.17 SOUNDINGS Scattered all over the watery area of any navigational chart are many tiny numbers, each representing the depth of the water (usually the depth of mean low water) in that particular locality. Depths on charts are given in feet, fathoms, or meters. A notation under the title of the chart is the key; for example, “soundings in feet at mean low water” or “soundings in fathoms at….” Most charts also contain dotted lines used as depth curves to mark the limits of areas of certain depths. In figure 5-18, notice the dotted lines along the shore that indicate depths.

5.18 SUMMARY In this chapter, you were introduced to the components of the maritime highway. Just as you would travel along a roadway in your car by referring to a map and the road signs, the high seas, coastal approaches, and harbors all have unique signposts to help ships find the way. Figure 5-18 Example of Soundings on a Chart

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6-1 UNCLASSIFIED 6 BASICS OF TIME

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Define the terms apparent and mean solar time. 2. Match the following kinds of time with their definitions: a. Greenwich mean time (GMT) b. Universal time (UT) c. Local mean time (LMT) d. Zone time (ZT) e. Zone description (ZD)

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6-2 UNCLASSIFIED 3. State why standard time zones are used and how they are measured. 4. Calculate ZD from ship’s longitude. 5. State the procedures for adjusting a ship’s time and date at sea. 6. Convert ZT to GMT. 7. Convert GMT to ZT. 8. Identify the equivalent values for arc and time. 9. Convert time to arc and arc to time manually. 10. Convert arc to time using The Nautical Almanac.

6.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter you will be introduced to the basics of time. You may be asking yourself what part time plays in the practice of navigation. You may be surprised to find out how important time actually is. For example, when we use time to mark the exact second of celestial observation an error of a few seconds could result in a fix error of many miles from the correct fix position.

6.2 APPARENT TIME AND MEAN SOLAR TIME In this section of the course, we will discuss time in more abstract terms. We will look at how time is measured, some basic terms and definitions associated with time, time zones and time zone conversions, and how we convert time to arc and arc to time.

The instrument for measuring time is a timepiece. Earth itself may be considered as our celestial timepiece. Each complete rotation of Earth on its axis provides a unit of time that we know as a day. Time is important to you because of its relationship to longitude. As a Quartermaster, you will have to understand this relationship to do your job.

6.2.1 The Solar Day The two types of time we will discuss here are:

1. Apparent solar time. 2. Mean solar time.

You probably already know that the motion of the Sun and the stars around Earth is only apparent—an illusion created by the rotation of the Earth itself. Solar time is based upon the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun.

The solar day is equal to one rotation of Earth relative to the Sun.

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6-3 UNCLASSIFIED 6.2.1.1 Apparent Time Apparent solar time is measured upon the basis of the apparent motion of the real Sun (the one you see rise and set every day). This is why we use the term apparent when we measure time using the apparent Sun. When the Sun is directly over our local meridian (directly overhead), we say that it is noon, local apparent time. When it is directly over the meridian that is 180° (on the opposite side of Earth) away from ours, it is midnight local apparent time.

If Earth remained stationary in space, all the days reckoned by apparent time would be of the same length. But Earth travels in an elliptical orbit around the Sun, and its speed relative to the Sun varies with its position in its orbit. Consequently, the time required for a complete revolution of Earth on its axis, although constant as applied to points on Earth, varies regarding Earth relative to the Sun. The length of a day measured by a complete revolution of Earth with regard to the Sun also varies. For this reason it is impractical for man-made timepieces to keep apparent time; another solution had to be figured to account for these unequal lengths of time.

6.2.1.2 Mean Solar Time To remedy the situation created by apparent solar time, mean solar time was introduced. Mean solar time is based on a fictional Sun that is considered to move at a constant rate of 360° in 24 hours along the celestial meridian. One mean day is 24 hours in length, each hour consisting of 60 minutes, and each minute consisting of 60 seconds.

Mean solar time and apparent solar time are nearly equal, but mean solar time is the time used in everyday life (fig. 6-1). It is the time kept by our ship’s chronometers and clocks, even our own wristwatch. It is also the time used in various almanacs that we use for tabulating the positions of celestial bodies.

Figure 6-1 Difference in the time of an apparent day

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6-4 UNCLASSIFIED 6.2.2 Equation of Time The difference between the apparent day and the mean day is never more than a minute. This difference is cumulative and amounts to as much as a quarter-hour at certain times of the year (fig. 6-2). The difference between mean and apparent time at any instant is called the equation of time.

6.3 DEFINITION OF TERMS

GMT Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the basis or origin of longitude measurement. It is mean solar time measured with reference to the 0° meridian of longitude located at Greenwich, England. GMT is of prime importance to you because much of the time referenced in almanacs relates to GMT.

UT When we discussed mean solar time we said that it was based on a fictional Sun that is considered to move at a constant rate of 360° in 24 hours along the celestial meridian. This solved the problem of unequal day length, but even with mean time there are slight variations. The most precise time yet developed by man is kept by atomic "clocks," which operate using cesium beam oscillators. This steady, internationally adjusted time is called Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). For our purposes, it is the same as GMT and is the time signal broadcast as radio time signals.

LMT Local mean time is mean solar time measured with reference to your meridian; that is, the meridian where you are located.

Figure 6-2 Difference of mean time and solar time

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6-5 UNCLASSIFIED ZT Zone time is the time you use to set your watch and clocks. Zone time uses the standard (central) meridians of the various time zones as reference meridians.

ZD The zone description of a time zone is the adjustment to be applied to that time zone to determine GMT.

Although most of the above terms may be new to you, they will all make sense when we cover the rest of the material in this chapter. In carrying out the daily routines you will often be required to convert time zones and work with time calculations. After a bit of practice, the procedures contained in this chapter will become second nature. In fact, in most cases you will learn to quickly do time calculation in your head.

Let’s move on to how time is broken down into standard meridians (zones) and then how that relates to longitude.

6.4 STANDARD TIME ZONES You can understand how a general foul-up would result if all people set their watch on their own LMT. As you know, local mean time (LMT) always differs in different longitudes. In a large city, for example, a difference of about 9 seconds (9s) LMT occurs between one end of the city and the other end. If you set your watch on your LMT you would have to change it every time you went a few blocks on a street running east and west.

To eliminate this difficulty, standard time zones have been established within which all clocks are set to the same time, zone time (ZT). A difference of 1 hour (lh) takes place between one time zone and the next. Because 1h is 15°, you can see that each time zone comprises 15° of longitude. Thus resulting in 24 time zones, and 25 time zone designations.

Local mean time along each standard time meridian is zone time for the entire time zone. Look at figure 6-3. In zone 0, time is exactly the same within 7 ½° either side of the standard meridian. Zone time in navigation is abbreviated ZT.

Daylight savings time is simple zone time set ahead 1 hour to extend the time of daylight.

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6-6 UNCLASSIFIED

6.5 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME AND LONGITUDE Ordinarily, we use mean solar time, which is measured by the motion of the mean Sun around the Earth. Let’s suppose your ship is on longitude 60°W. When the Sun is on your longitude or meridian, it is noon. As the Sun continues to move west and crosses over longitude 61°W, it is noon there and the time on your meridian is later. In fact it is the time equivalent of 1° later. But you can’t measure 1° on your watch; you must convert this 1° of arc to units of time.

To have a standard reference point, every celestial observation is timed according to the time at the Greenwich meridian. Usually this is determined by means of the chronometer which is set to GMT. To clarify the relationship between time and arc, let’s consider a situation in which you know your longitude exactly at noon, and you want to find out the time in Greenwich.

6.5.1 Arc to Time When the Sun is on a particular meridian, it is noon at that meridian. In other words, when the Sun is on the Greenwich meridian (0°), it is noon by Greenwich Time. To make the problem easier, let’s say you’re in 90°W longitude. It’s noon where you are, so the Sun must also be in 90°W longitude. So, since leaving Greenwich, the Sun has traveled through 90° of arc. Because it was 1200 (noon) Greenwich time when the Sun was at 0°, the time at Greenwich now must be 1200 plus the time required for the Sun to travel through 90° of arc. Figure 6-3 Time zones

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6-7 UNCLASSIFIED The following information provides all the elements of a problem for converting arc to time. If you know that it takes 24 hours for the Sun to travel 360° or one complete revolution, it should be easy to find how long it takes it to go 90°. If the Sun goes 360° in 24 hours, it must go 15° in 1 hour. If it goes 15° in 1 hour, it must go 1° in 4 minutes. Then, to go 90°, it takes 90 x 4 minutes, or 360 minutes, which is the same as 6 hours. Six hours ago it was 1200 Greenwich Time; therefore, the time at Greenwich now must be 1800. You actually have converted 90° of arc to 6 hours of time. In doing so, you discovered the basic relationship between arc and time. This relationship is stated as 15° of longitude (arc) equals 1 hour of time.

Your problem could be converting time to arc—the reverse of the one we worked out. Tables for converting either way are in The Nautical Almanac and in Bowditch, but if you acquire the following easy methods of converting, you won’t have to refer to publications. First, you must memorize the values for arc and time.

6.5.2 Arc to Time Relationship Use this table to learn the relationship between arc and time.

Equivalents of Arc and Time Time to Arc Arc to Time 24h = 360° lh = 15° lm = 15' 1s = 15" 360° = 24h 1° = 4m 1' = 4s

6.5.3 Converting Time to Arc The following is a step by step example of the time to arc conversion process:

Step Action Example: Convert 14h 21m 39s units of time to arc 1. Multiply the hours by 15 to obtain degrees. 14h X 15 = 210° 2. Divide the minutes by 4 to obtain degrees; multiply the remainder by 15 to obtain minutes of arc. 21m ÷ 4 = 5° 15' (remainder lm X 15 = 15') 3. Divide the seconds of time by 4 to obtain minutes and minutes of arc, or multiply the remainder by 15 to obtain seconds of arc. 39s ÷ 4 = 9' 45" (remainder 3s X 15 = 45”) 4. Add degrees, minutes, and seconds. Answer: 210° 24' 45"

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6-8 UNCLASSIFIED 6.5.4 Converting Arc to Time The following table shows how to convert arc to time.

Step Action Example: Convert 215°24' 45" of arc to time. 1. Divide the degrees by 15 to obtain hours, and multiply the remainder by 4 to obtain minutes of time. 215° ÷ 15 = 14h20m 2. Divide the minutes of arc by 15 to obtain minutes of time, and multiply the remainder by 4 to obtain seconds of time. 24' ÷ 15 = lm36s ( r e m a i n d e r 5 ° X 4 = 2 0 m ) 3. Divide the seconds of arc by 15 to obtain seconds of time. 45" ÷ 15 = 3s ( r e m a i n d e r 9 ' X 4 = 3 6 s ) 4. Add hours, minutes, and seconds. Answer: 14h21m39s

6.5.5 Finding ZD To calculate the ZD for a given position, follow the steps as shown below.

Step Action 1. Divide the longitude of the position by 15°. 2. If the remainder is less than 7°30', the whole number quotient from step 1 equals the ZD. 3. If the remainder is more than 7°30', the ZD is one more than the whole number of the quotient.

Example 1: 135° W ÷ 15 = 9 The longitude is west, so the ZD = +9.

Example 2: 062° W ÷ 15 = 4 with a remainder of 2. The remainder is LESS THAN 7°30” and the longitude is west, so the ZD = +4.

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6-9 UNCLASSIFIED 6.6 HOW TO CONVERT TO TIME USING THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC In the following example, you will learn how to convert arc to time using a table from The Nautical Almanac.

Example: Suppose your DR longitude is 142° 41’ W, and ZT is 06h 21m 09s. Divide 142° 41’ by 15, and you find that your ZD is +10. This means that your standard meridian must be 150°W. To simplify the arithmetic, express the 150°W longitude as 149° 60’ W. The values are equal and subtraction is made easier this way.

Standard time meridian 149°60’ W Longitude your meridian 142°41’ Difference of Longitude 7°19’

Using the conversion of arc to time excerpt shown in figure 5-4, change 7° 19’ to time, and you get 00h 29m 16s. This means that LMT at your meridian differs from ZT by 00h 29m 16s.

Figure 6-4 Excerpt from The Nautical Almanac

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6-10 UNCLASSIFIED 6.7 HOW TO CONVERT TIME

6.7.1 Converting ZT to GMT In our previous discussion of ZD, we said that each standard meridian (those meridians exactly divisible by 15) is 1 hour apart and that each of these standard meridians is identified by a number and letter sign. To convert ZT to GMT, or GMT to ZT, the first thing you must determine is the correct ZD. ZT differs from GMT by the ZD.

Rule: When you convert ZT to GMT, you must apply the ZD to your ZT using the proper sign, minus (-) if you are in east longitude, plus (+) if in west longitude.

Example 1: Assume that you are in longitude 105°E, ZT is 16h 23m 14s, and you want to find GMT.

Step Action 1. Find your ZD. 105 ÷ 15 = 7. 2. Determine the sign of the correction. You are in east longitude, so the sign is negative. 3. Apply the correction. Your ZD is -7. The minus sign means that you subtract ZD from ZT to obtain GMT. ZT 16h 23m 14s ZD -7 GMT 09h 23m 14s

Example 2: Assume you are in longitude 75°W, ZT is 07h 13m 57s, and you want to find GMT.

Step Action 1. Find your ZD. 75 ÷ 15 = 5. Therefore, you are in zone 5. 2. Determine the sign of the correction. You are in west longitude, so the sign is positive. 3. Apply the correction. Your ZD is +5, so add the correction to ZT to obtain GMT.

ZT 7h 13m 57s

+5 GMT 12h 13m 57s

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6-11 UNCLASSIFIED 6.7.2 Converting GMT to ZT When you convert GMT to ZT, you must apply the ZD to your ZT using the opposite sign; plus (+) if in east longitude, minus (-) if in west longitude.

Example 1: Assume that you are in longitude 156° 58’E, GMT is Olh 00m 00s on 01 July. You want to find ZT.

Step Action 1. Find your ZD. Divide 156° 58' by 15 and you get 10. 2. Determine the sign of the correction. You are in east longitude, so the sign is minus (- 10). 3. Apply the correction using the opposite sign (+10).

GMT 01h 00m 00s

ZD +10 ZT 11h 00m 00s

Example 2: Assume that you are in longitude 145° 00’ W and GMT is 16h 00m 00s on 30 December. You want to find ZT.

Step Action 1. Find your ZD. Divide 145° 00' by 15 and you get 10. 2. Determine the sign of the correction. You are in west longitude so the sign is plus (+10). 3. Since you are going from GMT to ZT, apply the correction using the opposite sign (-10).

GMT 16h 00m 00s

ZD -10 ZT 06h 00m 00s

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6-12 UNCLASSIFIED 6.8 TIME AND DATE FOR SHIPS AT SEA

6.8.1 Ship’s Clocks As your ship travels east or west at sea and passes between one time zone and the next, it is convenient for you (and everyone else on board) to adjust the ship’s clocks to the time zone where you are actually located. As you pass from one time zone to the next, ZT changes by 1 hour. But do you advance the clocks 1 hour, or do you set them back 1 hour? The rule is:

If you are traveling towards the west, the new ZT will be 1 hour earlier; therefore, you must set the ship’s clocks back 1 hour.

If you are traveling towards the east, ZT will be 1 hour later; therefore, you must set the ship’s clocks ahead 1 hour.

The ship’s navigator or quartermaster should notify the commanding officer when these changes become necessary. Do NOT, in any case, ever advance or retard the ship’s chronometer.

6.8.2 International Date Line So far we’ve been talking about advancing or retarding clocks to account for time zone changes as we travel over the oceans. Suppose your ship is in the Pacific Ocean traveling west. As you continue to travel west, you are setting your clocks back 1 hour each time you enter a new time zone. Eventually, you will lose 24 hours in a circumnavigation of the Earth. Because of this, a method for adjusting for the day lost (or gained when you were traveling east) is necessary and is accomplished by the International Date Line, which follows the 180 th meridian. The rule for changing date when crossing the International Date Line is:

When traveling east and crossing the International Date Line, you compensate by retarding the date 1 day.

When traveling west and crossing the International Date Line, you compensate by advancing the date 1 day.

Note: The date change is in the opposite direction to the hour changes you made as you passed into each new time zone. This date change is made by every vessel that crosses the International Date Line, regardless of the length of the voyage.

The International Date Line is used as a convenience just like time zones. Changing the date should take place at a convenient time that is least disruptive to the operation of your ship.

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6-13 UNCLASSIFIED 6.9 TIMEPIECES The quartz chronometer is the main source for keeping shipboard time (fig. 6-5). A chronometer is like any watch except that it keeps time to a higher degree of accuracy. For detailed information on the components and upkeep of shipboard chronometers, refer to NSTM, chapter 252.

Figure 6-5 Quartz chronometer

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6-14 UNCLASSIFIED 6.9.1 Error and Rate Even a chronometer cannot keep exact time indefinitely. Sooner or later the chronometer time gradually begins to draw away from GMT (UTC). The difference between chronometer time and GMT, at any instant, is called chronometer error. Error direction is identified with a sign or letter (+ or F = Fast) or (- or S = Slow) to indicate that the chronometer is either fast or slow in relation to the correct GMT.

Chronometer rate, on the other hand, is the amount the instrument gains or loses in a specified time.

6.10 CHRONOMETER ERROR Inasmuch as chronometers are never reset aboard ship, an accumulated error may become quite large. Such an error is unimportant, though, if an accurate record is kept of the error. The most accurate check on the chronometer and other timepieces is by comparing the radio time signal broadcast by radio station WWV and other stations listed in Radio Navigational Aids (Pub No. 117) with the chronometer time.

6.10.1 Time Ticks Since 1 January 1973, the broadcast time signals (UTC) have differed from GMT by amounts up to ±0.7s. The difference arises because the times given in the navigational tables depend on the variable rate of rotation of the Earth, while the broadcast time signals are now based on an atomic time scale. Step adjustments of exactly 1 second are made to the time signals as required (normally at 24 th on December 31 and June 30) so that the difference between the time signals and GMT may not exceed 0.9s. For those who require GMT to an accuracy better than 1s, a correction (DUT) is coded into the transmitted time signal. GMT accurate to 0.1s is obtained by applying DUT to the transmitted time signal; that is,

GMT = UTC + DUT

Naval radio stations transmit time signals (on seven different frequencies) for the 5 minutes immediately preceding certain hours GMT. The DUT correction is given in Morse code in the final 9-second pause prior to the long dash.

Each second in the time signal is marked by the beginning of a dash; the end of the dash has no significance. Beginning at 5 minutes before the hour, every second is transmitted except the 51 st second of the 1st minute, 52nd second of the 2nd minute, 53rd second of the 3rd minute, 54th second of the 4th minute, 29th second of each minute, the last 4 seconds. of each of the first 4 minutes, and the last 9 seconds of the last minute. The hour signal after the 0-second break (59m 60s) consists of a longer dash than the others. For clarity, the system of dashes are shown graphically in the accompanying table on the next page.

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6-15 UNCLASSIFIED

6.10.2 Other Time Tick Available All other time signal transmissions, for example, WWV (Ft. Collins, Colo.), WWVH (Honolulu), CHU (Ottawa, Can.), are broadcast on 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 megahertz and consist of dashes at the beginning of each second (commencing with the zero second of each minute). DUT is coded into the first 16 seconds by doubling of the dashes in seconds. 1 to 8 for +0.1s to +0.8s, and in seconds 9 to 16 for -0.1s to -0.8s. For example: If DUT = +0.4s, the dashes for seconds 1, 2, 3, 4 would be double; if DUT = -0.6s, the dashes for seconds 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 would be double.

The upcoming time is announced during the interruption of the audio frequency. The exact time is taken the instant the audio frequency is resumed. An example of the voice announcement might be: “THIS IS RADIO STATION WWV. At the tone, the time will be 8 hours, 50 minutes, coordinated universal time.”

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6-16 UNCLASSIFIED 6.11 DOCUMENTING CHRONOMETER ERROR

6.11.1 Navigational Timepiece Rate Book Information concerning each chronometer (error, successive daily rate, and average daily rate) must be recorded in the Navigational Timepiece Rate Book, NAVSEA 4270. (See fig. 6-6.) Each page of NAVSEA 4270 can accommodate the records of a maximum of three chronometers for 1 month.

Figure 6-6 Excerpt from the Timepiece Rate Book

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6-17 UNCLASSIFIED 6.11.2 How to Check and Record Error Use the following table to check and record chronometer error. You will need pencil, paper, and a comparing stopwatch handy.

Step Action 1. Obtain a time tick signal from the communications center. 2. Determine from the time tick the next minute that will be sounded; write this value down. When the signal is sounded, start the comparing watch. 3. At the exact moment the comparing watch marks on the minute, note the exact time for chronometer 1. Write down the time for chronometer 1. 4. Compare the two time values and determine the difference of time. It is always preferable to change the larger time value to ease addition or subtraction. In our example, the comparing watch time is the larger value and equals 1 lh 15m 00s. This converts to 11h 14m 60s.

Example: Comparing watch llh 14m 60s GMT Chrono time - llh 14m 43s GMT Chrono error 0h 00m17s 5. Record results in the Timepiece Rate Book, compare the results with the previous day and compute the difference, assign a - value if the chronometer is slower; assign a + value if the chronometer is faster. 6. Repeat steps l-5 for the remaining chronometers, replacing chronometer 1 with the chronometer you are comparing.

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6-18 UNCLASSIFIED 6.11.3 GPS Time At the time of publishing of this TRAMAN, the use of GPS time as the single source reference for setting ships time has not been approved. However, the use of GPS time signals may be approved in the near future. Check with your Type Commander Staff Navigator for guidance on this matter.

6.12 HOW TO DETERMINE DAILY RATES

6.12.1 Average Daily Rate (ADR) Example: a chronometer whose rate is +1.5 seconds will gain 1.5 seconds every 24 hours. Chronometer rate is usually expressed as seconds and tenths of seconds per day and is labeled gaining or losing. Chronometer rate is determined by comparing errors obtained several days apart and dividing the difference by the number of days between readings.

No attempt should be made to determine chronometer error closer than l/2 (0.5) second. Average daily rates, therefore, are somewhat a more accurate measurement of the chronometer’s performance than are the daily checks because, in the former method, any daily observational errors are averaged out.

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6-19 UNCLASSIFIED 6.13 TIMING CELESTIAL OBSERVATIONS The importance of obtaining the exact GMT (UTC) of every celestial observation was mentioned earlier. Obviously, it would be impractical if every time you took a sight on the bridge wing, you had to dash into the charthouse and look at the chronometer. Every observation, consequently, is timed the instant it is made, either by a stopwatch or by a comparing watch.

6.13.1 Techniques There are several methods available for timing observations. In this text we will cover the preferred method only. The preferred method consists of one person taking observations and another person marking the exact time of the observation. The person marking the time will need to use a comparing watch set to GMT from a time tick or set to chronometer time.

The stopwatch can be started exactly on some convenient minute or hour of the chronometer. If its rate is known to be small, there is no necessity for working out any chronometer minus watch (C-W) computation, provided the interval during which observations are taken is short. For a single observation, the stopwatch can be stopped (or, reversing the procedure, the watch may be started) when the sight is taken, but seldom is only one observation made. For this reason, the stopwatch must usually be read like any other watch.

A comparing watch can be set to the chronometer time and can be used to keep time if its rate is also small. Some navigators, though, prefer to keep their watches on zone time; hence, observation time must be computed. It doesn’t matter whether computation is made before or after the observation. It is essential to have the interval as short as possible between time of sight and time of computation. Otherwise, enough time may elapse for the watch to gain or lose a sufficient amount to cause an error. For better accuracy and to avoid careless errors, it’s a good idea to make C-W computations both before and after a round of sights.

The C-W computation is watch time (WT) to the half-second subtracted from chronometer time (CT). If WT is greater, 12 hours must be added to CT. The C-W is never greater than 12 hours because both watch and chronometer are graduated only to 12. Now that you know the value of C-W, it is necessary only to add this value to the WT of any observation to find the correct CT, and then apply chronometer error (CE), and you have the GMT (UTC) of the observation.

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6-20 UNCLASSIFIED 6.13.2 Examples To work an example, assume that you have a chronometer whose error (CE) is -7m 4s; in other words, it is 7m 4s behind GMT (UTC). Your watch is set to ZT and reads 5h 26m 42s when the chronometer reads 10h 19m 00s. First, find the C-W. It is WT subtracted from CT.

CT 10h 19m 00s WT 5h 76m 42s C-W 4h 52m 18s

You step out on the bridge with our sextant and watch, and sight on Sirius at WT 5h 34m 21s, date 15 October, longitude 101°34.2’E. What should be the GMT (UTC) of this sight? Applying the formula CT = WT + C-W, we find:

WT 5h 34m 21s CE 7m 04s GMT 10h 33m 43s

Now, let’s consider the date 15 October at 101°34.2’E. Is it the same day at Greenwich? Let’s see. The ZT is 5h 34m 21s. The ZD is -7. Subtract ZD from ZT to get GMT (UTC). You can’t subtract 7 from 5, but 5h on 15 October is the same as 29th on 14 October, and 7 from 29 is 22.

Therefore, 1 Oh 33m 43s is not a.m. on 15 October, but p.m. on 14 October. From this computation, it follows that GMT (UTC) is 22h 33m 43s on 14 October.

In problems like these, you must check the date carefully every time to avoid a 12-hour error such as the one we encountered just now.

6.14 SUMMARY Time computations are one of the main building blocks of a good Quartermaster. As you become more proficient in the different watch stations you will be required to learn to compute time for different reasons including but not limited to celestial observations, deduce reckoning (DR) and Plan of Intended Movement (PIM).

Pay close attention when advancing and retarding clocks while conducting and logging open ocean navigation or while applying Daylight Savings Time (DST) in port.

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7-1 UNCLASSIFIED 7 TIDES AND CURRENTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Define the following terms associated with the rising and falling tide phenomena: a. High tide or high water; low tide or low water b. Range of tide and the duration of rise and fall c. Stand 2. Define the terms spring tide and neap tide. 3. Match the three types of tides listed below with their characteristics: a. Semidiurnal b. Diurnal c. Mixed 4. Match the following terms associated with tidal reference planes with their definitions: a. Charted depth b. Mean high water (MHW) c. Mean low water (MLW) d. Mean lower low water (MLLW) e. Mean range of tide

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7-2 UNCLASSIFIED 5. Extract the following information from tables 1 through 3 of the Tide Tables: a. Reference station b. Subordinate station time and height differences c. Correction factor for height at any time 6. Calculate the height of tide at any time for any station listed in the Tide Tables. 7. Plot tidal information on a tide graph. 8. Match the following terms with their meanings: a. Tidal and nontidal currents b. Flood and ebb c. Slack water d. Duration of flood and ebb e. Set and speed of current f. Rotary current 9. Identify the general features of tidal currents. 10. Calculate the times of minimum and maximum current and slack water at a given location, as well as the average direction of the current. 11. Calculate the speed of the current at any time for any location.

7.1 INTRODUCTION The ability to determine the height of a tide or velocity of a current is necessary for the safe navigation of any vessel. There are many methods of determining this data. In this chapter, you will learn the actual mechanics of determining tide heights and current velocities.

7.2 INTRODUCTION TO TIDES Whenever your ship enters or leaves port, one of your most important tasks will be to calculate how much water will be available along your route of transit. The importance of accurate tide calculations cannot be overemphasized. If your ship attempts to pass beneath a bridge without adequate vertical clearance, you could lose the ship’s mast. If you pass over a shoal with an insufficient depth of water, your ship will probably go aground, losing sonar dome, rudder, and propellers. All navigational charts reference the depth soundings in mean low water.

Tide is the vertical rise and fall of the ocean level caused by the gravitational forces between Earth and the Moon, and Earth and the Sun. Generally speaking, these interacting forces between the planets cause the tides to rise and fall twice daily; this is known as a tidal day. The period of one high and one low is referred to as a tidal cycle.

7.2.1 Terms Associated with Tides Use the following table to learn the meanings of terms that are associated with tides.

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7-3 UNCLASSIFIED Term Definition High tide or high water (HW) The maximum height of the water resulting from the rising tide. Low tide or low water (LW) The minimum height of the water resulting from the outgoing tide. Duration of rise and fall The period of time measured in hours and minutes that it takes the tide to go from low water to high water. Range of tide The distance between HW and LW. Stand A brief period where no rise or fall occurs; this occurs when the tide reaches its maximum or minimum level. Mean high water (MHW) The average height of all high-tide water levels, measured over a 19-year period. Mean low water (MLW) The average height of all low-tide levels, observed over a 19-year period. Mean lower low water (MLW) The average of the lower of the low water levels, observed over a period of 19-years. This is the reference plane currently used on almost all charts covering U.S. waters as the basis of measurement of charted depths and height of tide.

7.2.2 Spring and Neap Tides As previously mentioned, tides that occur on Earth result from both solar and lunar influences. When these two bodies are in line with Earth, as shown in figure 7-1, their combined effect causes high tides to be higher than average and low tides to be lower than average. These types of tides are referred to as spring tides (and has nothing to do with the season of the year).

Figure 7-1 Spring tides occur when influences of the

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7-4 UNCLASSIFIED When the direction of the Sun and the Moon are 90° apart, as when the Moon is in the first and last quarter, the gravitational effect of the Sun counteracts that of the Moon enough that both high and low tides are lower than normal. These types of tides are referred to as neap tides.

7.3 TYPES OF TIDES AND REFERENCE PLANES According to the characteristics of the tidal pattern occurring at a particular place, tides are classified as semidiurnal, diurnal, or mixed.

7.3.1 Semidiurnal, Diurnal, and Mixed Tides In semidiurnal tides, there are two high and two low tides each tidal day, and they occur at fairly regular intervals. Usually, there are only relatively small variations in the height of any two successive high or low waters. Tides on the Atlantic coast of the United States are representative of this pattern.

In diurnal tides, there is only one high and one low tide each tidal day. The water levels on succeeding days usually do not vary a great deal. In the United States, diurnal tides occur along the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico.

Figure 7-2 Relationship of terms used when measuring heights and

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7-5 UNCLASSIFIED In mixed tides, the tidal pattern is characterized by wide variations in heights of successive high and low waters. There are usually two high and two low waters each day, but occasionally the tide may become diurnal. In the United States, mixed tides occur along the Pacific Coast, Alaska, and Hawaii. If information for water depths, heights, elevations of topographical features, aids to navigation, bridge clearances, and so forth are to be meaningful when printed on nautical charts, standard reference planes for their measurements must be used. For this reason, standard reference planes for these measurements have been established.

Generally speaking, heights and elevations are given on a chart in reference to a standard high-water plane, while heights of tide and charted depths of water are given with respect to a standard low-water plane (see fig. 7-2). The charted depth is simply the vertical distance from the low-water reference plane to the ocean bottom; it’s the depth figure you see printed on nautical charts. The charted height is the vertical distance above the water measured from the high-water reference plane.

The mean range of tide is the vertical distance between the high water and low-water reference planes used, and represents the average range of tide at a given location. You should remember that the water level will sometimes be below the reference plane. Put another way, sometimes the actual depth of water can be less than the charted depth. You will recognize this situation because there will be a minus sign (-) placed before the height of tide shown in the Tide Tables. In this case, you subtract the value of the height of tide from the charted depth to find the actual depth of water.

7.4 TIDE TABLES Tide Tables are published annually by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. They are published in four volumes:

Europe and West Coast of Africa (including the Mediterranean Sea); East Coast of North and South America (including Greenland); West Coast of North and South America (including the Hawaiian Islands); Central and Western Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean.

The Tide Tables contain seven tables; each are briefly explained below:

Table 1 contains the predicted times and heights of high and low waters for each day of the year at a number of places called reference stations. All times stated in this table are for standard time. When using daylight savings time, you must remember to add 1 hour.

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7-6 UNCLASSIFIED Table 2 contains tidal difference information for heights and times at a number of places called subordinate stations. This information is listed in geographical order; each subordinate station is given a number, its location is described, and its position is given to the nearest minute. The data given for the subordinate station are applied to the predictions at a specified reference station to obtain the tidal information for the subordinate station. You’ll see how this works in the example problems that follow.

Table 3 contains information used for finding the approximate height of the tide at any time between high and low water. This table also contains instructions for plotting tide information using a graphical method. The graphical method is handy for those occasions when the height of tide is required for a number of times on a given day.

Table 4 is a sunrise-sunset table listing LMT of the Sun’s upper limb for every 5 th day of the year.

Table 5 provides an adjustment to convert the LMT found in table 4 to zone or standard time.

Table 6 gives the zone time of moonrise and moonset for each day of the year at certain places.

Table 7 is a conversion of feet to meters table.

7.5 HOW TO DETERMINE THE HEIGHT OF TIDE Finding the height of the tide is relatively simple. In the following example, we will calculate the height of tide at the George Washington Bridge on the Hudson River, NY. The time desired is 1100 standard time, 8 September 1993. To make our job easier, we will use OPNAV strip form 3530/40 HT OF TIDE.

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7-7 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73) HT of TIDE Step Action Completed Strip Form Date 1. Enter the desired date. 08 SEPT Location 2. Enter the location. Find George Washington Bridge in the alphabetical index in the back of the Tide Tables. The subordinate station number is found to be #1561 in table 2. George Washington Bridge Time 3. Enter the desired time. 1100 Ref Station 4. The reference station is found by first finding our subordinate station (George Washington Bridge) #1561 in table 2, and then looking in the center of the DIFFERENCE column and following it upward (as shown in fig. 7-4) to the line entitled “on New York p. 56."

Figure 7-3 is an excerpt from table 2. The data for steps 5, 6, 7, and 8 are found by inspecting the times and heights differences for 8 Sep for the George Washington Bridge. New York HW Time Diff 5. Under the DIFFERENCES column find the value for high-water time. +0 50 LW Time Diff 6. Under the DIFFERENCES column find the value for low-water time. +0 46 HW Ht Diff 7. Under the DIFFERENCES column find the value for high-water height. *0.84 LW Ht Diff 8. Under the DIFFERENCES column find the value for low-water height. *0.85

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7-8 UNCLASSIFIED

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7-9 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73) HT OF TIDE Step Action Completed Strip Form Ref Sta HW/LW Time 9. From the reference station (see fig. 7-4), enter the values for the HW and LW that 0700 falls between. See figure 7-3. HW 1241/ LW 0536 HW/LW Time Diff 10. Write in the values from steps 5 and 6. HW +50 / LW + 46 Sub Sta HW/LW Time 11. Apply time difference corrections. 1241 0536 + 50 + 46 1331 0622 HW Time LW Tim Ref Sta HW/LW Ht 12. From the reference station (table 1) enter the values for the HW and LW heights that correspond with step 9. HW 4.7 / LW 1.2 HW/LW Ht Diff 13. Write in the values from steps 7 and 8. HW *0.84 / LW *0.85 Sub Sta HW/LW Ht 14. Apply height difference corrections. 4.7 * .84=3.9 HW Height 1.2 * .85 =1.0 LW Height

Figure 7-4 Excerpt from Tide Table, table 1

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7-10 UNCLASSIFIED Now that we have the subordinate station data, we can complete the remainder of the problem; finding the height of the tide at the desired time of 0700.

OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73) HT OF TIDE Step Action Completed Strip Form Duration Rise Fall 15. To compute this duration, find the two subordinate stations’ times that bracket your desired time. In this case they are 0622 and 1331. Calculate the total time difference between the two (1331 - 0622 = 7 hours 09 minutes). We can tell by observation that between 0622 and 133 1 the tide is rising. Enter this data on the worksheet. 7h 09m rising Time Fm Near Tide 16. Next, determine the time nearest high/low for which the desired tide height is required. In this case the desired time of 1100 is nearest to high tide at 133 1. Now find the time difference between the two (1331 - 1100 = 2 h 31m). Enter this data on the worksheet. 2h 31m Range of Tide 17. Now calculate the range of tide. Simply find the difference between the height of high and low tide from the same two subordinate station times bracketed for duration above (3.9 - 1.0 = 2.9). Enter this data or the worksheet. 2.9 Ht of Near Tide 18. Enter the height of the nearest tide this case from the high tide at 1331. 3.9 ft Corr Table III 19. Enter the upper portion of the table with the nearest duration of rise or fall (upper left margin) for 7h 09m.

19 a. Follow this line horizontally until you reach the column for the nearest value for the time to nearest high/low water (2 hour 3 1 minutes).

19 b. Follow this column down to the lower half of the table until you intersect the nearest value for the range of tide (lower left margin). Extract the data (1.0 ft) and enter on the worksheet. 1.0 ft HT of Tide 20. To find the final piece of information you need, height of tide, you must apply the correction as directed by the instructions at the bottom of table Those instructions are as follows: “When the nearest tide is high water, subtract the correction.” “When the nearest tide is low water, add the correction.” In this case the nearest tide is high, so you subtract the correction (3.9 - 1.0 = 2.9 ft). 2.9 ft

You have now computed the height of tide for 1100 standard time, September 8, 1993, at George Washington Bridge, N.Y. The tide will be 2.9 feet above mean lower low water (charted depth).

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7-11 UNCLASSIFIED 7.6 HOW TO GRAPH TIDE DATA When the height of tide is required for a number of times on a certain day, the graphical method of determining tides can be very useful. For example, a buoy tender may spend an entire day servicing aids to navigation in one particular area. Having the tides displayed on a graph for the entire day will save you from having to calculate the height of tide separately for each aid you visit.

To illustrate how to construct a tide graph, we will use the same data presented in the previous section for the height of tide at Tue Marshes Light, Virginia. The form shown in figure 7-5 should prove helpful in guiding you through the problem, however, regular graph paper can be used if you desire.

Figure 7-5 Sample tide graph form

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7-12 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 1. Complete the upper section of the form by filling in the reference, subordinate, and differences data for 8 SEP 93. Notice on the graph that time is listed along the bottom in even hours (interpolate when necessary), and the height is listed along the left margin. The solid line at 0 feet is the base line, or charted depth. 2. Set the height scale. Each line can represent one foot, one-half foot, one-tenth foot, and so on. Try to use a scale that results in the largest graphical representation practical. In our example, the largest increment we can use and still remain on the graph is 0.2 feet per line. 3. Plot the high and low tide times and heights on the graph (fig. 7-6). Use the subordinate station data since you wish to know the tides at this location (Tue Marshes Light). Start with the first time and height listed, 0057 at 0.6 feet. Plot as shown below. Continue by plotting the other three points, then connect each point with a light line.

Figure 7-6 Plot the times of high and low water on the graph

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7-13 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 4. Divide the first line into four equal segments as shown in figure 7-6. The easiest way to do this is to extract the length of the line with dividers and place this length on the height scale. In the case of the first line, this distance is 2.0 feet (approximately). Divide this by 4 and you have the length of each segment 2.0/4 = 0.5 feet. Measure 0.5 feet along the height scale with your dividers, then, starting at either end, divide the line into four segments. 5. At the quarter point next to the high water point, draw a vertical line above the point; and at the quarter point next to low water point, draw a vertical line below the point equal to a distance of 1/10th of the total length of this line segment (i.e., 2.0 x .l = 0.2 feet). Refer to the example of the graph (fig. 7-6). 6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the remaining two lines as shown in figure 7-7. Be sure to use the length of the line you are working with for your computations; using the same measurement for the first line will not work.

Figure 7-7 Repeat steps for the remaining two lines

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7-14 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 7. Draw a smooth curve through the points of high and low waters and the intermediate points, making the curve well rounded near the high and low waters as shown in figure 7-8. A french curve is helpful although freehand is fine.

Figure 7-8 Draw a smooth curve through the points

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7-15 UNCLASSIFIED 7.7 TIDAL CURRENTS In navigation, the effect of the tidal current is often of more importance than the changing depth due to the tide; in fact, many mariners speak of “the tide” when they actually have the flow of the tidal current in mind. Currents can be defined as the horizontal movement of water, and may be classified as either tidal or nontidal.

Tidal Currents. These currents are caused by gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth just like the vertical rise and fall called tide, which we have discussed. Study the terms associated with tidal currents.

Term Definition Flood Current When the horizontal movement of water is toward shore or up a tidal river or estuary, the current is said to be flooding. Ebb Current When the horizontal movement of water is away from shore or down a tidal river or estuary, the current is said to be ebbing. Slack Water The period of time where there is little or no current is called the minimum before flood or ebb. Duration of Flood The interval of time in which a tidal current is flooding. Duration of Ebb The interval in which the current is ebbing. In a normal semidiurnal tidal current, the duration of flood and duration of ebb will each be approximately 6 hours, but can vary. Set The direction of the current is called SET, and is expressed in the direction TOWARD which the current flows. Speed of Current or Drift The velocity of the current is called speed of current and is sometimes referred to as drift.

Nontidal Currents. There are known and charted currents in all three of the major oceans that are classified as major currents. In the Pacific, the more important ones to note are the North Equatorial, South Equatorial, Equatorial Counter, Japan Stream, Oyashiwo, Californian, Australian, and Peruvian. In the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf Stream is the most notable because of its clear definition as an ocean current and its effect on shipping and weather. Another type of tidal current you might encounter is called a ROTARY current. A rotary current is basically one that flows continually with the direction of flow changing through all points of the compass during the tidal period. Rotary currents are usually found offshore where the direction of flow is not restricted by any barriers.

7.7.1 The Basics Tidal currents are most pronounced in the entrances to large tidal basins that have restricted openings to the sea. Helmsmen should keep this fact in mind because they often experience difficulty in steering ships in tidal basins. Tide rips caused by swift tidal currents flowing over an irregular bottom often set up rips and eddies that are nearly always deceptive in appearance and will sometimes change a ship’s course as much as 30°. One characteristic of a tide rip is in the coloring of the water. The line it caused may not always be straight, but it can usually be seen.

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7-16 UNCLASSIFIED You may also observe small wavelets caused by the wind. The water outside the current will often have many small wavelets, whereas the swift running current may be barren of wavelets; again, a quite visible line may be detected, giving the helmsman a clue to what may lie ahead as the ship passes from one side of the line to the other. Another clue for the helmsman is to observe the current trail streaming from a buoy.

In rivers or straits, or where the direction of flow is more or less restricted to certain channels, the tidal current is reversing; that is, it flows alternately in approximately opposite directions with an instant or short period of slack water at each reversal of the current. During the flow in each direction, the speed varies from zero, or near zero at the time of slack water to a maximum, either flood or ebb, about midway between the slacks.

7.8 TIDAL CURRENT TABLES Tidal Current Tables are tables that give daily predictions of the times and speeds of the tidal currents. The tables are issued annually in two volumes: one for the Atlantic Coast of North America and the other for the Pacific Coast of North America. These tables are set up basically the same as the Tide Tables. The Tidal Current Tables consist of five tables plus a number of current diagrams and data concerning wind-driven currents, the gulf stream, the combination of currents, and current diagrams. A brief discussion of the five tables is given below.

Table 1 - Daily Current Predictions. This table gives the predicted times of slack water and the predicted times and speeds of maximum current, both flood and ebb, for each day of the year at a number of reference stations. Also listed at the top of each page is the direction of set toward which the currents flow. Like the Tide Tables, data in this book are listed in standard time, so you must add 1 hour to convert the times to daylight savings time.

Table 2 - Current Differences and Other Constants and Rotary Currents. This table lists data for subordinate stations. When this data is applied to the predicted times and speeds at the appropriate reference stations, reasonable approximations of the current at the subordinate station may be computed. Later in this assignment, we will use tables 1 and 2 to calculate the speed of current at a subordinate station.

Table 3 - Speed of Current at Any Time. This table allows you to calculate the current at any time, not just the time of slack and maximum current. We will work an example problem later in this assignment.

Table 4 - Duration of Slack. This table provides a means of calculating the approximate period of time during which weak currents not exceeding 0.1 to 0.5 knots will be encountered. This duration includes the last of the flood or ebb and the beginning of the following ebb or flood, or half the duration will be before and half after the time of slack water. Buoy tender sailors may find this table helpful if an aid to navigation can only be worked safely at slack water.

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7-17 UNCLASSIFIED Table 5 - This table lists data for a number of offshore stations for the direction and average speed of the rotary tidal current for each hour of the tidal cycle.

7.8.1 Current Calculations In the following example, we will calculate the times of the minimum currents and the times and speed of the maximum currents on the morning of 8 September 1993 at a location known as Sewells Point. All of the figures in these examples are excerpts from the Tidal Current Tables.

OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73) HT OF TIDE Step Action Completed Strip Form Date 1. Enter the desired date. 08 SEP 93 Location 2. Enter the location. Look up Sewells Point alphabetically in the index to stations. The index to stations is located in the back of the Tidal Current Tables. Find the index number (#5121) for Sewells Point; note this number because you will use it in step 4. Sewells Point Time 3. Enter the desired time. 1100 Ref Station 4. The reference station is found by first finding our local or subordinate station (Sewells Point) #5121, in table 2, and then look in the center of the DIFFERENCE column and follow it upward to the line entitled "on Chesapeake Bay Entrance p. 44." Chesapeake Bay Entrance p. 44

Figure 7-9 Excerpt from Tidal Current Tables

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7-18 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73) HT OF TIDE Step Action Completed Strip Form Time Diff Slack Water 5. Inspect reference station time data. Determine whether the desired time falls between flood or ebb times. In our case the current is flooding. We need to know this to determine which slack water time difference to use. Table 2 labels slack water as Min. before Flood or Min. before Ebb. Enter the time difference. - 0 41 Time Diff Max Current 6. Enter the flood time difference. - 0 47 Vel Ratio Max Flood 7. Follow the data to the right and find the values for velocity ratios and directions from the SPEED RATIOS and AVERAGE SPEED AND DIRECTIONS columns. 1.1 Vel Ratio Max Ebb 8. Enter ratio. 1.0 Flood Dir 9. Enter direction. 195° Ebb Dir 10. Enter direction. 000°

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7-19 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 7-10 Excerpt from Tidal Current Table

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7-20 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73) HT OF TIDE Step Action Completed Strip Form Ref Sta Slack Water Time 11. Enter the reference station slack water time. 1012 Time diff 12. Enter the time difference for slack water from step 5. - 0 41 Local Sta Slack Water Time 13. Apply the time correction. 0931 Ref Sta Max Current Time 14. Enter the reference station maximum current time. 1246 Time Diff 15. Enter the time difference for slack water from step 5. -0 47 Local Sta Max Current Time 16. Apply the time correction. 1159 Ref Sta Max Current Vel 17. Enter the maximum current velocity. .6 F Vel Ratio 18. Enter the velocity ratio for flood from step 7. 1.1 Local Sta Max Current Vel 19. Multiply the values from steps 17 and 18 to find the maximum current velocity at Sewells Point. .66 kt F Int Between Slack and Desired Time 20. Find the difference between the time of slack water and our desired time of 1100. 1 h 29 m Int Between Slack and Max Current 21. Find the difference between the time of slack water and maximum current. 2h 28m Max Current 22. Enter the value from step 19. 6 6 Factor Table 3 23.

Enter factor table 3 with the values from steps 2 1 and 21. Note the table value. .8 Velocity 24. Multiply the value from steps 22 and 23. Round to the closest tenth of a knot. 528 rounded to .5 kt

Direction 25. Enter the direction of the flood current from step 9. 195°

7.9 HOW TO GRAPH TIDAL CURRENTS The graphing of current velocity information is generally the same as graphing tide data. The most important difference is that tide height changes at a fairly constant rate. Current velocity on the other hand is related to many factors; for complete information on current velocity, refer to Dutton’s, chapter 10.

We can use the times between slack water and maximum current to plot our data. Table 4 can help us determine the amount of time a current is weak and it should also help us make an educated guess of how steep a curve must be plotted.

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7-21 UNCLASSIFIED You may want to overlay the current data on the same graph as the one that has tide data for the same period. If this is the case, it is normally acceptable to omit drawing curves for the current data. Instead, you would draw straight lines between slack water and maximum current. At the intersection of each line, annotate SW for slack water and MC for maximum current respectively. If you do choose to overlay, make sure you use different colors of ink, one that represents tide data and one that represents current data.

7.10 SUMMARY The ability to determine the height of a tide or velocity of a current is necessary for the safe navigation of any vessel. There are many methods of determining this data. In this chapter, you learned the actual mechanics of determining tide heights and current velocities.

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8-1 UNCLASSIFIED 8 DEAD RECKONING AND PILOTING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Identify the primary reason for using dead reckoning, and match plotting instruments and tools with their usages. 2. State how you obtain true or magnetic course using the compass rose. 3. State the purpose of a course line, and identify the proper method of labeling course lines. 4. State the two factors considered when using the dead reckoning process. 5. Match the plotting symbols with their appropriate meaning: DR, EP, visual fix, and electronic fix. 6. Calculate speed, time, and distance problems using the formula D = S x T, the nautical slide rule, and the 3-minute rule. 7. List three methods used to measure a ship’s speed through the water.

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8-2 UNCLASSIFIED 8.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, you will learn how to keep track of the ship’s position. It is extremely important that the QMOW be able to quickly estimate the ship’s position at any time. Dead reckoning (DR) is one of the most basic and widely used methods of navigating. Dead reckoning is always employed any time a vessel is under way.

The primary reason for using dead reckoning is that the navigator may at any time give a reasonable account of the ship’s position without having to take sights or obtain a position from other means. In many places on Earth, a vessel may get beyond the range of today’s sophisticated navigational aids and have to rely on methods as old and time tested as the DR. Many vessels have been under way for weeks at a time without having made a landfall or having any other contact with shore and have still come within a very few miles of the desired destination using only a carefully maintained DR plot.

The practice of maintaining a DR plot will be the first task we focus on in this chapter. Piloting will be the second main focus of this chapter. Perhaps you recall from chapter 1 that the QM uses visual aids to establish the ship’s position when piloting.

8.2 THE DR PLOT The importance of maintaining an accurate dead reckoning plot cannot be overemphasized. Since other means of fixing your ship’s position may not always be available, a navigator must rely on a DR plot.

If a ship made good the exact course and speed ordered, and there was no wind or current, dead reckoning would, at all times, provide an accurate indication of the ship’s position. A navigator must know the position, or approximate position, to determine when to make changes in course and/or speed, to predict the time of sighting lights or other aids to navigation, and to identify landmarks.

8.2.1 Rules When maintaining a DR plot, there are six rules that govern what actions the QM should take. These rules are not subject to interpretation, they are hard and fast. Often, when the ship is changing course it becomes tedious to maintain the DR plot. This is a given and known fact; however, the importance of keeping the plot up to date can’t be stressed enough.

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8-3 UNCLASSIFIED These rules specify when a DR position shall be plotted:

# Rule 1. A DR position shall be plotted each hour on the hour. 2. A DR position shall be plotted at the time of every course change. 3. A DR position shall be plotted at the time of every speed change. 4. A DR position shall be plotted at the time of a fix or running fix. 5. A DR position shall be plotted at the time of obtaining a single LOP. 6. A new course line shall be plotted from each new fix or running fix.

8.2.2 Terms Associated with the DR Plot Use the following table to identify and learn the meanings of terms associated with DR:

Term Definition Heading The ship’s heading is always expressed in degrees measured clockwise from 000° through 360°. Commonly referred to as the ship’s head, the heading can be referenced from true north, magnetic north, or compass. The ship’s head is always changing due to the constant yawing motion caused by the effects of the sea and steering errors. Course The course is the direction on which the ship is to be steered. As an example, the helmsman is ordered to come left steer new course 090° T. The helmsman would respond by putting the rudder left and steadying the ship on new course 090°T. Course Line The course line is the graphical representation of the course that is being steered laid on to the chart. Looking back at our example, let’s assume the original course was 094°T. The chart would have had a 094°T course line laid on it. When the helm was ordered to steer 090°T, a new course line of 090°T would be laid on the chart. Speed This is the ship’s ordered speed. For example, let’s assume that ordered speed is 12 knots. For purposes of DR, we assume that the ship will travel 12 nautical miles in 1 hour. DR Position This position is determined by laying out the ship’s course (course line) and speed on the chart. A DR position does not take into account any current that may speed or slow the ship. Estimated Position This is a best guess position using available information. In practical usage, it starts with the DR position and adds other data such as the estimated speed and set of the current. Fix This position is established at a specific time that is believed of high accuracy. With the recent addition of Global Positioning System (GPS) WRN-6 satellite fix data, it is now possible to obtain a highly accurate fix 24 hours a day.

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8-4 UNCLASSIFIED 8.3 TIME, SPEED, AND DISTANCE Time, speed, and distance are related by the formula:

distance = speed x time. Therefore, if any two of the three quantities are known, the third can be found. The units must be consistent. (The distance scales on nautical charts use nautical miles and yards, unless otherwise stated on the chart. A nautical mile is equal to 2,000 yards.) Thus, if speed is measured in knots and time in hours, the answer is in nautical miles. Similarly, if distance is measured in nautical miles and time in hours, the answer is in knots. If distance is measured in yards and time in minutes, the answer is in yards per minute.

Table 19 of Bowditch is a speed, time, and distance table that supplies one of the three values if the other two are known. It is intended primarily for use in finding the distance steamed in a given time at a known speed.

8.3.1 Solving the Time, Speed, and Distance Triangle The following formulas may be used if the speed is measured in knots, the distance in nautical miles, and the time in hours and/or tenths of hours (0.1 hour = 6 minutes).

Distance = Speed x Time Speed = Distance ÷ Time Time = Distance ÷ Speed

Example 1. Your ship steams for a period of 4 l/2 hours and covers a distance of 54 nautical miles. What is your speed?

In example 1, time was given in hours and tenths. When time is given or required in minutes, the same formulas, slightly changed, are still used.

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Example 2. How many minutes (m) are required for a vessel to steam a distance of 7 nautical miles at a speed of 7.5 knots?

The following is an aid to help you remember these formulas. Simply place the letters in a triangle, as shown in figure 8-1. For distance (D), place your finger over the D and you have S x T. For speed (S), cover the S and you have D ÷ T. For time (T), cover the T and you have D ÷ S

8.3.2 The 3-Minute Rule Another way of solving problems of distance, speed, and time is by using the 3-minute rule. The 3-minute rule will help solve mathematical computations without a nomogram or calculator. The rule states:

The distance traveled in yards over 3 minutes divided by 100 equals the speed in knots. To simplify, just drop two zeros from any distance traveled in yard in any 3 minute period.

Example 1 : Ship travels 1,600 yd. in 3 min. 1,600/100 = 16 (Speed is 16 knots).

Example 2 : Ship’s speed is 16 kn for 3 min. 16 x 100 = 1,600 yd.

Figure 8-1 T, S, and D triangle

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8-6 UNCLASSIFIED 8.3.3 Procedure To simplify speed, time, and distance solutions, most Quartermasters use a circular slide rule (fig. 8-2), commonly known as a nautical slide rule. When you enter two known variables on the appropriate scales, the third value can be found.

Caution Do NOT rely solely on the nautical slide rule to calculate time, speed, and distance problems. A problem will surely arise when the slide rule is not available. Additionally, you cannot use a nautical slide rule when taking advancement examinations.

Figure 8-2 Nautical slide rule

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8-7 UNCLASSIFIED 8.3.4 Practice Time, Speed, and Distance Problems 1. Using the formula for solving time, speed, and distance problems. Solve the shaded areas for each of the following:

Time Speed Distance a. 14 kt 146 nmi b. 12 min .6 nmi c. 73.5 hr 16 kt d. 76 hr 874 nmi e. 9h.r 8 kt f. 15 kt 1485 nmi g. 18 kt 918 nmi h. 11 hr 132 nmi

2. The 3-minute rule simply states that distance traveled in yards in ( ) minutes divided by ( ) equals ( ).

3. Using the 3-minute rule, solve each of the following, rounding to the nearest tenth where required.

Time Speed Distance a. 3 min 750 yd b. 6 min 1420 yd c. 3 min 765 yd d. 6 min 1140 yd e. 3 min 414 yd f. 3 min 840 yd

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8-8 UNCLASSIFIED 8.4 MEASURING THE SHIPS SPEED Speed can be determined directly using special instruments or indirectly by means of distance and time.

The first method of measuring a ship’s speed and distance involves the use of instruments that directly measure a ship’s motion through the water. Such instruments are called logs. The three types of modern logs in common use today are: the pitot-static log, the impeller log, and the electromagnetic log. Figure 8-3 is an example of a speed log indicator. Each of these logs requires the use of a device called a rodmeter, which is basically a blade or rod that is projected through the bottom of the hull. The rodmeter contains the sensing devices that determine speed. You must be careful not to lower the rodmeter in shallow water as it may strike the bottom.

Another way of determining speed and distance is indirectly using engine or shaft revolutions. This data can be derived, or verified, by running the ship over a measured mile. To do this, you run the measured mile at given engine rpm’s, and note the time it takes you to travel the mile. Then using the speed, time, and distance formulas previously given, you determine the speed for that rpm. A table, graph, or both are then prepared that relate rpm to ship’s speed. Figure 8-3 Speed log indicator

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8-9 UNCLASSIFIED 8.5 EXAMPLE OF A DR PLOT Figure 8-4 represents a sample DR plot. At 0900 your ship departs point A en route to point B on course 090°T, speed 12 knots. In this particular example, DRs are laid out every hour; you expect to arrive at point B at 1300.

At 1200, you obtain a fix which places your ship 180°T; 5 miles from your 1200 DR position (point X). If you were to maintain your original course of 090°T, you will miss your destination; therefore, a correction is necessary.

Since time was required to record and evaluate your fix and to decide a new course and speed to reach your destination (point B), the change cannot occur at the 1200 fix. Instead, you must DR ahead some point in time. In this case, the navigator plots a 1210 DR position based on the old, and still maintained, course and speed. From here the navigator calculates the new course of 050° T, speed 15 knots. It is important to remember that the course line will continue in the direction and speed originally ordered during the time spent obtaining and plotting the fix and while deciding a new course and speed.

8.5.1 Symbols The symbol for a DR position is a small semicircle around a small dot on a straight segment of a course line (fig. 8-5); it will be more or less than a semicircle when plotted at a change in direction. The letters DR are not used. Time to the nearest minute, stated in the 24-hour system as a 4-digit number is written nearby. All symbols for labeling positions are also shown.

Figure 8-4 Example DR plot

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Answers: 1. a. 10.4 hrs, b. 3 k, c. 1176 nmi, d. 11.5 k, e. 72 nmi, f. 99 hrs, g. 51 hrs, h. 12 k. 2. 3/100/speed in knots 3. a. 7.5 k, b. 7.1 k, c. 7.7 k, d. 5.7 k, e. 4.1 k, f. 8.4 k

Figure 8-5 Symbols used for labeling positions along a course line

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8-11 UNCLASSIFIED 8.6 PLAN OF INTENDED MOVEMENT (PIM) Prior to any ship getting under way, a PIM must be formed. Normally, the senior Quartermaster and the navigator will discuss the best possible routes for the ship to follow. Messages are then sent to group commanders and the ship gets under way. As the QMOW, you will be tasked with tracking the ship’s progress.

Tracking is directly related to time, speed, and distance calculation. Figure 8-6 represents a ships track with PIM times and dates annotated. As a rule, PIM is laid out for every 4 hours GMT. When referring to the ship’s position in relation to PIM, you should express any values as time ahead or behind PIM. Let’s look at an example.

Figure 8-6 Example PIM calculation

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8-12 UNCLASSIFIED 8.7 PLOTTING INSTRUMENTS Let’s put together what we’ve learned about the DR plot, the tools of the trade, and the techniques the Quartermaster uses.

Tools used to project lines; scribe arcs, measure angles and distances, and do a host of other jobs are just some of the hand tools you will use as a Quartermaster. Items such as pencils, parallel rulers, compasses, and dividers are a MUST on any bridge or in any chart room.

8.7.1 Tools of the Trade Pencils: Primary among these tools is the pencil you use. There are several grades or hardness of lead. The softer grades, such as the No. 2, are ideal for plotting positions on the chart and for other general uses around the bridge. No. 3 pencils are considerably harder, will hold a point longer, and will usually sharpen better for use in drawing fine lines as will be required when the QM wants to plot stars, draw course lines, or do other chart work that requires the use of better than average lines to show the condition to be depicted. Under most conditions, only the Nos. 2 and 3 grade pencils will be necessary.

Parallel Rulers: Parallel rulers are instruments used for moving lines parallel to themselves, determining direction from the compass rose, and laying out course lines. These are, of course, only a few of the uses of parallel rulers. Some of the other uses include drawing straight lines, advancing lines of position, checking ranges, plotting fixes, and measuring direction from one given point to another. There are other devices available which are easier to use and will do the same job as parallel rulers. The Weems parallel plotter (fig. 8-7) is the most widely used variation of the parallel ruler.

Figure 8-7 A parallel rule (top) and a Weems parallel plotter

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8-13 UNCLASSIFIED Compasses: Compasses are not to be confused with the direction finding compass such as the magnetic or gyrocompass. The compasses referred to here are tools that are very similar in appearance to the divider. The distinction between dividers and compasses is that while both divider legs are fitted with needles, the compass legs are fitted with a needle on one leg and a marking lead or pencil on the other.

Compasses are useful for scribing circles and arcs such as radar ranges or perhaps showing the limits of a light’s visibility. Dividers and compasses (fig. 8-8) will give best results when the adjustment screw at the hinged end is kept tight enough to permit ready use but prevent slippage. The needle points should be sharp, extended to the same length, and locked securely using the locking screw provided.

A variation of the compass, called a beam compass, is used when a greater spread is required than an ordinary compass can accommodate. The beam compass is simply a long bar with a needle point at one end and a marking lead or pencil at the other end; both are adjustable. This compass is very useful when using large-scale charts such as harbor charts.

Dividers: A pair of dividers is an instrument or tool used to measure the difference between two given points. It consists of two small pieces of metal, plastic, or wood, hinged at one end, allowing the opposite ends to be separated. There are needles or points placed in the ends of both legs which enable the user to obtain a more accurate measurement and allow the tool to be swung from one length to another without slipping. There are many sizes of dividers, but the 5- and 6-inch sizes have been found to be the most popular and useful. Larger dividers are handy at times, but can be clumsy to use. Figure 8-8 Compass and dividers

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8-14 UNCLASSIFIED 8.8 PLOTTING TECHNIQUES To travel accurately and safely from point to point on Earth’s surface, charts have been constructed to show the locations of most all prominent places. Using these charts, a navigator can plan the voyages. By drawing a line on the chart from one place to another, a navigator establishes a line known as a course line, the purpose of which is simply to provide a graphic representation of a vessel’s course. Careful attention must be paid to ensure that there are no dangers to navigation, such as rocks, reefs, islands, and so forth, along the route of intended travel. From this line, the navigator determines the direction in which the ship must sail to arrive at the desired location. By measuring the distance between the two places and knowing the speed of the ship, the navigator computes how long the voyage will take.

As defined in the terms table, course (C) is horizontal direction of travel, expressed as angular distance from a reference direction, usually from 000° clockwise through 360°. For marine navigation, the term course applies to the direction to be steered, which sometimes differs from the direction you intend to make good over the ground. Course is most often designated as true, but may also be designated as magnetic, compass, or gyro.

Often while the ship is following the intended track, it will be necessary to change course to avoid other ships or make adjustments for current that sets the ship off the intended track.

Maintaining the DR plot is a matter of closely following the six rules of DR. Let’s look at an example of what is required to maintain a sample plot. The example shown in figure 8-9 illustrates a typical DR plot. At 0900 your ship departs point A en route to point B on course 065°T, speed 10 knots. In this particular example, DRs are laid out every 30 minutes; you expect to arrive at point B at 1200. At 0941 you change course to avoid shipping traffic. At 1000 you obtain a fix which places your ship right of your track line. Based on the 1000 fix, you recommend course 075°T to arrive at point B on time.

This example is for illustration purposes only. In actual practice, the QMOW will normally obtain and plot a fix every hour while on the open ocean. The frequency of fixes is determined by the navigator. It is not unusual while in coastal waters for the QMOW to obtain and plot fixes each l/2 hour or even every 15 minutes.

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8.8.1 Labeling the Course Line Figure 8-10 shows a typical layout and labeling of course lines. The label for direction is the letter C followed by three digits indicating true course in degrees; this is placed above the course line. If course lines are based on magnetic headings, the letter M is added following the digits.

The intended speed, or the speed you wish to make good with respect to Earth, is known as speed of advance, or simply SOA. SOA is also used to designate the average speed that must be made good to arrive at a destination at a specified time. The letter S followed by numbers shows the intended speed. This is placed below the course line, usually directly beneath the direction label.

Figure 8-9 Sample plot

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8.8.2 Emergency Plotting There are times when you will be required to plot positions in emergency situations. The most common of these is during man overboard events. Your reaction time is critical. The preferred method is to use the WRN-6 to enter a waypoint and then drive the ship back to that point. You may also use this method using commercial Loran C receivers. You must consult the WRN-6 or Loran C operators manuals for step by step instructions.

Leading Petty Officers: Post detailed man overboard procedures at the chart table on the bridge. Hold training frequently on procedures; strive to obtain fix data within 3 seconds from sounding man overboard alarm.

8.9 PILOTING Navigation becomes more demanding when your ship is near land or in restricted waters where there is an immediate danger of possible grounding. Piloting is the process of safely directing the movement of a vessel from one point to another involving frequent or continuous determination of a ship’s position relative to geographical points, to a high order of accuracy.

Piloting is a highly accurate form of navigation involving frequent determination of a ship’s position relative to geographic references. When a ship is operating near land or when other visual aids to navigation are available, piloting is used to prevent mishaps. This method of navigation requires good judgment, constant attention, and alertness on the part of the navigator.

When a ship is moving into or out of a harbor, close to islands, reefs, or coastlines, the navigator pinpoints the position of the ship by plotting visual bearings received from a Quartermaster. The Quartermaster, stationed at the pelorus, takes bearings from visible objects such as tanks, radio towers, lighthouses, points on shore, or other aids to navigation. Figure 8-10 Labeled course line

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8-17 UNCLASSIFIED By plotting successive fixes on a chart showing true positions of reference points from which bearings are taken, the navigator maintains a true track of the ship. Observations of these fixes and DR tracks of the ship enable the navigator to make recommendations to the officer of the deck concerning the course the ship should follow to reach its destination safely.

The fact that a position is determined by bearings taken on visual objects implies that a ship being piloted is in restricted—often dangerous —waters. In the open sea, there may be ample time to discover and correct an error. In restricted waters, an error can quickly cause an accident. To reduce the possibility of error to a minimum, Quartermasters provide backup information for the navigator.

8.9.1 The Navigation Team Piloting must be done on a chart. You must construct a plot based upon accurate navigational observations of charted features. These observations of charted features include:

• bearings to visible objects • distances to objects • depth sounding

To navigate effectively in confined waters, a team of personnel must assist the navigator. The navigation team composition is as follows:

Position Responsibilites Navigator All navigation functions. Assistant navigator Supervises navigation team, assists the navigator. Plotter Plots bearing on the chart, DRs, calculates set and drift. Bearing takers Takes bearings on objects as directed by the bearing recorder. Bearing recorder Relays bearing to the plotter, records bearings, provides all stations with marks. Fathometer operator Reports depth of the water on each mark. CIC phone talker Provides the bridge with navigation data from CIC as requested.

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8-18 UNCLASSIFIED 8.9.1.1 The Piloting Team in CIC Quartermasters use the Piloting team in CIC as a checks and balance system and to provide additional data to Conn and Officer of the Deck during Piloting, Restricted Maneuverability and Low Visibility situations. While the Bridge teams primarily uses visual aids fro navigation, the Piloting Team in CIC utilizes Radar information.

Positions in CIC are:

Piloting Officer In communication with the JA talker on the bridge, the piloting officer in our radar piloting setup mans the JA sound-powered phone circuit. The piloting officer keeps the navigational plotter and other concerned members of the team informed of helm and engine orders. The piloting officer also has the following responsibilities:

1. Making piloting recommendations to the conning officer based on the navigation chart, the ship’s position, PPI observations, lookout reports, and the policies and preferences of the commanding officer. 2. Giving adequate and timely warning to the conning officer concerning all dangers to navigation by effectively evaluating the radar navigation track, surface shipping displays, and collected information.

Navigational Plotter The navigational plotter maintains a plot of own ship’s position and determines corrections necessary to return own ship to the desired track. Any flat surface can serve as a desk for the navigational chart. A practical surface available in CIC is the top of the Automatic Plotting System (APS). Accordingly, the navigational plotter (No. 2 in figure 12-24) works on the south side of the APS. The plotter must be thoroughly familiar with (1) reading and interpreting chart symbols, (2) correct navigational procedures, (3) computing set and drift, (4) dead reckoning own course and speed made good, and (5) determining compensating and correcting courses and speeds.

The navigational plotter wears the 21JS sound-powered phone and receives information from the navigational PPI operator, the radar navigation log recorder, and the fire control radar talker stationed nearby. It is the navigational plotter who tells the radar navigation log recorder when to obtain fix information. The navigational plotter also directs the fire control radars to lock on targets via the fire control radar talker. The navigational plotter checks in advance with the CIC officer or the navigator concerning the planned approach track and lays out the proposed track on the chart. Then the plotter determines advance and transfer for expected course changes and indicates turning points and turning bearings or ranges on the chart. The navigational plotter also determines set and drift and informs the navigator and the piloting officer.

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8-19 UNCLASSIFIED In summary, the navigational plotter should do the following:

1. Maintain a complete navigational plot on the chart according to prescribed procedures and techniques. He should obtain fixes, based on at least three lines of position, at intervals no greater than 2 minutes. From each successive fix, the plotter should plot an accurate track 1-minute increments and for periods of at least 2 minutes.

2. Assist the piloting officer in determining from the chart the following data:

• Relation of the ship’s actual position to proposed track position. • Location of hazards to navigation (such as shoal water, obstructions, etc.). • Location of buoys. • Comparisons of depth sounding equipment readings and charted depths. • Geographic position of the ship in relation to land references, designated anchorage areas, and the like. • Distance and time to turning points and the time for course change.

3. Continuously determine set and drift.

Radar Navigation Log Recorder The radar navigation log recorder gives marks and records times, ranges, and bearings of objects used for piloting. He also records recommendations that makes to the conning officer.

During a gunfire support problem, because it is difficult for the navigational plotter to wear phones, the radar navigation log recorder is stationed next to the plotter and records all data in a form that the plotter can see easily. If the plotter wears phones during shore bombardment, he will be cut off from the problem as it rapidly develops upon receipt of a fire mission. When the fire mission is assigned, the navigational plotter hears it over the speaker and also sees the data on the status board. The navigational plotter and the target plotter then quickly locate the target and prepare for the problem. Essentially, the navigation log recorder and the navigational plotter perform as a team during gunfire support, just as in piloting.

Navigational PPI Operator Before beginning any navigational problem, the surface radar and PPI operators must study the chart with the navigational plotter and the navigation log recorder. They should then decide the reference points to use. The reference points should be designated using standard alphabetical designations. The surface radar and PPI operators should set all controls at the proper selection for the ranges of primary interest. In general, these operators perform the following functions:

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8-20 UNCLASSIFIED • As requested, they furnish the navigation log recorder and the navigational plotter range and bearing information on designated reference points. • As applicable, they advise the navigation log recorder and the navigational plotter of the best reference points to use (as they appear on the scope). • They inform the navigational plotter and the navigation log recorder when ship reaches predetermined turning ranges and bearings.

Fire Control Radar Talker/Recorder The fire control (FC) radar talker stands next to the navigation log recorder and wears the sound-powered phones connected to the fire control radar operators. The FC talker is responsible for:

Coaching the fire control radar operators onto reference points designated by the navigational plotter or the navigation log recorder, and Passing to the navigation log recorder and the navigational plotter any navigation information received from the fire control radar stations.

Sonar/Depth Sounder Talker/Recorder The sonar/depth sounder talker/recorder on the 61JS sound-powered phone circuit is stationed next to the APS when he is communicating with the sonar and depth sounder operators. Aboard ships that have no sonar, another circuit must be used for communicating with the depth sounder operator. The duties of the sonar/depth sounder talker/recorder are as follows:

• Coaches sonar operators onto designated objects, such as buoys, reefs, shoals, and ships at anchor, assisted by the navigational plotter. • Records range and bearing information on buoys, shoals, and the like received from sonar operators for use by the navigational plotter in fixing the ship’s position. • Advises the piloting officer or shipping officer of unusual changes such as screw beats heard and the Doppler of contacts. • Records and reports depth sounder readings to the navigational plotter and piloting officer. • Requests readings as directed by the piloting officer or according to the doctrine of the ship. (Typically, depth sounder readings should be taken and recorded at least every 30 seconds when the ship is in restricted waters.)

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8-21 UNCLASSIFIED Shipping Officer Usually, the shipping officer supervises the surface picture, while the piloting officer takes care of the piloting detail. In smaller ships, it may be necessary to combine the duties of the piloting and shipping officers. If this happens, a supervisor should oversee and coordinate the surface displays. Whoever is designated the task wears the S/P phones connected to the bridge. The shipping officer must have a thorough knowledge of sound signals for both inland and international waters. The shipping officer is responsible for:

• Supervising CIC personnel charged with maintaining the surface displays (other than the navigational chart); • Ensuring that the bridge receives timely warning of all shipping of concern to the ship in passage and any amplifying information on this shipping, including an evaluation of fog signals reported by lookouts; • Coordinating the use of the sound-powered circuit with the piloting officer on a time-sharing basis; and • Designating contacts to be tracked, watched, or scrubbed, based on the specific situation and the desires and policies of the commanding officer.

Surface-Search Radar/Remote PPI Operators Remote PPI operators for the shipping picture actually are standard surface-search operators during normal steaming. They maintain their scopes at a high level of performance and presentation, setting all controls at the proper selections for ranges of primary interest. In the performance of their duties, they also:

• Provide range and bearing information on contacts designated by the shipping officer or the surface supervisor to enable the surface summary plotter and surface contact status board keeper to maintain the required surface displays; • Report CPAs and bearing drifts of contacts directly from the PPI scope if directed by the shipping officer or the surface supervisor; and • Report new contacts appearing on scopes, according to ship’s doctrine.

Surface Summary Plotter and Surface Contact Status Board Keeper The duties of the surface summary plotter and surface status board keeper, during navigation, are the same as for normal steaming. These personnel are responsible for maintaining complete displays that show designations, times, bearings, ranges, courses, speeds, CPA and times of approach, compositions, and (when known) identifications.

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8-22 UNCLASSIFIED Lookout Talker/Plotter in CIC The lookout talker/plotter in CIC acts as liaison for lookout stations and has the following duties:

• Alerts lookouts to surface contacts approaching the ship from outside visual or audio range • Passes to the piloting officer reports received on surf, obstructions, buoys, and other objects within visibility range

As a plotter the CIC lookout talker/plotter displays on the surface contact status board any reports received from lookouts as visual identifications.

Lookouts and Talkers at Lookout Stations Lookout talkers at lookout stations pass to CIC any information on objects within visibility range. Reports include such data as bearing, estimated distance, identification, target angle, and closing or opening range of vessels.

Lookouts must be trained to know what fog signals to expect from a ship underway, a ship underway but with no way on, a ship at anchor, small craft underway, and the like. They should be briefed on diaphones and other anticipated fixed signals. Moreover, they should know how to differentiate between the sound of a ship’s whistle and a hand- operated horn.

Reports include bearings and what the lookouts heard: whistles, horns, etc.; how many blasts; duration of the blasts (short or prolonged); whether the blasts are becoming louder or weaker; and whether the other vessel is passing up the starboard side, down the port side, or crossing ahead. Lookouts report when the ship is abeam of buoys. This information aids the radar-piloting officer in establishing the ship’s position and acts as a check against electronic information.

CIC Watch Log Recorder We will discuss the CIC watch log at length in a later chapter. Because of the volume of traffic during radar piloting, it is advisable to have the JA circuit manned for the purpose of recording the information flow between CIC and the bridge. Recommendations made by CIC should be logged in the CIC watch log as well as in the radar navigation log.

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8-23 UNCLASSIFIED 8.9.1.2 Channel Navigation in the Fog Channel navigation in a fog requires accurate identification of buoys and close coordination between CIC and the bridge.

The first step in CIC is to lay off the track through the channel and make up the buoy check-off list. Most harbors have some channel buoys equipped with radar reflectors. Make special note of these buoys; they will be seen on radar earlier and can be identified more easily than the other buoys.

Through the JL talker, keep the lookouts informed of the bearing of the channel buoys and have them send any visual sightings to CIC. Alert the bridge talker to transmit all visual sightings of buoys by bridge personnel.

Channel navigation in a fog is one of the most nerve-wracking experiences a conning officer encounters. The conning officer is intently peering into a blanket of white fog, with CIC the main source of navigational information. If you maintain a rapid flow of information on course, distance, buoys, and other shipping, the conning officer is assured you are in control of the situation. If the conning officer must ask repeatedly for this information, he has little or no confidence in the ability of CIC.

Just as fog reduces visibility, so do water droplets reduce radar performance. You may not be able to get the same ranges in foggy weather as you can in clear weather. This makes the requirements for peak performance of the radar of even more importance. Make full use of your other important aids—fire control radar, depth finder, and sonar (where installed).

Whenever you obtain an unreliable fix in CIC, plot it as an estimated position, and attempt to obtain a more accurate fix as soon as possible. Swamp and lowland areas in some harbors make it particularly difficult to navigate by radar.

If a ship enters a harbor during reduced visibility, the responsibility for safe piloting is placed in CIC. Under these circumstances, if a situation arises where CIC cannot obtain an accurate radar fix within 2-minutes, CIC must recommend all stop until it can determine an accurate position for own ship.

Figure 8-11 shows a ship’s track, as plotted in CIC, entering Charleston Harbor. Note that the estimated positions are immediately followed by a fix. Also note that a turning bearing has been plotted according to the navigator’s proposed track. Set and drift were figured at time 0705 and course and speed were adjusted in order to make good the desired track. The time 0710 fix is a single bearing and range fix that was taken quickly as the turning point was approached. In this case, CIC would recommend turning as soon as the 0710 fix was plotted.

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Figure 8-11 Navigation track as plotted in CIC

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8-25 UNCLASSIFIED The scale of the chart used in figure 8-11 is 1:20,000. A distance scale (not shown in the illustration) is provided at the bottom of the chart for measuring ranges and laying out DR positions.

The time-distance-speed scale, shown in figure 8-12, is a convenient item that you can draw on any chart (to the scale of the chart being used) and use to measure distance traveled at any of the various speeds during 1-, 2-, or 3-minute intervals. For example, if your ship is making 10 knots and you want to plot a 2-minute DR, simply measure up the 2-minute line from the bottom line to the point where the 10-knot line crosses the 2- minute line. That distance indicates how far your ship will travel in 2 minutes at 10 knots.

The time-distance-speed scale is based upon the 3-minute rule and is very accurate. It also takes all of the guesswork out of laying out a DR. It’s a good idea to have one of these scales drawn on each of the frequently used harbor charts for a convenient and ready reference.

8.9.1.3 Anchoring a Ship Often, CIC is given the responsibility for piloting the ship to anchorage. For this phase of piloting, lay off on the charts the complete track (indicate course and speed) of the ship from the time land is first detected until the ship is anchored.

Anchorage charts for the principal harbors of the United States and its possessions are issued to every ship. These anchorage charts are harbor charts with anchorage berths overprinted in colored circles of various diameters. On these charts, series of berths of the same size are laid out in straight lines and are called lines of anchorage. Adjacent circles usually are tangent to each other. The center of the circle is the center of the berth. Each berth is designated by a number, a letter, or a combination of both, printed inside the circle. Figure 8-12 Time-distance-speed scale

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8-26 UNCLASSIFIED If you are to anchor in a harbor for which there is no standard anchorage chart, a berth is assigned by giving the bearing and distance of the center of the berth from a known object, together with the diameter of the berth.

When your ship is ordered to anchor in a specific berth, CIC and Bridge personnel must take the following actions:

• From the center of the berth, draw the letting-go semicircle. Use a radius equal to the horizontal distance between the hawsepipe and the antenna position of the surface-search radar. (The navigator uses the position of bridge wing gyro repeaters.) • From the center of the berth, lay off the intended track, using the appropriate approach courses and navigational aids for determining the ship’s position. Where turns are necessary, locate turning bearings and ranges. If possible, the final approach should be made with the ship heading into the current or the wind. The effects of current and wind and the presence of shipping often preclude a straight course to the anchorage. • Determine the distance from the hawsepipe of the ship to the radar antenna. Lay this distance off from the center of the berth to locate the letting-go point. From there, draw range semicircles. The usual practice is to draw arcs every 100 yards out to 1,000 yards, then arcs at 1,200, 1,500, and 2,000 yards. Also from the center of the berth, draw bearing lines at 5° and 10° in the direction of your approach and label these lines, using reciprocal bearings. These lines and arcs enable the piloting officer to make recommendations to anchorage without interfering with the navigational fixes being taken.

Figure 8-13 shows an anchorage track. In this track, the ship makes its final approach to the anchorage, using a beacon as a range. Notice the course and speeds, DR positions, turning bearing, final approach course, semicircles indicating yards from the center of the berth, letting-go circle, and anchorage bearing. The ship will turn to the approach course when it reaches the turning bearing and anchor when the stack bears 090°T. Remember, the speed of the ship should be such that it has no headway upon reaching the letting-go point. Slight sternway should be on the ship as soon as the anchor is let go for the anchor to take hold, to lay out the anchor chain properly, and to protect bow-mounted sonar domes.

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Figure 8-13 Anchorage track

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8-28 UNCLASSIFIED 8.9.2 The Navigation Brief In all cases, a ship needs a plan of action prior to getting under way or entering port. This plan, called the Navigation Brief, is a detailed description of all aspects of the ship’s actions while in piloting waters. Information concerning the ship’s track, navigation aids to be used, tide and current data, emergency anchorages, and other data are all contained in the Navigation Brief.

The actual construction of the Navigation Brief will be covered in detail in chapter 12.

One important point you must remember whenever you plot on a chart is to use the correct colors in marking the chart. While color doesn’t matter much on charts that are marked in daylight or in normally lighted areas, it matters greatly in blacked-out areas. Recall times that you entered darkened areas. For the first few minutes, you could not see your surroundings.

Gradually, however, you began to make out shapes. During that brief period, your night vision was taking over from your day vision. Night vision sensors in your eyes are very sensitive to white light and can be instantly overwhelmed by it. These same sensors, though, work very well in areas lighted by red light. This is why areas that require low light are frequently lighted by red lights. So what is the problem with colors on charts? Under red light, the colors buff, orange, and red are invisible. You will not be able to see anything printed or written on a chart in these colors.

The NGA has met this situation by using gray, magenta, purple, and blue on the charts. These colors appear as different shades, not as different colors, under red light. Be very careful in using old charts under a red light. If any vital features or markings are shown on the charts in red, orange, and yellow colors, redraw them in some color that will show, such as blue, green, brown, or purple. And when you draw on a chart in daylight, do not use a red marker. If you do and later have to use the chart under a red light, you will not be able to see any of your marks.

8.9.3 Determining Position The most important part of piloting is establishing the position of own ship. Without an accurately plotted own ship position, called a fix, all other piloting actions are meaningless.

Piloting involves using lines of position that are determined in relation to easily identified and charted landmarks. A fix is obtained from the intersection of two or more lines of position. Basically, there are two general types of lines of position: bearing lines and range arcs. See figure 8-14.

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A bearing line of position is drawn from the landmark in a reciprocal direction because the bearing indicates the direction of the landmark from the observer. If a lighthouse bears 000°, for example, then your ship is located on the 180° bearing line from the lighthouse.

The tangent is a special type of bearing line that provides a line of position to the edge of a point of land that is sufficiently abrupt to provide a definite point for measurement. When a bearing is obtained to the right edge of a projection of land, as viewed by the observer, the bearing is a right tangent. Similarly, a bearing to the left edge of a projection of land is a left tangent.

A range arc is a circular line of position. When the distance from an observer to a landmark is known, the observer’s position is on a circle having a radius equal to the measured distance, with the landmark as the center. The entire circle need not be drawn, because in practice the observer normally knows the position near enough that drawing an arc of the circle suffices.

Normally, the navigator obtains fixes by plotting lines of bearing to landmarks, while CIC obtains fixes by plotting radar range arcs from prominent points. However, any combination of lines of position may be used to determine own ship’s position. The following methods are used to obtain radar fixes.

Figure 8-14 Lines of position

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8-30 UNCLASSIFIED TWO or more bearings.—Cross bearings by radar are plotted in the same manner that the navigator plots visual bearings. The most rapidly changing bearing (usually closest to the beam) is taken first, followed quickly by the remaining bearings. Search radar bearings are not normally considered very accurate. However, radar-bearing information can be nearly as accurate as visual bearings when the radar system is properly calibrated and aligned and the operator takes bearings only on well-defined targets. Objects located offshore and away from the landmass, such as small islands, lighthouses, and large rocks, are the best targets for radar bearings. Center bearings taken to isolated targets should be very accurate and can be used to obtain a radar fix. See figure 8-15.

TANGENT BEARINGS.—Tangent bearings to the edges of a large object, such as an island, are perhaps the least accurate of all radar bearings. The beamwidth distortion of the radar accounts for the inaccuracy.

RANGE AND BEARING TO A SINGLE OBJECT.— A radar fix may be obtained by taking a range and bearing to one object, preferably a small prominent target offshore, as shown in figure 8-16. This method may not be as accurate as one using several lines of position, but it certainly is more rapid.

Normally, a single-object fix is used to supplement other fixes by providing a quick fix of own ship’s position. Continuous fixes may be plotted when this method is used. This type of fix can be very helpful during the time between regular fixes, especially in restricted waters or when approaching a turn.

Figure 8-15 Three-bearing fix

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Figure 8-16 Bearing and range to a single object

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8-32 UNCLASSIFIED TWO OR MORE RANGES.—In most situations, the most accurate position obtained by radar is determined by using two or more (preferably three) ranges. Radars are usually more accurate in range than in bearing. In using the range method, there is no chance for mistakes caused by gyro error or beamwidth distortion.

Figure 8-17 shows a three-range fix taken on three offshore targets. However, range-only fixes may also be obtained by using prominent points along the coastline.

Thus, using two or more ranges is the best method to obtain a fix in CIC. Ranges can be plotted on the chart quickly, and fixes obtained by this method are far more accurate than any of the other methods used in CIC.

8.10 LINES OF POSTION AND FIXES A line of position (LOP) is a line established by observations or measurement on which a vessel can be expected to be located. The concept of a LOP is extremely important in piloting. From a single LOP; one can safely assume that the ship is located somewhere along that line.

A LOP may be straight (for bearings) or curved (for ranges). To obtain a high degree of accuracy when fixing the ship’s position, you must use three or more LOPs. Figure 8-17 Three-range fix

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8-33 UNCLASSIFIED Accuracy: Factors such as chart errors, human limitations, and equipment errors may affect the accuracy of a LOP. The accuracy of any single LOP can be checked by comparison with two or more LOPS that are taken simultaneously. A bearing will be suspect if it plots away from two other LOPs.

8.10.1 Fixes A fix is the point of intersection of two or more simultaneously obtained LOPS indicating your ship’s exact position on the chart. The accuracy of a fix obtained from two LOPS is almost always questionable. Since we have already stated that accuracy is of the utmost importance in piloting, you must always strive to obtain three or more lines of position for an accurate fix.

8.10.2 Labeling LOPs Any single LOP that is obtained must be labeled with the time that it was obtained. This is necessary if it is to be in a running fix. An unlabeled LOP can mistakenly be used and become a source of error.

In the practice of piloting, single LOPS are not common because bearings on objects are taken at the same time by the bearing takers. The fix resulting from these bearings is labeled with the time the bearings were taken.

8.10.3 Selecting Landmarks for LOPs The angle between selected objects is the most important factor to consider when selecting objects to fix the ship’s position from. For three simultaneous LOPS to provide the best fix, they should be located 120° apart. This is often impossible in practical application. Normally, the assistant navigator or plotter will select possible objects to obtain bearing and the resulting fixes from. Use of conspicuous landmarks is always desirable. Lighted towers, water tanks, and buildings are some possibilities.

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8-34 UNCLASSIFIED 8.11 DETERMINING THE SHIPS POSITION USING TRUE BEARINGS The following table identifies the process of determining the ship’s position by true bearings.

Step Action 1. The assistant navigator or plotter selects objects to shoot bearing on. 2. The bearing recorder informs the bearing takers of the objects they are to shoot. 3. At the appropriate time, the bearing recorder gives a lo-second standby and on the minute gives the order "MARK" to the bearing takers. 4. At the exact moment, the bearing takers shoot and relay the values of the bearings to the bearing recorder.

Rule: It is common for both bearing takers to be required to shoot bearings on more than one object. Bearing takers MUST shoot objects closest to the beam of the ship first, and then shoot objects closest to the bow, and finally objects closest to the stern.

Memory Aid: BEAM, BOW, STERN 5. The bearing recorder relays the bearings to the plotter. 6. The plotter plots all bearings, labels the resulting fix, and determines set and drift, and DRs out on the track. 7. The navigator analyzes the fix data and makes reports and recommendations on actions to be taken to the officer of the deck.

8.11.1 Skills The table explained only the process that is generally followed to fix the ship’s position using true bearings. Learning the actual skills required to function as a member of the piloting team requires many hours of OJT and meeting requirements for PQS. Inexperienced QMs normally begin training on the piloting team as bearing takers and move to stations requiring more responsibilities as their individual skills progress.

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8-35 UNCLASSIFIED 8.12 DETERMINING THE SHIPS POSITION USING RELATIVE BEARINGS A relative bearing refers to a bearing taken on an object relative to the ship’s heading. They are measured from 000° through 360°.

Example: If a ship is on course 090° T and a bearing taker shoots light “A”, 020° relative, this means that light “A” is 20° to the right of the ship’s head. To convert relative bearings to true bearings, apply the formula SH + RB = (subtract 360 from T if over 360°). SH is ship’s head, RB is relative bearing, and T is the true bearing.

8.12.1 When to Use Relative Bearings In almost all cases, relative bearing navigation will be used when a casualty occurs to the gyrocompass. There are several methods available for use to find the ship’s position using relative bearings. In this text, we will cover only the preferred method. Complete information on using relative bearings can be found in Dutton’s.

8.12.2 Procedure Use the following table to use relative bearings to fix the ship’s position.

Rule: The helmsman must mark the ship’s head each time a round of bearings are taken; the bearing recorder must start a new column to record ship’s head data.

Step Action 1. Direct bearing takers to shift to relative bearings using the outer ring of the pelorus; shoot a round of bearings. 2. Align the PMP ruler to the ships head. Example: Cse 200° T 3. With a sharp white grease pencil, mark compass deviation from the deviation tables onto the PMP scale. Remember + W - E.

Example: For 5° W deviation, mark 205° on PMP scale. 205° is the Compass Cse the helmsman must steer. When you recommend new courses, use magnetic courses indicated by the grease pencil mark. 4. Now mark the 180° and 0° on the PMP scale with the grease pencil. Use these marks to align the relative bearings. 5. Plot the round of bearings using the 180° and 0° grease pencil marks.

Figure 8-18 on the following page shows a PMP that is set up for relative bearing navigation.

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Figure 8-18 PMP set up for relative bearing navigation

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8-37 UNCLASSIFIED 8.12.3 Accuracy The results of a relative bearing fix are directly related to the accuracy of the deviation table. If the compass deviation listed is in error by 2°, then all bearings may be off by 2°. There is a way to check the accuracy of the deviation tables for any area in which the ship is operating. Comparing the deviation table to the entries in the Magnetic Compass Record Book may at times give an indication to the accuracy of the deviation tables. Often, interpolation is required. Any decision to deviate from values given in the deviation tables must be made by the navigator and recorded in the Standard Bearing Book.

8.13 SET AND DRIFT Anyone who has ever rowed a boat across a river or stream in a strong current knows the boat must be pointed in a slightly different direction from the point where it is supposed to land. In other words, a course and speed correction must be applied to offset the effects of wind and current to reach the destination. Ships often experience the same difficulty, requiring the navigator and CIC to respond in the same way.

Two words are used to describe the effect that external forces, usually wind and current, have on a vessel—set and drift. Set is the direction toward which the forces tend to push a vessel. Drift is the velocity of the force, in knots.

The navigator must check through various publications, tide tables, and current tables to predict the amount of set and drift the ship will experience while entering port. Winds, variations in stream discharges produced by heavy rain, and other weather conditions frequently cause actual wind and current conditions to vary from those predicted. It thus becomes necessary for both the navigator and CIC to determine set and drift periodically, especially in restricted waters.

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8-38 UNCLASSIFIED You can use the following method to determine set and drift. See figure 8-19.

1. Obtain an accurate fix (shown as time 1405 in the illustration). 2. Dead-reckon (DR) the ship ahead 3 minutes, on course and speed, from the 1405 position. (In figure 12-21 the ship is headed 200° at 12 knots.) When you apply the 3- minute rule, the ship will travel 1200 yards in 3 minutes, or 400 yards per minute. Plot the three DR positions, 400 yards apart, in the direction of 200° from the 1405 fix. 3. At time 1408, or 3minutes later, obtain another accurate fix. 4. Determine the set. The set is the bearing of the 1408 fix from the 1408 DR position. In figure 12-21, the 1408 fix bears 080° from the 1408 DR position. Therefore, the set is 080°. 5. Determine the drift. Drift is the speed that the ship is being offset from its intended course and is determined by measuring the distance between the fix and the DR position. In figure 12-21 this distance is 300 yards. According to the 3-minute rule, 300 yards translates to a drift of 3 knots. 6. By examining the plot on the chart, we can see that although the ship is heading 200° at 12 knots, it is actually tracking (or making good a course of) 185° at 10.8 knots, because of the 080° set and the 3-knot drift. Figure 8-19 Determining set and drift

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8-39 UNCLASSIFIED Should a situation such as the one in figure 8-19 arise, where own ship is being set off course, your first concern should be to determine the course and speed to get back on track within a specified time. To do so, use the following procedure (See figure 8-20). In this case, we want to be back on track in 3 minutes.

1. After determining set and drift, draw a second set and drift vector from the 1408 fix. (This second vector is the amount of offset your ship will encounter during the next 3 minutes.) 2. Draw a line from the end of the second set and drift vector to the time 11 DR position. This is the course own ship must steer to get back on track. The length of the line indicates the speed that we must use to arrive on track at time 1411. In this case, the course is 219°, and the distance is 1,600 yards. When you apply the 3-minute rule, the speed to use is 16 knots. Figure 8-20 Determining course and speed to return to desired track

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8-40 UNCLASSIFIED An experienced Quartermaster should be able to recommend a course and speed to return to track in a matter of seconds. Normally, you will use a PMP to determine a course; but if a PMP is not available, you can determine the course, using parallel rulers, by paralleling the course lines to the compass rose printed on the chart. You can use dividers or a compass to measure distance if a PMP ruler is not available.

After you determine the course and speed for returning to the desired track, your next concern should be to determine the course and speed for making good the desired track. Use the following procedure: (See figure 8-21.)

Figure 8-21 Determining course and speed to use to make

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8-41 UNCLASSIFIED 1. From the 1408 fix, draw a line to the time 11DR position. The direction of this line is the course to use. 2. Determine the speed from the length of the line you just drew. In figure 8-21 the length of this line is 1,380 yards. When you apply the 3-minute rule, the speed to use is 13.8 knots. Your DR track is now211°, 13.8 knots from the 1408 fix.

8.14 TACTICAL DATA Every ship has specific maneuvering characteristics known as the ship’s tactical data.

These data are determined by the navigation department and are available on the bridge, in CIC, and in the engine room. Two of the maneuvering characteristics, advance and transfer, are extremely important in plotting a dead-reckoned track in radar piloting and also in tactical maneuvers. The ship’s tactical data consist of the following information:

1. Acceleration — The rate of increase in ship’s speed. 2. Deceleration—The rate of decrease in speed. 3. Acceleration/deceleration distance — The distance covered between the point where an increase or a decrease in speed is ordered and the point where the ship is steady on the new speed. 4. Advance — The distance gained in the direction of the original course when the ship is turning. See figure 8-22. It is measured in the direction of the original course from the point where the rudder is first put over. The advance will be at maximum when the ship has turned 90°. If the turn is less than 90°, it is measured to the point where the ship is steadied on the new course. 5. Transfer.—The distance gained at right angles to the original course when the ship is turning, to the point of completion of the turn. See figure 8-22. 6. Tactical diameter.—The dista nce gained to the right or left of the original course when a turn of 180° has been completed, when constant rudder angle is used. Figure 8-22 illustrates that the tactical diameter is the transfer for a turn of 180°. 7. Final diameter: The diameter of the turning path of the ship when it has completed 360° of steady turning. 8. Standard rudder.—The amount (in degrees) of rudder that will turn a ship on the turning circle of a prescribed standard tactical diameter.

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8.14.1 Use of Tactical Data As we mentioned earlier, a folder containing the ship’s tactical characteristics is kept on the bridge, in CIC, and in the engine room. Usually this folder contains the following tables:

1. The number of revolutions per minute necessary to make desired speeds. This information is posted also at the annunciators and the throttles. 2. Time versus distance the ship will continue until no forward motion is evident when the engines are stopped at 5, 10, and 15 knots. 3. Time versus distance required to stop the ship when the engines are backed one-third, two-thirds, and full speed while the ship is steaming ahead at normal speed. 4. Time required to turn 45°, 90°, 135°, and 180°, using normal, stationing, and operational speeds for rudder angles of 10°, 15°, and 25° and full rudder. 5. Time versus reach-ahead (acceleration distance) in accelerating from normal speed to stationing and operational speeds. 6. Number of yards from station at which speed should be dropped to formation speed in order to coast into station. 7. Diagrams of turning circles, showing the tactical diameter for 180° and transfer for 90° for rudder angles of 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, and full rudder at speeds of 10, 15, 20, and 25 knots (or as many of these speeds as the ship can make).

Table 8-1 shows sample turning characteristics of a ship. (These figures are for example purposes only. When you plot a DR track in restricted waters, use the correct tactical data for your ship.)

Figure 8-22 Ship turning circle

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED 8-43 UNCLASSIFIED Standard Tactical Diameter at 15 Knots Requiring Standard Rudder Angle of Turn (degrees) Advance (yards) Transfer (yards) 15 185 40 30 275 85 45 345 115 60 390 190 75 445 270 90 500 375 105 450 445 120 405 520 135 360 590 150 315 655 165 265 725 180 205 800 Table 8-1 Sample Advance and Transfer Table

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Standard Tactical Diameter at 15 Knots Requiring Standard Rudder Angle of Turn (degrees) Advance (yards) Transfer (yards) 15 185 40 30 275 85 45 345 115 60 390 190 75 445 270 90 500 375 105 450 445 120 405 520 135 360 590 150 315 655 165 265 725 180 205 800 Table 8-1 Sample Advance and Transfer Table

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8-44 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15 THE MARINE SEXTANT The marine sextant’s only function is to measure angles, either horizontally or vertically. The most common use of the sextant is for celestial observations using vertical angles between celestial objects and the horizon. It is also used for fixing your position using horizontal angles between three charted objects. In this chapter, we will concern ourselves with the latter method. Before we can learn how to fix the ships position using the marine sextant, we need to learn how to operate the marine sextant. Figure 8-23 shows the parts of a marine sextant.

Figure 8-23 The marine sextant

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8-45 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.1 Parts and Functions These are the parts and functions of the marine sextant:

Part Description of Function Arc scale Indicates the number of degrees of an angle. Index arm Pivots at one end to allow the attached index mirror to reflect an object onto the horizon glass and swings along the arc scale on the other end to indicate what the angle measures. Micrometer drum Rotates to make fine adjustments when measuring angles and indicates minutes of a degree of angle. It is attached to the lower end of the index arm. One complete rotation moves the index arm 1° along the arc scale. The drum has 60 graduations, each representing 1' of arc. Vernier scale Indicates tenths of a degree of angle. It is attached on the index arm adjacent to the micrometer drum and has 10 graduations, each representing 0.1' of arc. Index mirror Reflects objects onto the horizon glass. Horizon glass Allows the observer to view one object directly on one side while observing a second object reflected next to it. The half of the horizon glass next to the frame is silvered to make that portion of the glass a mirror; the other half is clear glass. Telescope Directs the line of sight of the observer to the horizon glass and magnifies the objects observed. Filters Protects the observer’s eyes when viewing the Sun. Release levers Disengages the index arm from the arc scale to allow the index arm to move freely.

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8-46 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.2 How a Sextant Works A reflected object from the index mirror can be brought into line with an object viewed directly by moving the index arm along the arc scale until the reflected object can be seen in the horizon glass. The angle measurement is read off the arc scale, micrometer drum, and vernier scale. Figure 8-24 shows how a sextant works.

Figure 8-24 How a sextant works

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8-47 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.3 How to Read a Sextant Reading a sextant angle involves properly understanding and interpreting the markings on the arc scale, micrometer drum, and vernier scale.

Follow these steps to read properly a sextant angle:

Step Action 1. Locate the position of the index arm mark on the arc scale. 2. Determine which degrees the mark is between. The lower reading is the amount of whole degrees. 3. Locate the position of the zero mark on the vernier scale. 4. Determine which minutes the zero mark is between on the micrometer drum. The lower mark is the amount of whole minutes. 5. On the vernier scale, determine which graduation mark is most nearly in line with one of the graduation marks on the micrometer drum. This mark indicates the amount of tenths of a minute.

Note: To make sure you select the correct mark, look at the vernier marks on each side of the one that appears to be in line with a drum mark. Both vernier marks will be on the inside of the closest drum marks.

Figure 8-25 is an example of a sextant angle of 67° 40.6’.

Figure 8-25 Reading a sextant angle

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8-48 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.4 Finding the Index Error The marine sextant will measure angles accurately if it is properly adjusted and used correctly. The senior Quartermaster is responsible for making sure that any adjustable errors are properly corrected before the sextant is used. However, practically every sextant has a small error called index error (IC), which cannot be adjusted.

Use these procedures to determine index error every time you use a sextant to measure angles. An index error correction must then be applied (added or subtracted) to every angle that is taken.

Follow these steps to determine index error:

Step Action 1. Hold the sextant in a vertical position with your right hand on the handle. 2. Move the index arm to approximately zero on the arc scale with your left hand using the release levers. 3. View the horizon through the telescope. 4. Rotate the micrometer drum to align the reflected image of the horizon with the direct image. 5. Take a reading. 6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 at least two more times. 7. Average the three readings to determine index error. 8. Apply the index error correction to your angle. IF index error is... THEN... zero no correction is needed. positive subtract the amount of index error. negative add the index error.

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8-49 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.5 View of the Horizon Figure 8-26 is an illustration of what you should see when trying to determine index error.

Figure 8-26 Direct and reflected views of the horizon

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8-50 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.6 How a Reading of 0.0 Index Error Looks An example of what the scales would look like if there were no index error is shown in figure 8-27. Notice that the index mark is directly under the 0 on the arc scale and the 0 mark on the vernier scale lines up directly with the 0 mark on the micrometer drum.

Figure 8-27 A reading of 0.0 index error

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8-51 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.7 Reading Positive Index Error An example of what the scales would look like if you had a positive index error is shown in figure 8-28. Notice that the index mark is to the left of the 0 on the arc scale and that the 0 on the vernier scale is above the 0 on the micrometer drum, indicating a positive error. The micrometer and vernier scale lineup directly at the 0.4’ line on the vernier scale, indicating an index error of +0.4’. This would be subtracted from any angles taken with this sextant to obtain an accurate angle.

Figure 8-28 Positive index error

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8-52 UNCLASSIFIED 8.15.8 Reading Negative Index An example of a reading of negative index error is shown in figure 8-29. Notice that the index mark is to the right of the 0 on the arc scale and the 0 on the vernier scale is below the 0 on the micrometer drum. The micrometer scale and vernier scale line up directly on the 0.7’ mark of the vernier scale, indicating a -0.7’ index error. The correction would be added to any angles shot with the sextant.

Figure 8-29 Negative index error

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8-53 UNCLASSIFIED 8.16 DETERMINING THE SHIPS POSITION USING SEXTANT ANGLES Horizontal sextant angles give fixes of great accuracy that are not affected by any error of the compass. A fix by horizontal sextant angles is labeled the same as a visual fix with a small circle around the position and the time of the fix close to the fix symbol.

Horizontal sextant angles used in conjunction with a computer-assisted positioning program are the most common method used by the Coast Guard to position aids to navigation.

Horizontal sextant angles should be taken as nearly simultaneously as possible, preferably by two people on a predetermined signal. However, one person can obtain both angles if the ship is not moving quickly.

8.16.1 Procedure Rule: To obtain a fix using sextant angles, you must have three fixed visual objects, and those objects must be identifiable on the chart.

Follow these steps to obtain horizontal sextant angles:

Step Action 1. Hold the sextant horizontally with your right hand. 2. View the left object directly through the telescope. 3. Release the index arm with your left hand on the release levers and swing the arm so that the index mirror reflects the center object in the horizon glass below the left object. 4. Rotate the micrometer drum to fine adjust the reflected object in line with the object viewed directly. 5. Take a reading of the angle. 6. Do you have two people taking angles?

If yes, both angles are ready to be plotted.

If no, repeat steps 1 through 5 using the center object viewed directly and the right object viewed reflected.

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8-54 UNCLASSIFIED 8.16.2 Select Three Objects Figure 8-30 illustrates how three objects are needed to obtain two angles.

8.16.3 View of Two Objects Figure 8-31 is an illustration of what you see when trying to determine the angle between two objects.

Figure 8-30 Select three objects to obtain two angles Figure 8-31 Horizontal measurement of two objects

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8-55 UNCLASSIFIED 8.16.4 Using the Three-Arm Protractor The two angles measured are plotted using a three-arm protractor. This instrument, made of brass or plastic, consists of a circular scale that can be read to fractions of a degree or minutes of arc, and to which the three arms are attached. The center, or index arm, is fixed and the zero graduation of the protractor coincides with the straightedge of this arm. The other arms are movable and can be set and locked at any angle relative to the fixed arm. Figure 8-32 is a diagram of a plastic three-arm protractor.

Figure 8-32 Plastic three-arm protractor

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8-56 UNCLASSIFIED 8.16.5 Setting the Protractor The movable arms can be set to the nearest minute of arc using the vernier scale that is inscribed on the movable arms. Use the following steps when setting the movable arms to a specific angle. Figure 8-33 is an example of a setting of 12° 18’ on the three-arm protractor.

Step Action 1. Loosen the clam screw on the arm you are setting. 2. Move the arm so that the index line is between the degree you want and the next higher degree. 3. Adjust the arm so that the vernier mark indicating the minutes of arc you want is directly in line with the degree mark closest to it.

Note: Make sure you apply the index error correction to angles. 4. Tighten the clamp screw on the arm. 5. Repeat steps 1 through 4 on the other arm for the second angle.

Figure 8-33 Setting angle on the three-arm protractor

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8-57 UNCLASSIFIED 8.16.6 Obtaining the Fix You must first observe the angles with a sextant and set the three-arm protractor with those angles.

8.16.7 Swingers or Revolvers If the three objects and the ship all lie on the circumference of a circle, the fix is NOT reliable. When this happens, it is called a swinger or revolver and your ship could be anywhere along the circle and still have the same two angles to the three objects. See figure 8-34.

Figure 8-34 Difference between fixes and swingers

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8-58 UNCLASSIFIED 8.16.8 Procedure for Plotting the Fix Use the following steps when you are plotting a position using horizontal sextant angles. Figure 8-35 shows how the protractor is positioned to plot the horizontal sextant angles.

Step Action 1. Place the three-arm protractor on the chart. 2. Position the center (fixed) index line so that it passes through the center object. 3. Move the protractor slowly across the chart until all three arms are aligned with the three objects. 4. Mark the ship’s position on the chart by inserting a pencil point in the center of the protractor (pivot point). 5. Check to see that the fix is not a swinger or revolver.

Figure 8-35 Aligning the three-arm protractor

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8-59 UNCLASSIFIED 8.16.9 Stadimeter The stadimeter is an instrument for measuring the distance of objects having known heights between 50 and 200 feet, covering ranges from 200 to 10,000 yards. The principal use of the stadimeter is measuring the distance between ships in formation.

A stadimeter can also be used to indicate that a change in distance has occurred, even when the height of the object is not known.

Distances are measured with reasonable accuracy up to 2,000 yards.

The stadimeter is initially set for a known height of an object on the index arm using the index scale. An observer looks through the telescope at the object and will see both a direct image and a reflected image. By turning the index drum the observer will cause the reflected image to move up or down relative to the direct image. The observer moves the top of the reflected image to line up with the bottom of the direct image and reads the distance in yards directly from the index arm scale.

Figure 8-36 Brandon sextant-type stadimeter

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8-60 UNCLASSIFIED 8.17 DETERMINING THE SHIPS POSITION BY RUNNING FIX Occasions will arise when it isn’t possible to shoot three or more objects to fix the ship’s position. In such instances, a single LOP shot on a single object can be advanced to a common time, resulting in a running fix. Advancing a LOP requires nothing more than moving the LOP forward on the same bearing as the ship’s course and using the ship’s speed without consideration of any current present.

A running fix is labeled in the same manner as a visual fix except that the abbreviation R. fix is put beside the fix and fix time.

Figure 8-37 shows an example of how a LOP is advanced (moved) to obtain a running fix.

Figure 8-37 Advancing a LOP

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8-61 UNCLASSIFIED 8.18 SUMMARY In this chapter, you learned how to keep track of the ship’s position. It is extremely important that the QMOW be able to quickly estimate the ship’s position at any time. Dead reckoning (DR) is one of the most basic and widely used methods of navigating. Dead reckoning is always employed any time a vessel is under way.

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9-1 UNCLASSIFIED 9 ELECTRONIC NA VIGATION AND ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM-NA VY (ECDIS-N)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe the procedure used to annotate the fathometer echogram. 2. List the components of the fathometer. 3. List at least five types of electronic equipment used in navigation. 4. List the five steps used to plot time difference lines used occasionally with electronic navigation. 5. List the components and operation of satellite navigation systems.

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9-2 UNCLASSIFIED 9.1 INTRODUCTION Position is determined in electronic navigation in about the same way that it is in piloting, but there is this important difference: the objects used to fix the ship’s position need not be visible from the ship. Instead, their bearings (and sometimes their ranges) are obtained electronically.

• GPS is the primary radio navigation system source of PNT (Position, Navigation and Timing) systems information for the Department of Defense. All DOD combatant users must acquire, train with, and use GPS systems capable of receiving the encrypted military GPS signal, the Precise Positioning Service (PPS).

There are many different types of electronic equipment used in navigation; some of these you may have used others, you may have only heard about. Some of the more important ones are:

• Fathometer • Radar • Loran-C • RDF • Omega • SATNAV • SINS • GPS

Electronic navigation has become the primary method for both piloting and long-range navigation. However, you must continually bear in mind that there is no one system that can always be used. Every method has its own limitations, and you should appreciate and understand them. Electronic methods are vulnerable because of the possibility of breakdown, malfunctioning, or damage. They are also subject to atmospheric conditions and some can be successfully blocked by jamming, capture, or destruction of related shore equipment by an opposing force. You must, therefore, have a working knowledge of all navigational methods available to you and be able to use them all as required. Furthermore, the old saying “the equipment is only as accurate as its operators” holds true. And operators are only as accurate as their complete knowledge of the equipment they are using.

9.2 USING THE FATHOMETER Charted landmarks on the ocean floor are often useful in assisting mariners in determining their position. Submarine trenches, canyons, ridges, and seamounts can all be useful in navigation. Echo-sounding equipment such as the Navy AN/UQN-4 is the most common fathometer found on naval vessels. This fathometer is the most accurate for obtaining soundings in shallow depths. The AN/UQN-4 can be set for five different scales. It is equipped with a digital display for reading all scales and it has a strip chart recorder that actually traces the profile of the ocean bottom when reading the 600-foot,

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9-3 UNCLASSIFIED 600-fathom, or 6,000-fathom scale. The smallest possible scale should always be used. See figure 9-1.

9.2.1 Annotating the Echogram The paper on which the depths are recorded is used to annotate the following information at the times indicated:

• The ship’s name must be placed at the beginning and at the end of each roll of paper. • Time in GMT must be marked at the beginning of each watch. • The current date should be recorded each day at 1200. • Time and date must also be marked whenever the unit is turned on.

9.3 LORAN-C Loran-C (LOng RAnge Navigation) is an electronic aid to navigation consisting of shore- based radio transmitters. The Loran system enables users to determine their position quickly and accurately day or night in any weather. Your position is determined by locating the crossing point of two lines of position on a Loran-C chart. Most units today will give you a direct readout in latitude and longitude, which will allow you to plot your position even if you do not have a Loran overprinted chart. Loran-C is generally accurate to ¼ nautical mile. The Loran-C system allows you to determine your position by means of radio signals broadcast by stations of known position. A fix is determined by Loran Figure 9-1 Fathometer, transducer, and echogram

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9-4 UNCLASSIFIED through the intersection of lines of position obtained by reference to shore stations whose locations are known.

9.3.1 Time Difference Lines In Loran-C, you locate a LOP by determining the difference in time of arrival of signals sent out by each of a pair of broadcast stations. This interval is constant when the ship is located anywhere along a previously determined Loran-C LOP. To say it another way: When the time interval is a specific amount, the ship must be somewhere on a predetermined Loran-C LOP that is a focus of all points where the interval between arrival of signals is the same.

9.3.2 Plotting Time Difference Lines Most of the Loran-C receivers in use today provide the user with two displays of fix information. The most commonly used is a readout of the latitude and longitude of the vessel’s position. The other is a readout of the time delay of each LOP, which can then be plotted on a Loran-C overprinted chart. The steps for plotting the time difference LOPS are described briefly below:

Step Action 1. Examine the Loran-C chart for your area. LOP lines are marked with time difference numbers; chain and secondary identification also appear every few lines. 2. Read the time difference in the TDA display. 3. On the chart, locate the line that most closely fits that reading for the secondary selected. 4. Examine adjacent lines and interpolate to determine where the line that corresponds to your reading is to be plotted. 5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the TDB display. 6. Locate the point where the two lines cross and label the fix with a small triangle along with the time affixed close by.

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9-5 UNCLASSIFIED 9.4 SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS The SATellite NAVigation (SATNAV) system is a highly accurate, passive, all-weather, worldwide navigational system suitable for subsurface and surface navigation, as well as for use in aircraft. This system has been in wide use in the fleet, and is also available to commercial interests. Because of today’s technology and expertise in transistors, computers, and miniaturization, this system is extremely accurate.

SATNAV plotting is made simple because the receiver gives a written printout of the latitude and longitude of the vessel’s position along with other information about the satellite pass which gives the navigator valuable information about the accuracy of that particular satellite pass and the time of the next pass. The AN-SRN-19 (fig. 9-2) is being replaced throughout the fleet by the WRN-6 GPS navigation system. Refer to the SRN- 19 operator’s manual for specific instructions for system setup.

Figure 9-1 AN/MN-19 Satellite Navigation Set

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9-6 UNCLASSIFIED 9.4.1 Navstar GPS The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) was developed to provide highly precise position and time information anywhere in the world, regardless of weather conditions. Now fully operational, GPS consists of at least 24 satellites: 6 planes with 4+ satellites at 10,900nm altitude. See figure 9-3. The precise stationing of these satellites provides worldwide coverage with a minimum of 4 satellites in view of any user.

Figure 9-2 Navstar global positioning system

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9-7 UNCLASSIFIED 9.4.3 GPS Signals Figure 9-4 depicts a simplified view of how a GPS signal is processed.

9.4.3.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Utilizing satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, the system enables a GPS receiver to determine its location, speed, direction, and time and provides inputs to many systems including Automatic Plotting Systems and Tactical Data Systems.

All ships use GPS as the primary fix source and are required to log Figure of Merit and to obtain a visual and/or RADAR fix at 3 times the intervals indicated (i.e., every nine minutes in restricted waters).

9.4.3.2 Figure of Merit (FOM) FOM (Figure of Merit) is an internal GPS receiver calculation that indicates the best accuracy achievable from the satellites being tracked. (Issues such as GDOP, signal tracked, #of frequencies, receiver noise, time errors, etc can be included in the FOM.)

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9-8 UNCLASSIFIED 9.4.5 AN/WRN 6 (V) The AN/WRN 6(V), shown in figure 9-5, computes accurate position coordinate, elevation, speed, and time information from the signals transmitted from GPS satellites.

Accuracy: The AN/WRN 6(V) will provide positions accurate within 100 meters in the unencrypted mode and positions accurate to within 16 meters or less in the encrypted mode. At all times, if possible, the AN/WRN 6(V) shall be operated in the encrypted mode.

Operating Procedures: Specific operating instructions for the AN/WRN 6(V) are contained in NAVY SPAWAR publication EE170-AA-OMI-020/WRN6. All Quartermasters should become well versed in the contents of this publication. Figure 9-3 Satellite Signals Navigation Set AN/WRN 6(V)

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9-9 UNCLASSIFIED 9.5 NAVIGATIONAL RADAR A typical surface radar set is made up of five components.

Component Description of Function Transmitter Sends out electromagnetic waves of energy. Modulator Allows waves to be omitted as pulses. Antenna Beams the energy at the targets and rotates to scan the surrounding area. Receiver Converts the reflected radio energy returned from the target into usable data. Indicator Presents the data received visually on a scope.

9.5.1 How RADAR Works The following stages help to explain how radar operates:

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9-10 UNCLASSIFIED 9.5.1.1 Principals of Radar The principles upon which radar operates are very similar to the principles of sound-wave reflection. If you shout in the direction of a cliff or some other sound-reflecting surface, you will hear an echo. What actually happens is that the sound waves generated by the shout travel through the air until they strike the cliff. There they are reflected, returning to the originating spot, where you can hear them as weak echoes. A certain amount of time elapses between the instant the sound leaves your mouth and the instant you hear the echo. You notice this time interval because sound waves travel through air at a relatively slow rate (1,100 feet per second). The farther you are from the cliff, the longer this time interval will be. If you are 2,200 feet from the cliff when you shout, about 4 seconds will pass before you hear the echo. In other words, it takes 2 seconds for the sound waves to reach the cliff and 2 seconds for them to return to you.

Radar is an application of radio wave principles. It is possible to detect the presence of objects, to determine their direction and range, and to recognize their character. Detection involves directing a beam of radio-frequency waves over a region to be searched. When the beam strikes a reflecting object, some the beam’s energy is reflected. A very small part of this reflected energy is returned to the radar system. A sensitive receiver, located near the transmitter, detects the echo signal and causes it to be presented visually on a viewing scope. The radar system can determine direction (bearing) and range because the receiving system can be made directional and can make extremely small time measurements.

9.5.2 Plan Position Indicator (PPI) The PPI scope provides a bird’s-eye view of the area covered by the radar with your ship in the center. The sweep appears as a bright line and originates in the center of the scope and extends to the outside edge. This straight line sweep is synchronized with the radar antenna and rotates 360°. Each time a target is detected, it appears as an intensified spot on the scope. See figure 9-6.

To obtain target position, the PPI is equipped with a bearing cursor and a range strobe. The bearing cursor, like the sweep, appears as a bright line. It can be rotated manually through 360°. Bearing information is obtained by rotating the cursor to the center of the target. The target bearing is then read directly from the bearing dial. The range strobe appears as a bright spot riding on the cursor. As the range crank is turned clockwise, the strobe moves out from the center. Range is obtained by placing the strobe on the leading edge (edge closest to the center of the PPI) of the target. The target range is then read directly from the range dials, either in nautical miles or yards.

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9-11 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 9-4 PPI presentation

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9-12 UNCLASSIFIED 9.5.3 PPI Display Interpretation The scope can be adjusted to several different range scales to provide greater target detail. Range is measured in yards or nautical miles from the center of the scope to the target indicated.

Some factors affecting the accuracy of radar are beam width, pulse length, mechanical adjustment, and interpretation. Because of beam width distortion, radar bearings are usually less accurate than radar ranges. A fix obtained where two or more lines of position are determined by ranges is more accurate than one obtained by bearings alone. In most cases, radar ranges will always be available and will be used over radar bearings.

Shorelines appear as they do on the chart; however, the PPI displays a scaled down version of an area of the chart. Determining exactly what you are seeing and where that area is on the chart takes practice.

9.5.4 Land Targets You can usually identify objects as land targets by using the following information:

1. Land does NOT move on geographic plots; however, it does move on the radarscope because of ownship’s motion.

2. The pip usually remains at the same brightness.

3. Land will be at expected positions.

4. Land usually covers a greater area on the screen than other targets.

5. Separate pips caused by two land masses do not move relative to one another.

6. Sandspits and smooth, clear beaches do not show up on radar at ranges greater than a few nautical miles. The reason is that these targets have almost no area that will reflect energy back to the radar. Ranges determined from these targets are not reliable, because ranging may be to the surf rather than to the beach. If waves are breaking over a sandbar on the beach, echoes may be returned from the surf.

Waves may break well out from the actual shore; therefore, ranging on the surf may be misleading when a radar position is being determined relative to the beach.

7. Mud flats and marshes normally reflect radar pulses only slightly better than sandspits do. The weak echoes received at low tide disappear at high tide. Mangroves and other thick growth may produce a strong echo. Areas that are indicated as swamps on a chart may, therefore, return either strong or weak echoes, depending on the density and size of the vegetation growing in that area.

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9-13 UNCLASSIFIED 8. When sand dunes are located well back from a low, smooth beach, the apparent shoreline appearing on radar is the line of dunes rather than the true shoreline.

9. Lagoons and inland lakes usually appear as blanks on a PPI scope because the smooth water surface reflects no energy to the radar antenna. In some instances, the sandbar or reef surrounding the lagoon may not appear on the radar either, because it lies too low in the water.

10. Coral atolls and long chains of islands may produce long lines of echoes when the radar beam is directed perpendicular to them. This is especially true for islands that are closely spaced. The reason is that spreading, created by the radar’s beamwidth, causes the echoes to blend into continuous lines. However, when the chain of islands is viewed lengthwise or obliquely, each island may produce a separate pip. Surf breaking on a reef around an atoll produces a ragged, variable line of echoes.

11. Submerged objects do not produce radar echoes. But, rocks projecting above the surface of the water, or waves breaking over a reef will appear on the radarscope. When an object is entirely submerged and the sea is smooth, you will see no indication on the scope.

12. If land rises gradually from the shoreline, no part of the terrain will produce an echo that is stronger than the echo from any other part. As a result, a general haze of signals will appear on the scope. This makes it difficult to determine the range to any particular part of the land. In fact, if the antenna is held still and the ship is not rolling, the apparent range to a shore of this sort may vary as much as 1,000 yards. This variation may be caused by slight changes in propagation conditions, which cause the beam to be moved up and down the slope.

13. Blotchy signals are returned from hilly ground because the crest of each hill returns a good echo while the valley beyond it is in a shadow. If you use high receiver gain, the pattern may become solid except for the very deep valleys.

14. Low islands ordinarily produce small echoes. However, when thick palm trees or other foliage grows on the island, strong echoes are often produced, because the horizontal surface of the water around the island forms a sort of corner reflector with the vertical surfaces of the trees. As a result, wooded islands give good echoes and can be detected at much greater ranges than barren islands.

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9-14 UNCLASSIFIED 9.5.5 False or Phantom Contacts Many pips that appear on radarscopes look like echoes given off by aircraft or ships do not, in fact, represent aircraft or ships. You need to learn what causes these pips and how they look so you can recognize them instantly.

Radar contacts made on targets that cannot be seen are often given the erroneous title “phantom” contacts. Actually, clouds, turbulence, birds, fish, weather conditions, or wakes may cause them. All of these phenomena reflect radar pulses to some extent. In general, an alert operator can recognize echoes from these sources.

9.5.6 Minor Lobes The beam of waves sent out by radar is not shaped as perfectly as the beam of a searchlight.

The main (or major) lobe radiates in the direction in which the antenna is pointing. A series of smaller lobes (unwanted but unavoidable) point in various other directions. When these minor lobes (called side lobes and back lobes) point at an object, they produce echoes if the object is large and nearby.

Because the sweep is synchronized with the major lobe, all return will appear to be from that lobe. You can recognize minor lobe returns by their size and the fact that they are at the same range as the major lobe return. Sometimes the minor lobe returns are present through 360° of bearing. This makes it difficult to obtain an accurate bearing on the true contact. When you reduce the gain, minor lobe returns will usually disappear, leaving only the major lobe return. Some newer radars have a side lobe suppressing circuit that you may use to eliminate these undesirable minor lobe echoes.

9.5.7 Double Echos You will detect double echoes most frequently when a large target is close aboard and on the beam. Such echoes are produced when the reflected beam is strong enough to make a second or third round trip. Double echoes are weaker than main echoes and appear at twice the range. Triple echoes are usually so weak that they are seldom seen. Double echoes can be deceiving. If you do not recognize them instantly, you might make the mistake of reporting them as a submarine periscope contact.

Used correctly, they can be useful. For example, they can indicate whether your radar is in calibration. The range from your ship to the target should be the same as that from the target to the second echo. One of the fleet exercises conducted aboard your ship will consist of setting up an optimum condition. The objective is to obtain these echoes for purposes of calibrating the radar.

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9-15 UNCLASSIFIED 9.5.8 Second-Sweep Echos Second-sweep echoes, seen occasionally on the scope, are returned from targets beyond the maximum theoretical range of the radar. Let’s say you are operating a radar that has a maximum theoretical range of 125 nautical miles. A mountain 135 nautical miles away would be presented on the PPI at an apparent range of 10 nautical miles. This 10 nautical miles is the difference between the actual range of the mountain and the maximum range of the radar. This happens because each transmitter pulse starts the repeater timing. If the radar transmits a second pulse before an echo is returned from the previous pulse, the echo is presented in relation to the second pulse.

9.5.9 Radar Interference Often, you will see one or several lines that move rapidly across the screen. These lines are usually caused by another radar transmitter operating on or near your radar’s frequency. They are called “running rabbits” because of their unusual appearance on the scope.

9.5.10 Side Lobe Ringing At times, the crescent-shaped effect is so pronounced that when you look at the PPI, you seem to be in a land-locked harbor or lagoon. Actually, you are standing off a straight shoreline. This complete ringing effect appears mostly on air search radar. It is confusing to air intercept controllers and others concerned with controlling aircraft. Side lobe ringing is the result of a combination of beamwidth distortion and side and back lobes.

9.5.11 Low Land Radar frequently fails to detect low-lying and gradually sloping land, especially at long range. This effect results in another distortion of the coastline.

9.5.12 Ships Near Shore Ships, rocks, and other targets close to shore may blend in with the shoreline. This mixture is caused by the spreading effect of all targets, both in range and bearing, due to the beam and pulsewidths of the radar.

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9-16 UNCLASSIFIED 9.5.13 AN/SPA-25G The AN/SPA-25G is an advanced navigation, air search, and tactical situation solid-state radar indicator designed for both CIC and bridge environments. It increases the operator’s capabilities while decreasing his work load through a unique information display and efficient man-machine interface.

The AN/SPA-25G solves all the range, bearing and plotting problems associated with target tracking, navigation, Estimated Point of Arrival (EPA), and air traffic control. Operators can perform formerly manual plotting and range and bearing calculating tasks through the AN/SPA-25G by pushing buttons, moving its stiff stick control, and reading and viewing the solution(s) on its indicator screen.

The AN/SPA-25G’s operating controls and status indicators are located on the front control panel around the CRT as shown in figure 9-7. Table 9-1 lists their reference and panel designations and describes their operating functions.

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9-17 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 9-5 Radar Indicator Control Panel 1A2A5 controls and indicators

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9-18 UNCLASSIFIED For more in-depth operating information on the AN/SPA-25G, refer to NAVSEA SE251- DG-MMO, Technical Manual for Indicator Group AN/SPA-25G Volume I.

INDEX NO. PANEL DESIG FUNCTION 1 BACKGROUND SWITCH Adjusts brightness of function switch legends when not activated (backlit condition) 2 ENABLED SWITCH Adjust brightness of function switch legends when actuated 3 PANEL control Adjusts overall panel illumination (red) 1 4 CRT display Provides PPI and four alphanumeric status displays 5 TRUE BEARING lamp When lit, indicates that display is present in true bearing: when not lit, display is in relative bearing. Knurled body adjusts brightness 6 POWER LAMP Indicates that power is applied to radar indicator 7 POWER switch ON Controls 115-volt operating power to radar indicator 8 RADAR SELECTOR Controls external switchboard. Selects one of 11 shipboard radars and TEST function 9 VIDEO switch Selects one of three video sources or mixed video from any two sources 10 DECAY (SECONDS) Adjusts video signal decay time in seconds. Continuously variable from 1/ 4 SECOND to 60 SECONDS and INF (infinity) 11 RANGE SELECTOR Adjusts range scale of displayed data. Continuously variable for range from 1/ 4 nm to 250 nm (1/2 nm to 500 nm in extended range) 12 Stiffstick control Dedicated to adjacent function switches as activated. Controls movement and/or position of principle designator (PD) symbol, PD origin symbol, or PPI OFFSET 13 MASTER CLEAR switch Returns display to initialization conditions FUNC SELECT Enables selection or de-selection of specialized modes and conditions of operation from menus. If not active, indicator remains in general (default) node or operation PLOT/1 switch Dual function. Marks position of any designated point (PLOT); numeric entry (1)

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9-19 UNCLASSIFIED SYMBOL/2 switch 2 Dual function. Assigns tactical symbols; numeric entry (2) CPA/3 SWITCH Dual function. Accesses predicted closest point approach between target and ownship as derived from ownship and target speed and course; numeric entry (3); in Air intercept mode it is the Forward Quarter Intercept (FQI) mode function key AUTO OFFSET/4 Dual function. Changes PPI display from an ownship stabilized presentation (fixed center or offset) to an offset dead reckoning presentation (ownship position automatically offset at a selected rate); numeric entry (4) */5 SWITCH Dual function. Used in Air Intercept Mode to engage air targets for intercept operations; numeric entry (5) SEQ/6 switch Dual function. Allows rapid sequencing through active track files; numeric entry (6) Line/7 switch Dual function. Allows lines to be drawn on PPI, for example, boat lanes or helo corridors; numeric entry (7) RECALL/8 switch Dual function. Returns PD to a specific plot point in a track history file; numeric entry (8) ENTER/9 switch Dual function. Allows parameters used in operations or calculation, such as date, time, magnetic correction, ownship course and speed, to be entered or corrected; numeric entry (9) **/0 switch Dual function. Used to request automatic assignment of numbers or deletion of number; numeric entry (0) DROP switch 3 Used to delete items (plot points, track history files, lines) from storage in memory and to delete associated graphics from PPI display POINT switch Designates specific items or location where actions may be performed SUP switch Allows selective suppression of display information from PPI (without erasing from memory) CLEAR switch Used in conjunction with other

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9-20 UNCLASSIFIED function switches to abort a procedure or to clear a process. When used with menu selection switches causes program to return to menu selection level OFFSET TO PD switch Causes a PD centered PPI display DP ORIGIN TO PD switch Causes PD ORIGIN symbol to move to location of PD on display PRING DESIG switch Places positioning/movement of principal designator (PD) symbol under stiffstick control PD ORIGIN Places positioning/movement of PD origin symbol under stiffstick control OFFSET switch Causes PPI display to be offset by stiffstick control 14 ON TARGET switch Provides switch closure to external equipment via rear panel connector (not used) 15 BRIGHTNESS control Adjusts overall brightness of CRT display 16 STATUS control Adjusts intensity of alphanumerics and symbols within status displays (outside PPI area) 17 GRAPHICS control Adjusts intensity of all symbols within PPI area except PD, PD origin, BL (bearing line) 18 DESIGNATOR control Adjusts intensity of PD symbol, PD origin symbol and BL 19 RADAR control Adjusts intensity of radar video signals 20 SECOND RADAR VIDEO Functions with VIDEO switch. When mixed video is selected, adjusts input level of second video source 21 FIRST RADAR VIDEO Functions with VIDEO switch. Adjusts input level of first video source when mixed video is selected; otherwise adjusts single video source selected 22 INTENSITY 4 Illuminates right hand portion of illuminated shelf Table 9-1

1 In serial numbers A001 through A062, panel illumination is white. 2 In serial numbers A001 through A062, switch nomenclature is LABLE/2. 3 In serial numbers A001 through A062, switch nomenclature is ERASE. 4 No panel marking

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9-21 UNCLASSIFIED 9.6 HOW TO OBTAIN A RADAR BEARING AND RANGE

9.6.1 Bearings The PPI is equipped with a bearing cursor and a range strobe. The bearing cursor, like the sweep, appears as a bright line and can be manually rotated through 360°. Bearing information is obtained by rotating the cursor to the center of the target. The target bearing is then read directly from the bearing dial. On gyro-equipped ships (and most ships having radars are so equipped), the radar has a gyro input and bearings obtained from it are true. If a gyro failure occurs the radar presentation automatically re-orients to a relative picture and relative bearings may be taken from the PPI.

9.6.2 Ranges The range strobe appears as a bright spot riding on the cursor. As the range crank is turned clockwise, the strobe moves out from the center. Range is obtained by placing the strobe on the leading edge (edge closest to the center of the PPI) of the target. The target range is then read directly from the range dials, either in miles or yards.

9.6.3 Selecting Objects to Shoot When plotting a radar fix, you will have already been comparing your radar “picture” with the navigational chart. Pick out points that show prominently on both the chart and the radar. Try to locate reliable targets that are easy to identify. You cannot afford to guess on what you are using to obtain a range from. Objects not permanently fixed to shore or the ocean bottom such as buoys should not be used when obtaining a radar fix. Tangents also should be used as a last resort.

9.6.4 Shooting Ranges in Proper Order The order in which you take your radar ranges is just as important as it was in visual bearings. Take radar ranges ahead and astern first because they are changing most rapidly, then take ranges on or near the beam. As is true with visual fixes, time is a critical element. Work quickly, but accurately.

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9-22 UNCLASSIFIED 9.7 HOW TO PLOT RADAR FIXES Use the following steps to properly plot a radar fix. Figure 9-8 is an illustration of what a fix using three radar ranges looks like.

Step Action 1. Locate the distance scales or the latitude scale near your approximate location on the chart. 2. Measure the distance on the scale using a compass. 3. Locate the charted navigational point used for the range. 4. Place the sharp point of the compass on the chart where you took the range and draw an arc in the vicinity of your DR position. 5. Repeat steps 2 thru 4 for all the ranges obtained. 6. Locate the area where the lines of position (arcs) all cross each other 7. Label the radar fix by putting a small triangle around the intersection of the ranges, with the time of the fix noted close to the symbol.

Figure 9-6 Example of a radar fix

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9-23 UNCLASSIFIED 9.8 OTHER ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT

9.8.1 SINS SINS (Ship’s Inertial Navigation System) is the process of directing the movements of a rocket, ship, aircraft, or other vehicle from one point to another, based on sensing acceleration of the vehicle in a known spatial direction with the aid of instruments that mechanize the Newtonian laws of motion, and integrating acceleration to determine velocity and position.

SINS is an accurate, all-weather, dead reckoning system. It employs gyroscopes, accelerometers, and associated electronics to sense turning rates and accelerations associated with the rotation of the Earth, and with ship’s movement relative to the surface of the Earth.

9.8.2 Radio Direction Finders Radio beacons were the first electronic aid to navigation. The basic value of the radio beacon system lies in its simplicity of operation and its relatively low user costs, even though the results obtained may be somewhat limited. The Radio Direction Finder (RDF) is a specially designed radio receiver equipped with a directional antenna. The antenna is used to determine the direction of the signal emitted by a, shore station, relative to the vessel. A radio beacon is basically a short-range navigational aid, with ranges from 10 to 175 nautical miles. Bearings can be obtained at greater ranges, but they are usually of doubtful accuracy and should be used with caution. When the distance to a radio beacon is greater than 50 miles, a correction is usually applied to the bearing before plotting on a Mercator chart. These corrections, as well as information on the accuracy of bearings, plotting, and other matters, are contained in DMA publication 117, Radio Navigational Aids.

9.8.3 Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) The Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) is a U.S. Navy system that distributes highly accurate navigation data to shipboard systems and provides an electronic display of Digital Nautical Charts for use by the ship’s navigation team. NAVSSI is deployed aboard over 70 surface combatants. It is a highly capable and robust system that supports many interfaces and is designed to meet the Navy requirements for Electronic Chart Display and Information System-Navy (ECDISN).

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9-24 UNCLASSIFIED

NAVSSI Block Diagram • The primary function of the NAVSSI AN/SSN-6 system is to distribute common position, velocity, time, and almanac data to onboard Command & Control and Combat Systems. This is done in real time, with the Global Positioning System (GPS) serving as the primary source of navigation data.

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9-25 UNCLASSIFIED

NAVSSI- DCS • The Display Control Subsystem is the Human-Machine Interface (HMI) subsystem of the AN/SSN-6 system. The user controls the AN/SSN-6 system by using the DCS video screen, trackball, and keyboard. The DCS takes the position, velocity, and time (PVT) information from the RTS and acts as an interface to aid in navigation tasks such as piloting, voyage-planning, voyage-management, and training. The DCS is located in the chart room on most ships, and provides the overall system control, data processing, storage and the operator interface for the NAVSSI system. The set-up of the DCS is critical to proper system performance.

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9-26 UNCLASSIFIED Features:

• Provides a Y-code-capable Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver • Provides a human/machine interface for the GPS receiver • Can display ship/radar data overlaid on a Digital Nautical Chart (DNC) • Has a flexible software design that requires minimal new code • Supports a remote monitor • Meets requirements of Digital Chart Navigation (DCN ) • Supports raster and vector digital chart products • Provides output interfaces to send navigation data to other user systems • Supports auto-piloting and collision avoidance • Serves charts to other shipboard users of NIMA data • Uses available, low-cost Inertial Navigation System (INS) or gyro data to aid the GPS receiver

It is a highly capable and robust system that supports many interfaces and is designed to meet the Navy requirements for Electronic Chart Display and Information System-Navy (ECDIS-N).

The Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) integrates inputs from various shipboard navigation sensor systems, distributes the integrated navigation solution to shipboard users, and provides a dedicated workstation to the ship's navigator.

The Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) collates, displays and disseminates all available own-ship navigation information on a common computer system. Using Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) GPS as its primary source of navigation data, the system provides real-time position and displays historical information on watch station computer terminals. It also automates logs kept for navigation records.

9.8.4 AN/SSN-6(V)2 Navigation Sensor System Interface System (NAVSSI) The AN/SSN-6 Navigation Sensor System Interface (NAVSSI) System is an integrated shipboard system that automatically accepts, processes, and disseminates navigation and time information from various shipboard navigation sources.

The AN/SSN-6 provides a means for users to obtain data verification, digital mapping, and the programming of selected way points. The AN/SSN-6 utilizes inputs from the Inertial Navigation System (INS), AN/UQN-4 Sonar Sounding Set, and EM Log to provide extremely accurate position (latitude and longitude), velocities (N-S, E-W, and vertical), ownship heading (OSH), roll, pitch, depth below keel, speed through the water (OSS), own ships distance (OSD), and extremely accurate time. The AN/SSN-6 also receives GPS satellite data via two embedded GPS VME Receiver Cards (GVRC).

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9-27 UNCLASSIFIED The inputs to the AN/SSN-6 are processed, and in the AUTO mode, NAVSSI selects the best source selection for each output component. In the manual mode, the source selection is made by the operator to provide the appropriate output.

The primary capabilities and purpose of NAVSSI AN/SSN-6 Block 3 system is to distribute common position, velocity, time, and almanac data to onboard Command & Control and Combat Systems. This is done in real time, with the Global Positioning System (GPS) as the primary source of navigation data.

To elaborate, the system gives users a Human-Machine Interface (HMI) to perform navigation planning, execution, and manipulation of Digital Nautical Charts (DNCs). The system provides consistent, accurate, timely Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT) data to all navigation dependent shipboard systems. It provides autonomous almanac data to the Tomahawk missile system. It also provides, voyage planning and voyage management functionality, using Digital Nautical Charts (DNCs) and other National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) products. Users include other navigation systems; Command, Control, Communications and Computer Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance systems; weapon systems; and the shipboard navigation teams. This composite PVT enhances the ability of surface ships to perform navigation, ship control, and combat missions. The AN/SSN-6 composite PVT will normally be the most accurate information onboard.

9.9 VOYAGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The primary function of the VMS is to improve navigational safety. It does so by providing shipboard personnel with the information they need to make decisions more quickly and more effectively. The system is designed to automate time consuming tasks related to voyage planning and monitoring, including management of chart data. When configured to provide automatic track steering, the VMS can also interface with installed automatic pilot equipment to maintain a plan track.

The VMS is a computer-based navigation, planning and monitoring system. It is designed in accordance with International Maritime Organization specifications, as an Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS), and to the specifications of the United States Navy for ECDIS-N.

Traditional bridge equipment and most navigation sensors can be interfaced to the VMS, as can propulsion control and steering control systems, and one or more radar systems.

The Voyage Management System provides flexible and unfettered access to the electronic chart, and to other navigational data, for watchstanders on the bridge and in other key areas aboard ship such as the Combat Information Center. Using the data supplied by the VMS, watchstanders can spend less time in gathering information, and more time in important decision-making functions.

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9-28 UNCLASSIFIED On the bridge, multiple VMS stations allow shipboard personnel to accomplish more than one navigation task at the same time. Voyage planning and monitoring functions are available from all VMS workstations, and data input to one computer is available at all workstations.

For example, at least one VMS station can function as a navigation station while another is used as a planning station. A person working on voyage planning or chart editing at the planning station will not interfere with the conning operations at the navigation station. All navigation functions available at the navigation station are also available at the planning station and all other stations, so that the ship's position can be monitored from any location. Workstations located in other areas of the ship are linked to the workstations on the bridge in the same way. The VMS Main Display includes the electronic chart display as well as the Main menu, which gives the operator access to VMS controls. Various sub-menus, and all other controls and windows for VMS operation are available from the Main menu.

9.9.1 Electronic Chart Display and Information System-Navy (ECDIS-N) The ECDIS-N system interfaces with the ship’s Global Positioning System receivers and other navigation sensors to give the ship’s watchstanders a computerized real-time view of the ship’s position and movement on an electronic-chart display. It also provides an automated capability for route planning and Digital Nautical Chart correction to include the latest "Notice to Mariners" information.

ECDIS-N, in conjunction with the Global Positioning System (GPS) and Digital Nautical Chart, provides superior navigation capabilities using an interactive computer system. For instance, in traditional navigation there is a time delay between taking a navigational position, plotting it on a chart and comparing it to the planned route.

During this time the ship is normally moving, so the plot represents where the ship was at the time the position was taken, not where it currently is. But ECDIS-N, using a secure GPS connection, instantaneously updates and displays the ship’s position.

ECDIS-N will also increase accuracy. A majority of navigational errors are human in origin. The most common mistakes are made in adding, subtracting and manually plotting the position on a chart. ECDIS-N will greatly enhance the safety of navigating at sea.

Another common problem that affects safety is the difficulty in manually updating paper charts with new information and ensuring that the ship’s chart inventory is current. ECDIS-N allows automated updating of the digital charts, via Net download or mailed compact discs. This will significantly decrease the tedious workload of correcting charts.

One of the most powerful tools of ECDIS-N systems is the automatic grounding avoidance feature found in route planning and route monitoring. Automatic grounding avoidance correlates the ship’s position, draft and safety ellipse with the chart and

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9-29 UNCLASSIFIED generates alarms if the system detects potential hazards along the ship’s track. The system also provides a full set of alarms if the system is malfunctioning.

The databases used by ECDIS-N are the Digital Nautical Chart (DNC) and a companion product called Tactical Ocean Data (TOD). TOD provides military and classified bathymetric data required by the Navy. These are produced by the National Geospatial- Intelligence Agency (NGA) in the DoD standard format called Vector Product Format (VPF).

The VPF is a standard format, structure and organization for large geographic databases that are based on a georelational data model and are intended for direct use (i.e., you do not need to translate the data into another format to use). VPF allows application software to read data directly from computer-readable media without prior conversion to an intermediate form.

The software then reads the DNC and TOD data, both in VPF, and displays the data to a screen, so that it looks like the paper chart that the mariner is used to seeing. There are three sets of displays within ECDIS-N, the base layer, or the minimum amount of data that must be displayed; the standard layer looks most like the paper charts, and then mariner overlay display that allows the mariner to add additional information needed for operations.

The software has tools that allow the watchstander to adjust the display to ambient light. There is a color scheme for bright sunshine and one more suited to evening hours. There is also a night-time color scheme because the bridge of a ship is in darkened mode. A computer screen that shows a lot of white would be blinding when you look outside at the dark night. Another feature of the software allows the watchstander to turn on and off layers of information to make the presentation on the screen most useful to him or her. Most significant, is that even if the data such as the soundings are turned off, the software continues to interact with the database and sounds an alarm if there is an impending danger to the vessel.

9.10 NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL-INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (NGA) PRODUCTS Charts used in the Navy may be prepared by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), the National Ocean Service (NOS), the British Admiralty, or by other hydrographic agencies.

9.10.1 Digital Nautical Charts (DNC) The DNC is an unclassified vector-based digital geospatial intelligence database depicting significant features essential for safe marine navigation. DNC libraries are automatically distributed on CD-ROM for all 29 Regions and is also available over the NGA Gateway.

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9-30 UNCLASSIFIED NGA has produced the DNC Vector Product Format Database Update (VDU) to support worldwide DNC navigation requirements of the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard.

VDU for DNC is automatically distributed monthly on CD-ROM for all 29 Regions and is also available over the NGA public website.

Digital patch updates to DNC are available via the NGA Gateway. Navigators must apply these changes per applicable system operating instructions to keep their databases current and safe for navigation between new editions of DNC. New editions of DNC will be announced in Section II of the US Notice to Mariners (NtM) and will also be made available via the NGA Gateway.

9.11 SUMMARY Position is determined in electronic navigation in about the same way that it is in piloting, but there is this important difference: the objects used to fix the ship’s position need not be visible from the ship. Instead, their bearings (and sometimes their ranges) are obtained electronically.

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10-1 UNCLASSIFIED 10 WEATHER OBSERV ATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Measure, convert, and record barometric pressure. 2. Determine apparent wind, relative wind, and true wind using anemometers or visual estimation. 3. Identify cloud types and match them with their correct heights. 4. Measure temperature, dew point, and relative humidity. 5. Convert temperature to Celsius or Fahrenheit. 6. Observe and report weather conditions using form CNOC 3140/8. 7. Describe weather conditions associated with fronts. 8. Recommend course of action to evade storms.

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10-2 UNCLASSIFIED 10.1 INTRODUCTION The people who “go down to the sea in ships” fight a continuous close battle with the elements that make up the weather. A mariner’s watch of weather conditions is of greater importance than it is to most people ashore. Accurate weather forecasting may not be as vital now as it was in the days of the sailing ships, but situations still arise when the safety of a ship and the lives of its crew depend on the evasive action taken to avoid the full fury of a storm. Even when actual safety is not considered, possible damage to the ship’s boats and gear must be minimized by extra security measures taken well in advance of an approaching storm.

The action taken by ships may be based on the latest weather information compiled and broadcast by the appropriate Naval Oceanographic Center. The oceanographic centers base their predictions largely upon the reports of weather conditions received from ships at sea. An intelligent weather report from a ship can be made only by a person capable of accurately observing and (to some extent) interpreting weather conditions. Aerographer’s mates are charged with this duty, but not all ships carry them. On a ship that doesn’t have an Aerographer’s Mate aboard, the weather observation duties are the responsibility of the Quartermasters. This chapter, then, is concerned with the weather and the way it is observed and reported.

10.2 THE ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere (air) is a mixture of independent gases. Near the surface of Earth, the percentages by volume of the various constituents are approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, and traces of other gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, and helium. Water vapor, which has been omitted from the foregoing list, is found in relatively small but widely varying amounts; 1% of the total atmosphere may be taken as the average figure. The quantity of water vapor present is much greater in equatorial regions than it is in polar regions and greater over the ocean than over land. The atmosphere has definite weight, called atmospheric pressure, and is measured by an instrument called a barometer.

10.2.1 Changes in the Weather Large-scale changes in temperature, pressure, and water vapor content of the atmosphere cause changes in the weather. Warm air is lighter in weight and can hold more water vapor then cold air. Moist air with a temperature of 50°F is lighter than drier air of the same temperature because water vapor is lighter than air. Cold or heavy air has a tendency to flow toward and take the place of warm or lighter air; and, as the air begins to move, other forces come in to play, making the movement of air masses and weather rather complex. You can readily see that temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure are all factors in considering the weather.

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10-3 UNCLASSIFIED 10.3 CIRCULATION OF THE WIND UPON EARTH The following paragraphs deal with the general (surface) circulation with prevailing winds and nearby permanent pressure systems of belts. (See fig. 10-1). In the Northern Hemisphere, the circulation is clockwise about high-pressure areas (called anticyclones) and counterclockwise about low-pressure areas (called cyclones). The reverse is true in the Southern Hemisphere. At times, confusion arises from the meaning of wind direction. Wind is always named by the direction from which it is blowing.

10.3.1 The Doldrums The equatorial belt of light and variable winds between the northeast tradewinds of the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere is called the doldrums, or the intertropical convergence zone. The doldrums may vary in position. They tend to move north and south of the Equator with the Sun, though more of the area is generally located slightly north of the Equator. In the doldrums, the temperatures are high and the wind convergent (a net inflow of air into the area), which causes greater rainfall. Figure 10-1 General circulation of air

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10-4 UNCLASSIFIED 10.3.2 The Tradewinds The tradewinds are found just north and south of the doldrums. Whenever the doldrums are absent in some part of the equatorial region, the tradewinds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres converge, causing heavy rain squalls. A feature of the trade belt is the regularity of the systems, especially over the oceans. The wind blowing above and counter to the trade is called the ANTITRADE.

10.3.3 Horse Latitudes The areas of the subtropical high-pressure cells, where the winds are light and variable are about 30°N to 40°N and 30°S to 40°S. They are called the horse latitudes. Fair weather is characteristic of this region, due to the descending air. The pressure decreases outward from this area, and the prevailing westerlies are on the poleward side, with the tradewinds on the equatorial side.

10.3.4 Prevailing Westerlies The prevailing westerlies, which are on the poleward side of the tradewinds are persistent through the midlatitudes. In the Northern Hemisphere their direction at the surface is from the southwest, and in the Southern Hemisphere from the northwest. This is a result of the deflection caused by the Coriolis force as air moves poleward. The Coriolis effect is the apparent force exerted by the rotation of Earth. The front zone lies poleward of the prevailing westerlies.

10.3.5 Polar Region Winds In the polar cells, polewards of the polar front zone, the surface winds are known as the polar easterlies (polar northeasterlies at the North Pole and southeasterlies at the South Pole). They move the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. They are very shallow due to the low temperatures and are overlain by the westerlies. This circulation pattern is temporarily disrupted by the migratory pressure systems in all areas but returns to the original pattern.

10.4 CLOUD FORMATIONS The atmosphere always contains, in greater or smaller amounts, tiny particles, such as dust from roads, desert sand, plant pollen, salt particles from oceans, and factory smoke. These fragments are hygroscopic nuclei; the term means particles that readily condense moisture. A cloud is merely a mass of hygroscopic nuclei that has soaked up moisture from the air.

The heat generated by the Sun’s energy causes earthbound moisture to evaporate (turn into water vapor). Water vapor is lighter than air; thus, it rises. If the air it passes into is cold enough, the vapor condenses; that is, it turns back into moisture. The water droplets that result from this process cling to the hygroscopic nuclei. Many of these water-soaked nuclei bunched together form a cloud. Fog is the same in principle, but it’s a cloud on the ground.

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10-5 UNCLASSIFIED Changes in atmospheric conditions account for the many different shapes of clouds and for their presence at various altitudes. Formations of clouds give clues concerning the existing forces at play in the atmosphere. That’s why you must keep an accurate record of cloud genera (types).

10.4.1 Cloud Etage With respect to clouds, the atmosphere is broken down into three layers or etages. In the middle latitudes or temperate region, the low etage is from the surface to 6,500 feet; the mid etage, from 6,500 feet to 18.500 feet; and the high etage, from 18,500 feet on up to near 45,000 feet (fig. 10-2). The limits of the etages are generally lower in the polar regions (mid etage, from 6,500 to 10,000 feet and high etage from 10,000 to 25,000 feet) and higher in the tropics (mid etage from 6,500 to 20,000 feet and high etage from 20,000 to 60,000 feet).

The low-etage cloud may be cumuliform, such as the cumulus genera or cumulonimbus (identified by their size and extent of development); stratiform, such as the stratus; or have mixed characteristics, such as the stratocumulus. The mid-etage cloud genera are mostly identified with the prefix alto. The mid etage contains the cumuliform clouds, such as altocumulus, and the stratiform clouds, such as altostratus and nimbostratus. The high-etage cloud genera contain the prefix cirro. Cumuliform clouds in this etage are called cirrocumulus, while stratiform clouds are called cirrostratus. Another form of cloud found only in the high etage is the cirriform clouds that are the normally thin, wispy or hairlike ice-crystal clouds that can be defined as neither cumuliform nor stratiform, but are simply called cirrus clouds.

Take a moment to study figure 10-2, which shows many of the cloud genera and their associated heights above ground.

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Figure 10-2 Cloud genera and associated heights

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10-7 UNCLASSIFIED 10.4.2 High-Etage Clouds Cirrus (CI) clouds are detached clouds of delicate and stringy appearance, generally white in color, without shading. They appear in the most varied forms, such as isolated tufts, lines drawn across the sky, branching featherlike plumes, and curved lines ending in tufts.

Cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals; hence their transparent character depends upon the degree of separation of the crystals. Before sunrise and after sunset, cirrus clouds may still be colored bright yellow or red. Being high-altitude clouds, they light up before lower clouds and fade out much later. Cirrus clouds often indicate the direction in which a storm lies.

Cirrocumulus (CC) clouds, commonly called mackerel sky, look like rippled sand or like cirrus clouds containing globular masses of cotton, usually without shadows. Cirrocumulus clouds indicate that a storm probably is approaching.

Cirrostratus (CS) clouds are a thin whitish veil that does not blur the outlines of the Sun or Moon but gives rise to halos (colored or whitish rings and arcs around the Sun or Moon; the colored arcs appear reddish on the inside edges). A milky veil of fog (thin stratus) and altostratus are distinguished from a veil of cirrostratus of similar appearance by the halo phenomenon, which the Sun or Moon nearly always produces in a layer of cirrostratus. The appearance of cirrostratus is a good indication of rain.

10.4.3 Mid-Etage Clouds Altocumulus (AC) clouds are a layer (or patches) composed of flattened globular masses, the smallest elements of the regularly arranged layer being fairly small and thin, with or without shading. The balls or patches are usually arranged in groups, lines, or waves. Sometimes a corona (similar to a halo but with the reddish color on the outside edges) may be seen on the altocumulus. This cloud form differs from the cirrocumulus by generally having larger masses, by casting shadows, and by having no connection with the cirrus forms.

Altostratus (AS) looks like a thick cirrostratus, but without the halo phenomena, the altostratus is a fibrous veil or sheet, gray or bluish in color. Sometimes the Sun or Moon is obscured completely. At other times they can be vaguely seen, as through ground glass. Light rain or heavy rain may fall from a cloud layer that is definitely altostratus.

10.4.4 Low-Etage Clouds Nimbostratus (NS) clouds are a dark gray-colored amorphous (shapeless) and rainy layer of cloud. They are usually nearly uniform and feebly illuminated, seemingly from within. When precipitation occurs, it is in the form of continuous rain or snow, but nimbostratus may occur without rain or snow. Often there is precipitation that does not reach the ground, in which case, the base of the cloud may extend into the low-cloud family.

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10-8 UNCLASSIFIED Stratocumulus (SC) clouds are layer or patches of clouds composed of globular masses or rolls. The smallest of the regularly arranged elements are fairly large. They are soft and gray with dark spots.

Stratus (ST) clouds are a low, uniform layer of clouds, resembling fog, but not resting on the ground. A veil of stratus gives the sky a hazy appearance. Usually, only drizzle is associated with stratus. When there is no precipitation, the stratus cloud form appears drier than other similar forms, and it shows some contrasts and some lighter transparent parts.

Cumulus (CU) clouds are dense clouds with vertical development. Their upper surfaces are dome-shaped and exhibit rounded projections, and their bases are nearly horizontal. Stratocumulus clouds resemble ragged cumulus clouds in which the different parts show constant change. Strong updrafts exist under and within larger cumulus formations. In fact, cumulus clouds, like other forms of vertically developed clouds, are caused by updrafts.

Cumulonimbus (CB) clouds are heavy masses of cloud, with towering vertical development, whose cumuliform summits resemble mountains or towers. Their upper parts leave a fibrous texture, and often they spread out in the shape of an anvil. Cumulonimbus clouds are generally associated with showers of rain or snow, and sometimes produce hail. Thunderstorms are always associated with cumulonimbus. The bases of the cumulonimbus may be anywhere from 1,600 feet to 6,500 feet. Although you would rarely see all types at any one time in nature, quite frequently you may observe two or three layers of clouds of different types at one observation.

10.4.5 Fog Fog at sea is frequently formed through the process known as advection (the transport of an atmospheric property solely by the mass motion of the atmosphere). If warm air that passed over warm water moves to an area where the water is colder, fog is likely to develop in the latter region. The temperature of seawater is fairly uniform within a large area and accounts for fog that often lasts for many days and nights at sea.

The great fog banks of the North Atlantic, as well as those around the Aleutians, demonstrate what can happen when two adjacent bodies of water have markedly different temperatures. In the vicinity of Newfoundland, warm air that has passed over the warm Gulf Stream quickly turns to fog when it strikes the inshore current of very cold water that flows southward along the coastline. Off Alaska, the same situation prevails when the air from over the warm Japanese stream (Kuroshio) comes in contact with the cold southward-flowing waters of the Bering Sea (Oyashio).

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10-9 UNCLASSIFIED Along coastlines special conditions may exist. Onshore winds blow warm, moist air inland from the ocean. The waters adjacent to the coast are sometimes colder than those farther offshore. At night an onshore wind lays down a thick blanket of fog that often extends some distance inland. The fog hangs on until the Sun heats up the land enough to evaporate the droplets or until an offshore wind drives the fog blanket away. How can you tell when a fog is on the way or in the process of formation? The difference between the temperature shown by the wet bulb and the dry bulb of the psychrometer, called wet-bulb depression, is your fog indicator.

In general, fog forms when the depression is 4° or less. A continuous record of the wet- bulb depression serves as a fairly reliable predictor of fog.

10.5 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

10.5.1 Weight The layer of atmosphere that surrounds us exerts a pressure of approximately 15 pounds per square inch at sea level. The weight of the atmosphere varies with the presence of water vapor as well as with temperature and height above sea level. Variations in atmospheric pressure are measured by an instrument called a barometer.

10.5.2 Aneroid Barometer The aneroid (dry or no fluid) barometer (ML-448) (fig. 10-3) needs no correction except for altitude. It contains a small metallic cell, called a syphon cell, which encloses a partial vacuum. As atmospheric pressure increases, the syphon cell contracts; as pressure decreases it expands.

As the syphon cell expands and contracts, it communicates motion to an indicating pointer on a graduated scale.

The aneroid barometer (ML-448) is graduated in inches of mercury and in millibars (mb). Both inches and millibars are measurements of the weight of the atmosphere at a given time or point. The average atmospheric pressure at Earth’s surface is 29.92 inches or 1013.2 millibars.

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Figure 10-4 shows comparative readings on the inch and millibar scales. The aneroid barometers normally can be read no closer than 0.01 inch.

Aneroid barometers are the standard pressure-indicating instrument aboard ship and the type of barometers that Quartermasters will encounter most frequently.

Barometers should be calibrated yearly in accordance with PMS.

Figure 10-3 Aneroid barometer

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Figure 10-4 Inches and millibars

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10-12 UNCLASSIFIED 10.5.3 Significance of Pressure A chart of the atmospheric pressure over a large area of Earth as surface at any given time tells you which way different air masses (an air mass is a large body of air that has common temperature and humidity characteristics) are moving. Some air masses originate in the cold polar regions; some, in the tropics. By the time they reach you, these air masses, called maritime air masses, have moved from vast bodies of water. Others, called continental air masses, have grown up over more or less dry land. Air masses carry along with them the temperature and humidity characteristics of the areas they crossed. Where distinctly different air masses touch, the boundary between them is called a front and is marked by cloudiness and precipitation.

10.6 PRESSURE AREAS

10.6.1 Frontal Weather The atmosphere can produce weather in other ways, of course, but frontal weather, which is often violent, can be predicted from a chart of pressure systems. Figure 10-5 shows different types of pressure areas on a weather chart.

Figure 10-5 Sample weather map

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10-13 UNCLASSIFIED 10.6.2 Isobars Atmospheric pressure is reported in millibars. One atmosphere equals 14.696 pounds per square inch, a bar equals slightly more than 0.98 atmosphere, and a millibar equals 1/1000 of a bar.

On weather charts, pressure is usually indicated in millibars (fig. 10-6). The lines shown in the figure are drawn through points of equal pressure and are called isobars.

Usually, isobars are drawn for equal intervals of pressure (every 4 millibar for example), and frequently, isobars do not pass through reporting stations. Isobars never join or cross.

Some may run off the chart, but others may close, forming irregular ovals that define the areas of highest and lowest pressure (fig. 10-6). Air (wind) flows from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. The strength of the wind depends upon two factors: the amount of difference in pressure and the distance of the high-pressure area (high) from the low-pressure area (low). These two factors combined are called pressure gradient.

The greater the gradient, the stronger the wind. Thus, isobars can give a rough indication of the amount of wind. The closer an isobar is to another, the greater the amount of wind in that area. In figure 10-7, the isobars represent pressures of 992.2 mb, 987.1 mb, and 982.1 mb.

Figure 10-6 Shapes of isobars

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The spacing and shape of isobars are seen in figure 10-6, which also shows how complete isobars are formed. Isobars are always smoothed out curves, usually making irregular ovals around the high- or low-pressure center.

Refer to figure 10-7 and you can see that only part of each isobar (the upper right portion of the oval) appears in the diagram. In this pressure system, that area of greatest pressure is at the system’s center. This high-pressure area is also called a high or an anticyclone. If the pressure is 992.2 mb at Chicago, 987.1 mb at Moline, and 982.1 mb at Logan, the area of lowest pressure is in the vicinity of Logan. This area would be a low, or a cyclone.

Figure 10-7 Isobaric patterns

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10-15 UNCLASSIFIED 10.7 FRONTAL SYSTEMS

10.7.1 Warm Fronts Active warm fronts are generally located in pressure troughs on surface charts. See figure 10-8. The troughs are not as pronounced as those observed with cold fronts; therefore, other meteorological elements are used as follows in locating warm fronts accurately:

Figure 10-8 Designation of fronts on weather maps

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10-16 UNCLASSIFIED Pressure tendencies. Pressure usually falls for an appreciable length of time before the front passes. Normally it is steady after passage. The tendencies in advance of the front are therefore a steady or unsteady fall. A warm frontal passage is usually indicated by a tendency.

Wind. The wind in advance of a warm front in the Northern Hemisphere is usually from the southeast, shifting to southwest after passage. The wind speed normally increases as the front approaches. The wind shift accompanying a warm front is seldom as abrupt as with a cold front.

Cloud forms. Warm fronts are nearly always well defined by tropical stratified clouds. They are generally cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, nimbostratus, and stratus with the cirrus appearing as much as 1,000 miles before the actual surface passage. The cloud types that form after passage of the warm front are typical of the warm air mass.

Precipitation. The precipitation area of warm fronts extends about 300 miles in advance of the surface front. Precipitation occurs mainly in the form of continuous or intermittent rain, snow, or drizzle. However, when the warm air is connectively unstable, showers and thunderstorms may occur in addition to the steady precipitation.

Temperature and dew-point chances. Abrupt temperature changes, like those characteristic of cold fronts, do not accompany the warm frontal passage. Instead, the temperature change is gradual. It starts increasing slowly with the approach of the front and increases slightly more rapidly with the passage. The dew point is normally observed to rise as the front approaches, and a further increase follows the frontal passage when the air in the warm sector is of maritime origin.

Visibility and ceiling. The visibility and ceiling are normally good until the precipitation begins. Then they decrease rapidly. Dense fog frequently occurs in advance of a warm front. These conditions improve after the front passes.

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10-17 UNCLASSIFIED 10.7.2 Cold Fronts Cold fronts are normally located in well-deemed pressure troughs whenever there is a marked temperature contrast between two air masses. In most cases, a careful analysis of the isobars indicates the correct position of the pressure trough that contains the front. This method of isobaric analysis is frequently the only possible means of locating fronts over ocean areas or regions of scanty surface reports. Other indications of cold fronts can be classified as prefrontal, frontal, or postfrontal as follows:

Pressure tendencies. In advance of cold fronts, the tendency characteristic is usually indicated by a steady or unsteady fall. The isobars of falling pressure in advance of the front usually form an elongated pattern approximately parallel to the front. After passage of the front, the tendency generally shows a steady rise.

Wind. With the approach of the front, the wind is normally from the south or southwest in the Northern Hemisphere, veering to parallel the front. At the passage, the wind generally shifts abruptly to the northwest. Very gusty winds frequently occur at the frontal passage and usually after passage.

Cloud forms. In advance of cold fronts, the cloud types are typical of the warm air. Towering cumulus, cumulonimbus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus are associated with the passage. After passage, these cloud forms may prevail for several hundred miles with the slow-moving cold front. Very rapid clearing conditions are associated with the fast- moving cold front after passage. Well back in the cold air in both types of cold fronts, the only clouds normally found are fair-weather cumulus.

Precipitation. Showers and sometimes thunderstorms occur as a cold front passes. Continuous precipitation is observed for some hours after passage of a slow-moving cold front. Showers and thunderstorm activity of short duration will occur with the passage of a fast-moving cold front, followed by very rapid clearing conditions.

Temperatures. Temperature is relatively high before passage. After passage, the temperature decreases very rapidly with slow-moving fronts. Such a rapid temperature change does not accompany the passage of fast-moving cold fronts; the real temperature change is usually seen some distance (as far as 50 to 100 miles) behind the front.

Dew point. The dew-point temperature generally helps to locate fronts. This is especially true in mountainous regions. A drop in the dew point is observed with the passage of either type of cold front.

Visibility and ceiling. With the approach and passage of a slow-moving cold front, the visibility and ceilings decrease and remain low after the passage until well within the cold air. Fast-moving cold fronts are preceded by regions of poor visibility and low ceilings due to shower activity. After passage of fast-moving cold fronts, the ceiling rapidly becomes unlimited and the visibility unrestricted.

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10-18 UNCLASSIFIED 10.7.3 Occluded Fronts Because the occlusion is a combination of a cold front and a warm front, the resulting weather is a combination of conditions that exists with both. Ahead of a cold-type occlusion, as the warm air is lifted, all clouds associated with a warm front are found producing typical prefrontal precipitation extensively for a distance of 250 to 300 miles. Typical cold front weather is found throughout the narrow belt in the vicinity of the surface front. However, the thunderstorms are less intense than those of a typical cold front. This occurs because the source of warm air has been cut off from the surface, and the energy received comes only from the warm air trapped aloft. Instability showers often follow the cold front when the cold air is unstable. The most violent weather occurs on the upper front for a distance of 50 to 100 miles north of the northern tip of the warm sector. After the occlusion has passed, the weather usually clears rapidly. The weather associated with the warm occlusion is very similar to that of the cold occlusion. With the warm occlusion, the high-level thunderstorms associated with the upper cold front develop quite some distance ahead of the surface front (up to 200 miles), and the weather band, in general, is wider (up to 400 miles).

The air behind the cold front, flowing up the warm frontal surface, causes cumuliform- type clouds to form. In this area, precipitation and severe icing may be found. The most violent weather occurs on the upper front, 50 to 100 miles north of the northern tip of the warm sector.

10.8 WIND

10.8.1 Determining Wind Speed For reasons previously discussed in this chapter and for reporting purposes, Quartermasters must be able to compute the direction and velocity of the true wind. The following discussion contains instructions for observing the wind speed and direction and computing true wind data (speed, direction, gusts, and shifts).

The movement of the ship affects the wind speed observed by both the ship’s anemometers and hand-held anemometer. Relative wind is measured from the direction and speed from which the wind appears to be blowing. Relative wind seldom coincides with true wind because the direction and speed of the relative wind are affected by the ship’s movement. For example, if your ship is heading north at 10 knots and true wind is blowing from the south at 10 knots, there appears to be no wind at all. In another example, your ship is heading north and the wind appears to be blowing in on the port bow, but the true wind is actually coming from the port quarter. In our discussion of the different types of wind, refer to the following explanations:

True wind (TW) is the velocity and direction from which the true wind is blowing.

Relative wind (RW) is the velocity and relative direction from which the wind is blowing in relation to ship’s heading (SH).

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10-19 UNCLASSIFIED Apparent wind (AW) is the velocity and true direction from which the relative wind is blowing. For example, if your ship is heading 090° and the relative wind is blowing in on your starboard bow (045°) at 15 knots, the apparent wind is from 135°T at 15 knots. The formula for apparent wind is: AW=RW+SH.

Wind speed (including gusts and squalls) is observed, computed, and reported in nautical miles per hour (knots) to the nearest whole knot. Since the true wind must be computed, the chance of committing an error is increased. The wind data reported is used as criteria for wind, storm, and high seas warnings. Care must be taken whenever computing true wind. Wind data can be observed using the following methods listed in order of preference:

1. Installed anemometer 2. Hand-held anemometer 3. Visual estimation

10.8.2 Installed Anemometers An installed anemometer (fig. 10-9) is an instrument fixed somewhere aloft, usually at the masthead. The wind blows on a propeller attached to one end of a wind vane that pivots. The whirling propeller revolves a spindle, communicating with a synchro repeater on a pilothouse or chart house bulkhead. Figure 10-10 shows one type of synchro repeater.

The upper dial of the repeater is graduated in lo-degree intervals and shows the relative direction from which the wind is blowing. In this illustration the direction is about 287°. The lower dial indicates the relative wind speed (true wind speed when the ship is stationary). The wind speed dial in the illustration shows about 87 knots. This reading means that the force exerted by 87 knots of wind is whirling the anemometer propeller. When using an installed anemometer, always compare the readings observed with the wind conditions as they appear outside. If two anemometers are installed, make sure that the windward anemometer is used.

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Figure 10-9 Installed anemometer

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10.8.3 Using Hand Held Anemometers If anemometers are not installed or not working properly, or for some reason the readings are in doubt, the hand-held anemometer should be used. The Wind Measuring Set AN/PMQ-3 (fig. 10-11) is a hand-held anemometer. It is a combination wind direction and speed indicator. It indicates direction to 360° and speed from 0 to 60 knots. The speed indicator has two scales, graduated from 0 to 15 knots and 0 to 60 knots. To use the hand-held anemometer, you choose an observation point on the windward side of the ship, as far upwind as possible. For example, if the wind is from the stem, go aft; if it is from the bow, go forward. If possible, stand facing parallel to the ship’s centerline and into the wind.

Figure 10-10 Synchro repeater

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Figure 10-11 Hand-held anemometer

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10-23 UNCLASSIFIED When you use the hand-held anemometer, follow the instructions given in the table below.

Step Action 1. Grasp the instrument by the handle and hold it in an approximately vertical position at arm’s length with the sight at eye level. 2. Aim the instrument at an imaginary point on the horizon. This is done by aligning the center of the slot in the front of the sight with the center of the strip between the two slots on the rear sight. Aim it as you would a gun. 3. Press and hold the vane locking trigger. Note the reading on the 0 to 60 (upper) scale on the wind speed indicator. If the wind speed reading is less than 15 knots, press the range selecting trigger on the side of the housing, and observe the reading on the 0 to 15 scale. Care must be taken not to take the first reading on the 0 to 15 scale because a wind speed in excess of 15 knots may damage the anemometer. 4. Note the motion of the wind vane as it moves between the extremes, and release the vane locking trigger when the vane is in the position of the predominant (average) wind direction. Carefully lower and tilt the anemometer and note the wind direction reading on the direction dial. If the wind is being observed facing aft, the direction must be converted in relation to the bow. Add 180° for directions from 0° through 90°. Subtract 180° for directions from 270° through 360°. 5. Maintenance of the AN/PMQ-3 should be in accordance with PMS instructions.

10.8.4 Visual Estimation of Wind Speed True wind direction may be observed by noting the direction from which ripples, small waves, and sea spray are coming. The direction is most easily found by sighting along the wave crests and turning 90° to face the advancing waves. The observer is then facing the true wind direction. You may estimate the true wind speed by noting the sea condition and referring to table 10-1, which is based upon the following assumptions and should be considered in arriving at an estimated true wind speed:

1. The wind has been blowing at a relatively constant speed and direction for the time indicated by table 10-1. 2. The fetch area (an area where waves are being generated by the wind) is unlimited.

Some factors that cause the speed estimation of the wind to be too low are as follows: 1. Winds have increased rapidly. 2. Offshore winds within the sight of land. 3. Moderate or heavy precipitation smoothing the sea surface. 4. Swell waves from varying directions.

Some factors that will cause the speed estimation of the wind to be too high are as follows:

1. Waves running into shallow water. 2. A decreasing wind speed. The relative wind speed and direction can be estimated by observing the ship’s flag, smoke, and rigging on the windward side of the ship. Table 10- 1 should be used when you are using this method. Notice that this method gives you the relative wind and should be used only when the surface of the sea cannot be observed.

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Table 10-1 Estimating True Wind By Sea Conditions

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10-25 UNCLASSIFIED 10.8.5 Calculating True Wind Using the True Wind Computer Once the relative wind direction and speed have been observed and the ship’s course and speed recorded, the true wind can be computed. The True Wind Computer (CP 264/U) is the quickest and easiest method. Detailed instructions on the use of the True Wind Computer can be found in Chapter 10 of the Manual for Ship’s Surface Weather Observations, NAVOCEANCOMINST 3144.1 Series.

10.8.6 Calculating True Wind Using the Maneuvering Board The use of the maneuvering board (MB) is by far the most accurate method of determining true wind. The MB uses exact vectors to establish apparent wind and own ship’s speed. The use of vectors makes this method more precise.

Information on calculating true wind can be found in Pub 217 Maneuvering Board Manual, therefore it will not be duplicated here. Pub 217 also contains solutions for finding desired wind, closest point of approach, and several other vector solutions that are invaluable to the Quartermaster assisting the officer of the deck.

10.8.7 Computation Check No matter which method of computation is used to derive the true wind direction and speed, the observer should check the results by applying the following rules:

Rule 1: The true wind direction is always on the same side of the ship as the apparent wind direction, but farther from the bow than the apparent wind direction.

Rule 2: When the apparent wind direction is abaft the beam, the true wind speed is greater than the apparent wind speed.

Rule 3: When the apparent wind direction is forward of the beam, the true wind speed is less than the apparent wind speed.

10.9 TEMPERATURE, DEW POINT, AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY

10.9.1 Measuring Temperature You probably don’t need to be told that a thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature. Generally speaking, it is a glass tube of small bore in which either alcohol or mercury expands and contracts with the rise and fall of the temperature of the surrounding medium. Most Navy thermometers are mercury-filled and practically all of them use the Fahrenheit (F) scale, where the freezing point of water is 32° and its boiling point is 212°. Temperature in meteorology, however, is sometimes expressed according to the Celsius (C) (formerly Centigrade) scale, where the freezing point of water is 0° and its boiling point is 100°.

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10-26 UNCLASSIFIED You may be required to convert a Fahrenheit reading to Celsius, or vice versa. Knowing that 32°F = 0°C, to change a Fahrenheit reading to Celsius, you first subtract 32° and then multiply the remainder by 5/9.

Example: Say you want to change 41°F to Celsius. Subtracting 32° from 41° gives 9°. Multiply 9° by 5/9, and you get 45/9, or 5°C.

To change from Celsius to Fahrenheit, simply reverse the procedure. First multiply the Celsius temperature by 9/5, and then add 32°. In the previous example, to change 5°C back to Fahrenheit, first multiply it by 9/5, which gives you 45/5, or 9°. Adding 32” gives you 41°F.

You may also use the following formulas:

F = 1.8 X C + 32 (Multiply Celsius temp by 1.8, then add 32 to find Fahrenheit)

C = F -32 divided by 1.8 (Fahrenheit minus 32, then divide by 1.8 to find Celsius)

A thermometer must be read properly to obtain an accurate result. First, if you must handle it, be sure that you do not touch the lower part of the glass containing the alcohol or mercury, because the heat from your body can affect the height of the mercury or alcohol column. Make certain that the top of the column is level with your eyes; otherwise you will be reading a higher or lower graduation than the one actually indicated. The top of the column is in the shape of a curve called a meniscus. It is the bottom of this curve that indicates the reading for an alcohol thermometer; the top, for a Mercury thermometer.

10.9.2 Measuring Dew Point and Relative Humidity As already mentioned, the amount of water vapor the atmosphere can hold varies with the temperature. When the atmosphere contains all the water it can hold for a given temperature, the air is at the saturation point or humidity is 100%. If it contains 50% of what it could hold at that particular temperature, relative humidity is 50%. Relative humidity and dew point are determined through the use of a psychrometer.

10.9.3 Using the Sling Psychrometer A psychrometer is simply two ordinary thermometers mounted together on a single strip of material. The bulb of one thermometer is covered by a water-soaked wick from which the water evaporates rapidly or slowly, depending on the amount of water vapor in the surrounding atmosphere.

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10-27 UNCLASSIFIED Evaporation of water around the wet thermometer cools it. The amount of cooling depends on the rate of evaporation. The reading on the wet bulb is lower than the reading on the dry bulb except when the humidity is 100%, at which time both readings coincide. The difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb readings, when applied to tables developed for that purpose, results in relative humidity and dew point temperature.

The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure and constant water vapor content to reach saturation (100% relative humidity). When air is cooled to its dew point temperature, small water droplets condense on objects; that is, dew forms.

A sling psychrometer (fig. 10-12) is sometimes used to speed up the process of getting accurate wet-bulb and dry-bulb readings. The sling psychrometer can be whirled around to rapidly bring the wet bulb into contact with a great volume of air. This contact with air accelerates the evaporation rate. The person using the sling psychrometer should face the wind and should shield the instrument as much as possible from the direct rays of the Sun. The whirling should be repeated until no further change can be detected in the wet- bulb reading.

Figure 10-12 Sling psychrometer

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10-28 UNCLASSIFIED 10.9.4 Electric Psychrometer The Electric Psychrometer ML-450/UM (fig. 10-13) is a hand-held portable instrument that serves the same purpose as the sling psychrometer. As a Quartermaster this will probably be the only type of psychrometer that you use, since most ships do not carry the sling psychrometer. Three D-size batteries furnish power to a self-contained ventilation fan that aspirates the thermometer. The instrument also contains a lamp for nighttime readings. When using the electric psychrometer, select a shady area with no obstructions within 3 to 4 feet and face into the wind. Hold the instrument at waist height with the air intake pointing into the wind. Obtain the dry-bulb temperature first. When the ambient (circulating) air temperature is 50°F, or above, it is not necessary to energize the ventilation fan. The electric psychrometer should be exposed to the ambient air for at least 5 minutes before you read it. When no further decrease of the wet-bulb temperature is apparent, read the wet-bulb.

Figure 10-13 Electric psychrometer

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10-29 UNCLASSIFIED 10.9.5 Finding the Dew Point Use the psychrometer table 10-2 to compute the dew point. The Manual for Ship’s Surface Weather Observations (NAVOCEANCOMINST 3144.1 Series) contains complete tables. Take a dry-bulb temperature of 70°F and a wet-bulb temperature of 60.5°F. The difference between the two readings, 9.5°F, is called the wet-bulb depression.

Example: To compute the dew point, you enter the wet-bulb reading (60.5°F). Go to the proper DEPRESSION column (9.5°F). Read the dew point temperature (54°F) directly from the intersection of the temperature row and the DEPRESSION column.

10.10 WEATHER OBSERVATION AND REPORTING Timely and accurate environmental observations are basic to the development of meteorological and oceanographic forecasts in support of fleet operations. Since the U.S. Navy may be committed to operations anywhere in the world, global observations of meteorological and oceanographic conditions are required. In remote areas (especially over oceans), environmental data are extremely sparse.

Accordingly, observations from Navy ships are particularly vital. In short, all ships at sea are required to take regular observations, but where ships are steaming in company or in close proximity (within 10 miles), the OTC may designate one of the ships to report observations for the group. Ships in port are required to continue regular weather observing and reporting by electronic means unless there is a nearby U.S. manned weather reporting activity.

Table 10-2 Psychrometer Table

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10-30 UNCLASSIFIED In-port weather observing and reporting guard ship arrangements may be used for groups of ships at the discretion of the senior officer present. In such instances, the weather logs of exempted ships should bear a notation of the guard ship(s) and effective dates/times. Additional and special weather observations and reporting schedules that may be required in support of fleet operations are issued in pertinent operation plans and orders. Requirements for increased frequency of weather reporting by ships at sea in specific areas, particularly in areas where tropical disturbances are suspected or known to exist, should be issued as necessary by the area or force commander.

10.10.1 Recording the Weather All ships taking surface weather observations must use the form CNOC 3140/8. This form contains two code forms and is divided into two sections, parts I and II.

Part I: Part I is the Ship Aviation Observation Code. This code is in the aviation observation code format with additional ship and sea data columns.

Part II: Part II is the Synoptic Code Message Format. It is determined from analyzing data from part I. The data is transmitted via radio message to the appropriate weather center.

10.10.2 Rules for Using CNOC 3140/8 CNOC 3140/8 is an official document and is the only record of weather encountered by the ship. All entries must be neat and legible. Care should be taken to avoid writeovers and partial erasures that confuse the legibility of the data entered. It is recommended that a folder or board be devised to protect the form between observations. An original and one duplicate of this form is required for each day’s observations. The duplicate may be a rewritten copy, a carbon copy, or a suitable photocopy of the original form. The duplicate should be retained for a minimum of 1 year as part of the ship’s record. All entries should be made with a black lead pencil (No. 2 or 2H) or an erasable ball-point pen, if available.

Corrections may be made by erasing the erroneous data only if the data has not been disseminated by any means (phone, radio, and message transmittal). Erase the erroneous data from all copies of the form and enter the correct data. When a carbon copy of the form is made, care must be taken to prevent carbon smudges on the duplicate copy.

If an error is discovered in encoded data after it has been transmitted, the erroneous data may not be erased. Using a red pencil, correct the error by drawing a line through the error and entering the correct data above it. Retransmit the observation with the corrections.

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10-31 UNCLASSIFIED You must refer to the Manual for Ship’s Surface Weather Observations (NAVOCEANCOMINST 3 144.1 Series) for step-by-step instructions on how to complete each column. A new form must be started at 0000 GMT each day. The 2355-59 observation will be the first observation of the new day. If the lines are filled in part I before the day is over, continue the observations on a new form. Continue to make entries in column 90 and part II on the first form.

In the following tables you will find an explanation for each column of both parts I and II of CNOC 3140/8. The example figure provided gives sample data from actual observations on part I and encoding for part II. Use the table and figure together to learn about the information contained within parts I and II.

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Column Number Column Name Explanation 1 Type Either SA for hourly observation, or L for local observation (OBS). OBS are required for aircraft mishaps, collisions, man overboard. 2 Time The time of the OBS always in GMT, must be recorded within 5 minutes, from 55 to 59 only! 3 Sky and Ceiling The base of each layer of clouds and the type of sky cover associated with that layer. Always drop the last two zeros for the height. 15 BKN = 1500 feet and broken sky coverage at that layer. 4 Prevailing Visibility This is the prevailing visibility reported to the nearest nautical mile. 5 Weather and Obstructions Report items such as funnel clouds, hail, sleet, and fog. 6 Sea Level Pressure Sea level pressure in millibars, entered in ten, units, and tenths. Enter 132 for 1013.2. 7 Temperature Enter the dry-bulb temperature from the psychrometer. 8 Dew Point Temperature The nearest dew point temperature to the nearest whole degree Fahrenheit. 9 Wind Direction The direction from which the TRUE wind is blowing. 10 Wind Speed Average wind speed at the time of OBS. 11 Wind Character Gusting or squalling if appropriate. 12 Altimeter Setting Station pressure reduced to sea level. 13 Remarks Operationally significant information. 15 Observers Initials Self explanatory. 17 Station Pressure Pressure in inches. 21 Total Sky Cover Estimated total sky coverage by clouds or other obstruction reported in tenths.

Column Number Column Name Explanation (A) Position Abbreviated ship’s position. (B) Course General direction of the ship’s course. (C) Speed Ship’s speed. (D) Seawater Temperature Seawater temperature reported to the nearest 0.1 Fahrenheit. (E) Sea Waves, Period, and Height The duration in seconds from the crest of one wave to the next and the average wave height. Sea waves are caused by local wind conditions. (F) Swell Waves, Direction, Period, and Height The direction, duration in seconds from the crest of one wave to the next, and the average wave height.

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10-34 UNCLASSIFIED 10.10.3 CNOC 3140/8 Part II Part II is designed to allow transmission via radio message of encoded weather information. The step-by-step instructions are printed in the Manual for Surface Ship’s Weather Observations and will not be reproduced here. This manual should be consulted each time an OBS is made.

10.10.4 Additional Reporting Requirements Ships are required to submit encoded weather every 6 hours of GMT. For example a message should be sent at 0000, 0600, 1200, and so on.

If winds are greater than 33 knots, then messages must be sent with an immediate precedence every 3 hours.

10.10.5 Additional Information As you may have guessed, weather, like navigation, is a complex subject on which volumes have been written. The objectives of this chapter are to prepare you to report the weather; however, senior QMs should thoroughly acquaint themselves with all aspects of weather. The AG series of TRAMANs is an excellent place to begin. Also Pub No. 9, Bowditch, has comprehensive information about weather and the mariner.

10.11 STORMS AND CLOUDS ON RADAR Sometimes radar is used to observe weather by detecting rain squalls, clouds, and regions of sharp temperature contrasts. Different types of weather produce various returns on the scope. For the scope to detect weather, some form of precipitation must be present— rain, snow, hail, mist, or heavy fog. Higher frequency radars give the best indication. If the precipitation is heavy enough, you may not be able to see through it on certain radars. Usually the edges of weather echoes appear fuzzy on the PPI scope.

10.11.1 Cold Fronts One of the more common weather returns is produced by a squall line accompanying a cold front. The squall line may precede the actual front by only a few nautical miles or by as much as 200 nautical miles. The line is usually well defined and quite narrow. (See figure 10-14.) Thunderstorm activity is severe in most squalls. If you are alert, you can locate severe and less active areas. If the line is solid, lowering the gain will leave only the more intense and most active areas on the scope.

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10.11.2 Warm Fronts Warm fronts are usually accompanied by steady, moderate rain and an occasional thunderstorm. Their appearance on radar is different from that of a cold front. They are much thicker and normally give a steady, solid return as opposed to groups of returns. If thunderstorm activity is present, you may locate it by reducing the gain until only the area of strongest return remains on the scope. Figure 10-15 shows a typical warm front. Compare it with the cold front in figure 10-14.

Figure 10-14 Cold front Figure 10-15 Warm front

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10-36 UNCLASSIFIED 10.11.3 Hurricanes and Typhoons Hurricanes and typhoons are dreaded weather phenomena. These storms may produce extremely high winds, which in turn produce very rough seas. Each hurricane has unique characteristics but, from studies of these storms, we can state some general rules. The average range of detection is about 200 to 250 nautical miles. The first indication on the scope is quite similar in appearance to that of a warm front. As the storm approaches, echoes from the precipitation show spiral or circular bands which grow increasingly smaller as they near the center of the storm. The rain and accompanying winds are more severe in this area. Heavy thunderstorms and hail may also be present around the outer limits of hurricanes.

If you detect a hurricane, report its position immediately. Weather-tracking aircraft, land- based radars, and satellites are always searching for these storms during storm season.

Information on these storms is vital to the safety of shipping and coastal areas.

10.11.4 Tornadoes and Waterspouts Tornadoes are extremely violent storms that form over land. Waterspouts resemble tornadoes but form over water and cause very little, if any, destruction.

Although the exact cause of tornadoes is unknown, they appear during certain meteorological conditions and seem to move in a distinct pattern. Most tornadoes move in a northeasterly direction at a forward speed of up to about 45 knots.

On the PPI scope, a tornado or waterspout appears to be V or hook-shaped. A very small eye or blank spot at the center is a general indication of its existence.

10.12 SUMMARY In the lesson you learned about the atmosphere, changes in weather, cloud formations and frontal systems. In addition you learned wind, calculating wind, and weather observations.

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11-1 UNCLASSIFIED 11 BRIDGE WATCHES AND EQUIPMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Identify steering control consoles components. 2. Steer the ship from the bridge. 3. Steer the ship from after steering. 4. Steer the ship during special evolutions. 5. Describe the effects of wind and current on the ship. 6. Rig and verify combinations of navigational lights. 7. Describe the components of tactical messages. 8. Identify flags and pennants. 9. Encode and decode tactical signals. 10. Operate ship’s radars. 11. Prepare commanding officer’s night orders. 12. Maintain Ship’s Deck Log. 13. Determine and plot the ship’s position.

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11-2 UNCLASSIFIED 14. Maintain logbooks. 15. Maintain the DR track. 16. Maintain a plot in support of weapons. 17. Determine ship’s position in relation to PIM. 18. Compute estimated time of arrival. 19. Determine set and drift and make recommendations to the OOD. 20. Time celestial observations. 21. Provide input for ship’s position reports. 22. Render honors and ceremonies. 23. Report visual contacts. 24. Make recommendations based on Rules of the Road. 25. Read flaghoist display. 26. Set up the bridge for special evolutions. 27. Describe the duties of QMOW while at anchor. 28. Dress and full dress the ship. 29. Hold morning and evening colors.

11.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter you will learn about the ship’s bridge, where the Quartermaster spends most of his or her time. We will put together much of what you have learned previously in this book plus new topics.

The ship’s bridge is where all orders concerning the actions of the ship are issued. While under way the officer of the deck (OOD) directs every action. As Quartermaster of the watch (QMOW), you will be an assistant to the OOD. You are responsible for knowing not only your duties but also those of all bridge watchstanders and the operation of all bridge equipment. In the last section of this chapter, the duties of the QMOW will be described for each watch stood throughout the day at sea.

11.2 BRIDGE EQUIPMENT As you might imagine, there are many pieces of equipment on any ship’s bridge. Each ship class has installed equipment to enable that ship to do its job. It would be almost impossible to describe each and every piece of equipment that would be found on the bridge of a ship. However, equipment that is normally found on all bridges will be covered. As a QMOW, you are responsible for knowing how to operate all equipment located on the bridge of the ship to which you are assigned. This may seem to be a large tasking; however, as you complete PQS for different watch stations on the bridge, you will gain the required knowledge to operate the bridge equipment for your ship.

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11-3 UNCLASSIFIED 11.2.1 Steering Control Consoles (SCC) The ship’s control console contains apparatuses for controlling the movements of a ship. Figures 11-1, 11-2, and 11-3 show three types of ship control consoles in use aboard ships today. As you can see from these figures, the ship control console’s physical appearance may differ from ship type to ship type. On ships that have a ship control console like those shown in figures 11-l and 11-2, the helmsman must also complete PQS for ship control console operator. On the bridge of older ships, like the one shown in figure 11-3, the helm, engine order telegraph, rudder angle indicator, and steering gyro repeaters are all located in the near vicinity of the helmsman, but at different locations on the bridge.

On newer ships, the ship control console houses all the apparatuses for steering the ship and for controlling its speed in one compact unit. Additionally, on some ship consoles, like the one shown in figure 11-2, you will find lighting, steering, and general alarm controls housed in the ship control console.

Helm Unit: The helm unit for most ships consists of a wheel, rudder angle indicator, rudder order angle indicator, and synchros that send electrical impulses to the steering units located in the after steering room.

Lee Helm: The lee helm unit may be located in the SCC or it may stand alone near the SCC. In any case, it sends information to the engine room to indicate the ship’s speed. In general, a speed order is sent from the bridge and then the order is answered by the engine room.

Figure 11-1 DDG ship control console

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11-4 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 11-2 FFG-7 class ship control console Figure 11-3 Bridge of a destroyer, showing voice tube

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11-5 UNCLASSIFIED Steering Pumps: Most ships are equipped with a minimum of four steering pumps located in the after steering room. The normal configuration for running are pumps one and three or pumps two and four. The pump units are run at 24-hour intervals and normally switched on the midwatch. The controls for the steering pumps may be located in the SCC. Figure 11-4 shows the port steering gear assembly.

Figure 11-4 Port steering gear

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11-6 UNCLASSIFIED Gyrocompass Repeaters: As you learned, there are several gyro repeaters located on the bridge. In the SCC, there are normally two such repeaters for the helmsman to steer the ship by. One is called the master and receives its signal from the master gyrocompasses. The other is called the auxiliary and it receives its signal from the auxiliary gyrocompass. Also, the magnetic compass is generally located directly behind the SCC where the helmsman can steer by it, if necessary.

Shifting Steering Control: In emergency situations, steering control may be shifted to after steering or the secondary conning station. As a rule, whenever the ship is in restricted waters or conducting underway replenishment, after steering will be manned by a master helmsman and helm safety officer. If the helm unit on the bridge were to fail, the helmsman could immediately shift steering control to after steering. Step-by-step instructions for shifting steering control vary from ship to ship. The engineering officer should be consulted for instructions.

SCC Alarms: There are several alarms that are located in or near the SCC. Among these, the two most important are the loss of steering alarm and the gyrocompass failure alarm. If either one activates, the OOD should be notified immediately.

The steering emergency alarm signal circuit (circuit LB) provides a means by which the pilothouse can alert the steering gear room watch that a steering emergency has occurred and that the trick wheel must be used to steer the ship.

A spring return lever switch is located on the steering control console, and a siren is located in the steering gear room. The helmsman operates the switch to energize the siren when normal steering control is lost. When the siren sounds in the steering gear room, the steering gear room watch immediately engages the trick wheel and takes control of steering the ship.

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11-7 UNCLASSIFIED 11.2.2 Propeller Revolution Order System The propeller revolution order system (circuit M) transmits the required propeller revolutions per minute (rpm) from the pilothouse to each propulsion gauge board. The control unit (propeller order indicator transmitter) for circuit M is mounted in the ship’s control console. It is a self-synchronous control unit, containing three synchro transmitters and three synchro receivers, each of which is coupled to an indicating dial. The transmitters are further coupled to control knobs. The lee helmsman operates the indicator transmitter when a change in propeller revolutions is ordered by the OOD.

A second propeller order indicator-transmitter (fig. 11-5) is mounted on the main gauge board in engine room No. 1. When a change in propeller revolutions is transmitted from the ship’s control console, it is received and indicated on this propeller order indicator- transmitter. The throttleman in engine room No, 1 acknowledges the change by transmitting the order back to the propeller order indicator transmitter in the ship’s control console. In the event of an engineering casualty or specific test, the throttleman in the engine room can reverse the procedure by requesting specific revolutions per minute.

Figure 11-5 Propeller order indicator- transmitter (circuit M)

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11-8 UNCLASSIFIED A propeller order indicator (fig. 11-6) is mounted on the gauge board of engine room No. 2. This indicator is used to inform the watch in engine room No. 2 that a change in propeller revolutions has been ordered.

11.2.3 Engine Order System The engine order system (circuit MB) transmits the required shaft direction orders (ahead/back) and the ordered speed of each shaft from the pilothouse to each propulsion gauge board.

An engine order indicator-transmitter for each shaft (1MB for starboard shaft and 2MB for port shaft) is mounted in the upper section of the ship’s control console. An operating handle is attached to each indicator-transmitter. The lee helmsman operates the handles whenever a change in shaft direction or speed is ordered by the OOD. There is also a push button and a bell located on the console for each indicator transmitter. The push buttons are used to alert the appropriate engine room of a change in orders. The bells alert the lee helmsman that the order has been acknowledged by the appropriate engine room.

Each engine room has one indicator-transmitter (fig. 11-7) for its associated shaft. After receiving an engine order, the throttleman acknowledges the order by turning the knob and matching its transmitter to the received order. A push button is located on the indicator-transmitter to energize the appropriate bell on the ship’s control console.

Figure 11-6 Propeller order indicator (circuit M)

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11-9 UNCLASSIFIED

Each fireroom has a double engine order indicator (fig. 11-8) to alert the fireroom to changing steam requirements.

Figure 11-7 Indicator-transmitter (circuit MB) Figure 11-8 Double indicator (circuit MB)

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11-10 UNCLASSIFIED Engine order indicators are also located in other stations on the ship, such as the combat information center (CIC) and the navigation bridge. Figure 11-9 is an illustration of a single engine order indicator.

Figure 11-9 Single engine order indicator (circuit MB)

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11-11 UNCLASSIFIED 11.2.4 Rudder Angle Indicator The rudder angle indicator system (circuit N) provides a means of electrically transmitting the angular position of the ship’s rudder at the rudder head to designated stations throughout the ship.

The rudder angle indicator (fig. 11-10) consists of a fixed dial and pointer, which is mounted on the shaft of a synchro receiver. The receiver rotates the pointer to the transmitted angular displacement on the dial face.

Figure 11-10 Rudder angle indicator (circuit N)

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11-12 UNCLASSIFIED A combination rudder angle order indicator (fig. 11-11) is located in the steering gear room in front of the steering gear room trick wheel. The trick wheel is used to steer the ship under emergency steering conditions.

Single rudder angle indicators are located in the engine rooms, bridge wings, CIC, pilothouse, and navigation bridge.

11.2.5 Rudder Order The rudder order system (circuit L) provides a means of electrically transmitting rudder angle orders from the steering control console in the pilothouse to the steering gear room when the ship is being steered from the steering gear room.

The rudder angle order indicator transmitter is located in the steering control console. The helmsman operates the transmitter when a change in rudder angle is ordered by the OOD.

A push button is also provided on the console to ring a bell in the steering gear room so that the steering gear room watch can anticipate a rudder angle order change.

When operated, the transmitter sends the desired rudder angle in degrees left or right to the combination rudder angle order indicator in the steering gear room. The steering gear room watch then positions the trick wheel to cause the rudder angle order indicator to match the order.

Figure 11-11 Rudder angle order Indicator (circuits L and N)

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11-13 UNCLASSIFIED 11.2.6 Underwater Log System The underwater log system (circuit Y) measures and indicates the speed of the ship in knots and the distance traveled through the water in nautical miles.

There are several types and many configurations of underwater log systems. One type uses a removable rodmeter and the other type uses a fixed rodmeter. The major components of this system (fig. 11-12) (MK 6 Mod 0 is shown) are the sea valve, rodmeter, indicator transmitter, and remote control unit.

Indicator-Transmitter The indicator-transmitter displays the ship’s speed on a dial or digital display and the distance on a counter and transmits speed and distance information to various equipment and remote indicators throughout the ship.

The main internal components of the indicator transmitter are the speed servo, the integrator, and the distance servo. The main external components of the indicator- transmitter are a distance motor, a speed dial, a distance counter, an electronic trim pot assembly, and a dummy signal unit.

The ac signal voltage produced by the rodmeter is fed to the speed servo. The speed servo drives the synchro output transmitters, the dual-pointer dial, and the integrator. The integrator converts the speed input to a distance-traveled output, which drives a synchro output transmitter and a six-drum counter to display distance traveled.

Figure 11-12 Major components of a MK 6 Mod 0 underwater log system

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11-14 UNCLASSIFIED Remote Control Unit The remote control unit, or dummy log as it is commonly called, is used in place of the rodmeter when the ship is operating in shallow water, where lowering the rodmeter is impractical. The unit is normally located in the main propulsion control station. The unit has a spring-loaded, center-off, increase-decrease switch and is operated by the throttleman. The shaft rpm is used to determine approximate ship’s speed.

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11-15 UNCLASSIFIED UNDERWATER LOG EQUIPMENT MK 6 MOD 0-2 (ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE) The E/M Log System Mk 6, Mods 0, 1, and 2 measures own-ship speed relative to water, and distance traveled from a given starling point. Speed in the range of 0 through 40 ± 0.05 knots is measured by a rodmeter and displayed by an indicator transmitter. Distance in the range of 0000.00 through 9999.99 nautical miles ±1 percent, is measured and displayed by an indicator transmitter.

Figure 11-13 Underwater Log Equipment (Electromagnetic Type), Relationship of Units (Typical Installation Mod 2)

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11-16 UNCLASSIFIED UNDERWATER LOG EQUIPMENT (ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE) MK 4 MOD 2 The EM Log System Mk 4 Mod 2 (Figure 11-14) measures and displays ship’s speed through water in knots, and distance traveled in nautical miles. The displayed speed and distance information is transmitted to remote stations in the ship. This information is transmitted in the form of 60 Hz and 400 Hz synchro outputs for further processing by the remote stations.

Figure 11-14 EM Log System Mk 4 Mod 2

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11-17 UNCLASSIFIED Indicator-Transmitter Set Digital Electromagnetic Log AN/WSN-8 and AN/WSN- 8A (DEML) The Electromagnetic Log (EM Log) is a component of the conventional navigation system used aboard naval surface ships and submarines. EM Log operates in conjunction with a hull-mounted sensor to measure ship's speed relative to the water and distance traveled from a given starting point. The AN/WSN 8-A is a microprocessor-based system with ISA bus backplane architecture and Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) components. The AN/WSN-8A reduced calibration time and simplifies maintenance requirements by offering features such as menu-driven calibration modes and modular level fault diagnostic test. The AN/WSN-8A also offers accuracies of 0.05 knots for speeds ranging from 0 to 99.99 knots as well as a response time tuned to match the EM Log for ideal inertial system performance.

Figure 11-15 AN/WSN-8A Digital Electromagnetic Log Indicator Transmitter

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11-18 UNCLASSIFIED The DEML measures Own Ship’s Speed (OSS) relative to the water, and distance traveled from a given starting point. The rodmeter generates a micro voltage based on the electromagnetic induction. This micro voltage is processed by the I/T which displays and transmits both speed and distance information. Speed is displayed in the range of 0 through 100 ±0.05 knots (k). Distance is displayed in the range of 0000.00 through 9999.99 nautical miles (Nm) ±5%.

AN/WQN-2 DOPPLER SONAR VELOCITY LOG (DSVL) SYSTEM The Doppler Sonar Velocity Log (DSVL) System AN/WQN-2 is a speed measuring sensor which functions by transmitting acoustic energy of a specific frequency and receiving returns from the reflection medium as a result of the transmissions.

The shift in frequency (Doppler shift) in the returned signals with respect to the transmitted signals is then determined and used to calculate the ship's three axes (fore-aft, athwartships and vertical) speed in a local vertical coordinate frame.

The DSVL system is capable of accepting roll, pitch and heading inputs to compensate calculated speed for ship's angular rates. When the bottom is within the acoustic range of the DSVL system, the capability is also provided to manually select bottom reflections for true speed over the ground.

Ship's speed is displayed on the equipment's front panel and can be supplied to end-users in 16-bit parallel and serial digital format. Ship’s speed can also be supplied to end-users in analog format using 60 and 400 Hertz, 10, 40, and 100 knots/revolution synchro data.

The DSVL system is a three-unit system consisting of a Transducer (sensor), a Transmitter/Receiver (transceiver) Unit and an Electronics Control Unit. Primary system functions and controls are performed by the Electronics Control Unit utilizing digital signal processing and control techniques.

The Electronics Control Unit also incorporates Built-In Test Equipment (BITE) which indicates DSVL system malfunctions by audible alarm. Signal conditioning of both the final output and initial input of the Doppler signal is performed in the Transceiver Unit. The Transducer, a flush mounted sensor, acts to interface the system functions with the water medium.

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11-19 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 11-16 AN/WQN-2 Doppler Sonar Velocity Log System

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11-20 UNCLASSIFIED 11.2.7 Dead Reckoning Analyzer MK 6 MOD 1 The Dead Reckoning System indicates ship's position in latitude and longitude and provides a graphic record of own-ship's position relative to a fixed starting point. When properly set at the starting point, the dials indicate continuously own-ship's present latitude and longitude, computed by dead reckoning. Total distance traveled by the ship, regardless of course, is indicated in the analyzer. In addition to total miles, the analyzer also indicates the overall North-South and East-West distances and the compass heading of own ship in degrees.

Figure 11-17 Dead Reckoning Analyzer Mk 6 Mod 1

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11-21 UNCLASSIFIED Dead Reckoning Analyzer-Indicator (DRAI) MK 10 Mod 0 The Dead Reckoning Analyzer-Indicator (DRAI) MK 10 MOD 0 equipment shown in Figure 11-18, is part of a dead reckoning system.

The DRAI computes distance north and distance east by resolving own ship speed into north-south and east-west components and integrating. The DRAI equipment performs as an indicator repeater for the ship’s gyro compass (OWN SHIP’S HEADING indicator) and for the underwater log equipment (OWN SHIP’S SPEED and TOTAL DISTANCE indicators).

DISTANCE traveled NORTH and DISTANCE traveled EAST is displayed by means of resettable counters on the front panel of the DRAI. DISTANCE NORTH-SOUTH and EAST-WEST Signals are also available as synchro outputs at one Turn/Nautical Mile 60Hz for use with the AN/SPA-25 Radar Indicator.

Distance N-S and E-W Signals in 4-wire, 5-Volt DC Step Format are also provided to drive the MK 6 Mod 4C DRT. The DRAI also has the capability of driving three additional Dead Reckoning Tracer Units.

Figure 11-18 Dead Reckoning Analyzer-Indicator

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11-22 UNCLASSIFIED 11.2.8 Wind Indicating Systems The anemometer (wind direction and speed indicator) system, circuits HD and HE, provides instantaneous and continuous indication of wind direction and speed relative to the ship’s heading and speed. Wind direction and speed information is important for combat systems operations, flight operations, and maneuvering. Throughout this chapter we will use the term wind direction and speed indicator systems interchangeably with the term anemometer systems.

Type F and Type F (Hi-Shock) Shipboard Wind Measuring and Indicating Systems The Type "F" and Type "F" (Hi-Shock) Shipboard Wind Measuring and Indicating Systems (WMIS) (Figure 11-19) provide wind direction (in degrees) and wind speed (in knots) data.

Figure 11-19 Type F and Type F (Hi-Shock) Shipboard Wind Measuring and Indicating System (WMIS)

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11-23 UNCLASSIFIED Wind Direction and Speed Detector Type "F" and Type "F" (Hi-Shock), hereinafter referred to as the detector. The detector is a dual purpose instrument that employs two type 18CX4 synchros that transmit wind direction and speed signals to a transmitter and to other shipboard equipment requiring wind data.

Wind Direction and Speed Transmitter Assembly Type "F and for Type "F" (Hi- Shock), hereinafter referred to as the transmitter assembly. The transmitter assembly consists of two plug-in assemblies secured in a common drip-proof case assembly. The plug-in assemblies receive wind direction and wind speed signals from the detector, convert the values, and then transmit these signals to remote indicators and/or other equipment.

Wind Direction and Speed Indicator, Type F60 and Type F60 (Hi-Shock) , hereinafter referred to as the indicator. The indicator consists of a single wind speed and direction assembly housed in a water tight case. The indicator dials are red-illuminated and display wind direction (in degrees) and wind speed (in knots).

11.3 CROSSWIND AND HEADWIND COMPUTER ASSEMBLY AND SPEED INDICATOR Crosswind and Headwind Computer Assembly hereinafter referred to as the computer. The computer receives wind direction and wind speed signals from a WMIS transmitter, converts the values, then transmits these signals to the speed indicator.

Crosswind and Headwind Speed Indicator hereinafter referred to as the speed indicator. The speed indicator receives voltages from the computer assembly. The red illuminated dials of the speed indicator display crosswind and headwind speed (in knots) of either the angle deck or straight deck, as selected by the operator.

11.3.1 DIGITAL WIND SYSTEM The digital wind system is designed to provide the ship’s combat system with accurate relative and true wind direction and speed. The system provides this data to the combat system, as well as presenting them to dedicated digital wind system Multifunction Color Repeater (MFCR) displays.

The digital wind system uses two anemometers fitted to the mainmast. The anemometers are the prime sensor units within the system and are fitted to the mainmast, well away from any structures that may affect the unobstructed flow of wind across the sensor. The anemometer sensors are in a cruciform structure with an ultrasonic transducer fitted to the head of each arm of the cross. The time taken for the emitted ultrasonic beams to reach the opposite transducers is affected by the wind blowing across the cruciform structure. The resultant wind speed and direction data is formatted and transmitted via the junction box to Meteorological Interface Units (MIUs) for processing. Internal anti-icing heaters ensure operation in all but the most severe icing environments. The anemometers are fitted with Radar Absorbent Material (RAM) after their installation on the mast.

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11-24 UNCLASSIFIED Multifunction Color Repeater (MFCR) The wind data is distributed by the FODMS to the combat system and three MFCRs. Ship’s heading and speed are also input to the MFCRs to convert the relative wind data into true speed and direction. This data is then available to the users via the MFCR Thin Film Transistor (TFT) display. The user is able to select various presentations of the data via a series of softkeys on the display’s front panel.

COMPONENT LOCATION: Anemometer Location The anemometers are situated on the extremities of the lower yardarm of the mainmast. One anemometer is located to port and the other to starboard.

Junction Box Location The junction box is situated in the director equipment room 1, above the pilot house.

MIU Location The two MIUs are situated in Director Equipment Room 1, on opposite bulkheads, and are connected to separate sources of ship’s power to improve survivability. Each MIU is physically identified as either MIU A or MIU B.

MFCR Location One MFCR is situated on the bridge, a second is located in Helicopter Station and the third is located in the Recovery Assist Secure and Traverse (RAST) Station.

Figure 11-20 MFCR Front View

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11-25 UNCLASSIFIED Prime Function The pages displayed at the MFCRs pertain to wind speed and direction parameters. This information is utilized for general information and specifically as they affect ship helicopter operating procedures.

Available Pages Examples of the dedicated pages available at the MFCRs are:

a. System Status,

b. SHOLD 1 /2,

c. SHOLD 2/2,

d. True and Relative Wind and Ship’s Velocity in Digital Format,

NOTE Tape refers to the style or format in which ship’s heading is displayed; here a scrolling tape or ribbon is used.

e. Roll, Pitch and Tape Heading, and

f. Relative Wind, Tape Heading, Speed Bar Graph and Digital True Wind and Local Time.

Ship's Helicopter Operating Limit Diagrams (SHOLD) Envelopes The SHOLD displays ship’s helicopter landing envelopes, which allow for ‘Fox Corpen’ data to give a new ship’s heading and speed to provide safe helicopter operating conditions in instances where the present conditions are unsafe.

A SHOLD is a polar plot of relative wind speed and direction. Combinations of wind speed/direction (referred to as wind envelopes) considered safe to operate the helicopter are then superimposed on the polar plot. The SHOLD system will give a green (go) status if the wind is within limits, and a (no-go) if outside limits, to assist the flight officer to make an assessment on the safety of flying operations. There are four envelopes available for selection.

The SHOLD pages consist of several elements:

a. A polar presentation of relative wind overlaid over a bitmap showing the permitted landing envelope.

b. A digital display of the relative wind which includes identification of the wind sensor being used.

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11-26 UNCLASSIFIED c. Ancillary notes pertaining to the envelope being shown which are derived from a locally stored text file.

The ship’s roll and pitch amplitudes on the SHOLD envelope display peak values over a 5 second period. These figures are normally shown in white, but will change to red as a warning if they exceed configured limits.

The MFCR allows more than one SHOLD page to be defined (the 1/2 shown in the example in figure 11-21 indicates that this is the first of two pages in the current configuration).

The ‘Envelope’ key allows the operator to select the desired SHOLD. Pressing the 'Envelope' key produces the list of possible envelopes (defined by the envelope’s configuration). The resultant window is illustrated in figure 11-22.

Figure 11-21 SHOLD Figure 11-22 Envelope List

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11-27 UNCLASSIFIED Pressing the ‘Fox Corpen’ key produces a page containing a cursor which can be steered around the screen. This is illustrated in figure 11-23.

When the ‘Compute’ key is pressed, the MFCR recommends two possible ship speed and course combinations which would produce the desired relative wind, given the current true wind as shown in figure 11-24.

Pressing the Notes page produces notes associated with the particular envelope (refer to figure 11-25). Figure 11-23 Fox Corpen Display Figure 11-24 Fox Corpen Solution Display

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11-28 UNCLASSIFIED

True or Relative Wind and Ship’s Velocity in Digital Format The True or Relative Wind and Ship’s Velocity in Digital Format page (refer to figure 11-26) displays the relative or true wind direction and speed in an analog presentation, wind speed in a bar graph and ship's heading and speed in digital format.

Figure 11-25 SHOLD Notes Display Figure 11-26 True or Relative Wind and Ship’s Velocity in Digital Format Display

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11-29 UNCLASSIFIED Roll, Pitch and Tape Heading The Roll, Pitch and Tape Heading page (refer to figure 1-37) displays the ship’s instantaneous roll and pitch on an analog display and ship’s heading on a tape display.

Figure 11-27 Roll, Pitch and Tape Heading Display

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11-30 UNCLASSIFIED Relative Wind, Tape Heading, Speed Bar Graph and Digital True Wind and Local Time The Relative Wind, Tape Heading, Speed Bar Graph and Digital True Wind and Local Time page (refer to figure 11-28) displays true wind direction and speed in digital format, local time in digital format, relative wind speed direction and speed in analog format and ship's speed in digital format and as a bar graph. Ship’s heading is also presented as a tape display.

Figure 11-28 Relative Wind, Tape Heading, Speed Bar Graph and Digital True Wind and Local Time Display

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11-31 UNCLASSIFIED 11.3.2 MORIAH WIND SYSTEM The MWS is designed to provide accurate wind data to the ship. The wind sensor units measure the wind in free air around the ship, and the wind processing unit presents this information in suitable formats to ship’s systems such as:

a. Command Information systems

b. Navigation systems

c. Weapon systems

d. Meteorological systems

The MWS also displays this wind information, along with other ship data, on dedicated displays located at strategic points throughout the ship. The system is designed with dual redundant features for reliability.

Figure 11-29 MWS Main Components

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11-32 UNCLASSIFIED Wind Sensor Unit (WSU) The WSU shown in Figure 11-30, is the prime sensor unit of the system. The number of WSUs installed in a particular system is dependent on the ship class or shore station. There may be up to five (5) of them on any one installation. Onboard ships, they are typically installed on the yardarm away from any structure that may affect the unobstructed flow of wind. The number of WSUs installed in a particular system is dependent on the ship class or shore station. On aircraft carriers there is a third WSU installed on a forward mast.

Figure 11-30 WSU General View

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11-33 UNCLASSIFIED High End Display (HED) The HED is shown in Figure 11-31. It is a 15" (diagonal) display unit using a Thin Film Transistor (TFT) screen, providing multiple pages. Various presentations of the data can be selected via a series of soft-keys on the display’s front panel. It has two RS422 channels and two fiber optic Ethernet channels. It receives wind, machinery control, navigation and MWS status data, from the WPU. It can display aircraft recovery bulletin data stored on the ADMACS server on aircraft carriers). It transmits its own “health” status back to the WPU when requested. Displayed data is as follows:

Figure 11-31 HED Front View

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11-34 UNCLASSIFIED a. Relative/True Wind Speed and Direction

b. Deck Crosswind and headwind (for single deck vessels such as amphibious ships)

c. Angled/Straight Deck Crosswind and Headwind (for aircraft carriers)

d. Ship's Speed and Heading

e. Ship's Roll and Pitch

f. Launch and Recovery and Envelopes and associated notes

g. Fixed Wing Aircraft Recovery Bulletins (for aircraft carriers only)

h. Fox Corpen data

i. MWS Status Indication

j. Each MWS Display status and configuration

Low End Display (LED) The LED is shown in Figure 11-32. It is a smaller multi page display unit, very similar in construction to the HED. It can be configured to be mounted in either portrait or landscape mode. It uses an 8.4” (diagonal) Thin Film Transistor (TFT) screen. Various presentations of the data can be selected via a series of soft-keys on the display’s front panel. It has two RS422 channels and a single fiber optic Ethernet channel. It receives wind, and MWS status data from the WPU. It also transmits its own “health” status back to the WPU when requested. Displayed data is as follows:

a. Relative/True Wind Speed and Direction

b. Deck Crosswind and Headwind (single deck vessels such as amphibious ships)

c. Angled/Straight Deck Crosswind and Headwind (for aircraft carriers only)

d. Ship's Speed and Heading

e. Ship's Roll and Pitch

f. MWS status

g. Each MWS Display status and configuration

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11-35 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 11-32 LED Front View

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11-36 UNCLASSIFIED The Flight Critical High End Display (FCHED) The FCHED is also shown in Figure 1-44. It forms part of the MWS. It is a standard HED. It has merely been configured to be the flight critical unit. On aircraft carriers, it also displays aircraft recovery bulletin information, which it receives over the Ethernet from the ship’s data network. Also, on aircraft carriers fitted with a forward wind sensor unit, that has an independent 28VDC power supply unit (PSU), the FCHED can be configured to receive and display wind data from this wind sensor only, but only if all communication with the WPU is lost.

Wind Detection The WSU consists of four (4) sensing elements at the top of the unit. Each element is an ultrasonic sensor that can both transmit and receive appropriate signals. The sensing elements consist of two pairs of transducers, mounted at 90º axially to each other, which alternately transmit and receive sound pulses to each other. Measurements are made of the time taken for each pulse to travel to the other sensor. The difference between the times taken for a signal to travel the same path in either direction is used to calculate the wind speed along that axis. The wind speed measured is independent of variations in the velocity of sound. The use of opposite facing ultrasonic sensor orthogonal pairs, provides for good signal/noise ratio, giving the sensor a very high tolerance to rain or other precipitation, as beam energy is concentrated specifically in the axis of each of the sensor pairs.

Speed Sensing The component of wind speed between a sensor pair is aided in one direction by any trailing wind and impeded in the other direction. By comparing the sound pulse travel times in both directions, it is possible to determine the wind speed.

Direction Sensing By performing trigonometric calculations on the wind speed components in the two orthogonal axes, wind direction is accurately calculated.

11.3.3 Ship’s Whistle The ship’s whistle is used to signal other vessels of the maneuvers your ship may be doing. It is also used, in conditions such as heavy fog, to warn other ships of the location of your ship.

When a directional whistle is to be used as the only whistle on a ship, it is installed with its maximum intensity directed straight ahead. A whistle should be placed on a ship as high as practicable to reduce interception of the emitted sound by obstructions and to minimize risk of hearing damage to personnel. The sound pressure level of the ship’s own signal at listening posts shall not exceed 110 dB(A), and so far as practicable should not exceed 100 dB(A).

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11-37 UNCLASSIFIED The fundamental frequency of the whistle signal lies between the 70- to 700-Hz range. The audibility range of the whistle signal is determined by those frequencies (which may include the fundamental and/or one or more higher frequencies) that lie within the 180 to 700 ( + 1 percent) range and that provide sound pressure levels specified in the following paragraph on intensity. The range of audibility is for information, and is the approximate range at which a whistle may be heard on its forward axis (90 percent probability) in conditions of still air on board a ship having the average background noise level at the listening posts. This shall be assumed to be 68 dB in the octave band centered on 250 Hz and 63 dB in the octave band centered on 500 Hz.

Values given can be regarded as typical, but under conditions of strong wind or high ambient noise level at the listening post, range may be reduced. In practice, the range at which a whistle may be heard is variable and depends on weather conditions.

To ensure a wide variety of whistle characteristics, the fundamental frequency of a whistle must be between the following defined limits:

250 to 700 Hz, for a ship less than 75 meters (240 feet) long

130 to 350 Hz, for a ship 75 to 200 meters (240 to 650 feet) long

70 to 200 Hz, for a ship more than 200 meters (650 feet) long

A whistle shall provide in the direction of maximum whistle intensity and at a distance of 1 meter from the whistle, a sound pressure level in at least one 1/3-octave band within the range of 180 to 700 Hz ( + 1 percent) as listed in the following table.

SHIP LENGTH (METERS) 1/3 – OCTAVE BAND LEVEL AT ONE METER AUDIBILITY RANGE (NAULTICAL MILES) 200 OR MORE 143 2.0 75 TO 200 138 1.5 20 TO 75 130 1.0 LESS THAN 20 120 0.5

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11-38 UNCLASSIFIED Ship’s Whistle Equipment The M-511 C Whistle Control is a fully enclosed, flush mount electronic device which provides for the automatic control of the ship's whistle. Besides serving as a fog signal timer for sounding codes in restricted visibility, the M-511C performs maneuvering codes, danger code, general alarm, and incorporates an at-will" push button. The M-511C Whistle Control contributes significantly to the safe operation of all vessels.

Restricted Visibility codes and other features of the M-511C: • Five International / Inland Signal Codes, Cycle Times: 60, 90 or 120 seconds o Vessel Underway o Vessel Underway But Stopped o Vessel Restricted in Ability to Maneuver o Vessel Being Towed o Vessel at Anchor • Maneuvering Codes: Altering Course to Starboard, Port, Astern, Danger • Start/Stop Automatic Function • General Alarm Function (IMO/SOLAS) w/ accidental touch protection • Integrated "At-Will" switch • Red LED Illumination • Waterproof console mount • Can be integrated with additional push buttons and controls • Available in 12 or 24 Volt D.C., 115/230 A.C. Voltages 50 or 60 Hz

Figure 11-33 Model M-511C Whistle Control

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11-39 UNCLASSIFIED 11.4 SIGNAL EQUIPMENT Although equipment may differ in size or vary slightly among ships, signal gear generally is standard throughout the Navy.

In this section we discuss the principles of operation; maintenance procedures where applicable; and safety precautions pertaining to signal lights, infrared (IR) equipment, flags, halyards, and optical equipment.

You will not be permitted to use signal equipment until you have been instructed in the operation of it. The necessary permission must come from the communications (or signal) officer or the petty officer in charge of the signal bridge.

You must be able to locate, even under conditions of total darkness, all light switches for electrical visual signal equipment. Usually this is simply a matter of familiarization. On the signal bridge most switches are on or within reach of the equipment. When you first report aboard ship, explore the bridge to see where the signal equipment switch panels are located. Do this before your watch. This practice will prove helpful later when you are scheduled for night watches.

11.4.1 Signal Searchlights Searchlights are placed aboard naval ships for two purposes: illumination and communications. The use of a searchlight in visual communications is called the directional method, because the light has to be pointed at the receiver. Searchlights are classified according to size and source. We discuss the 12-inch searchlights in this chapter. The 12-inch light is either an incandescent or mercury-xenon arc lamp.

Searchlights used in the Navy normally use a shutter to interrupt the light beam and permit signaling. The patterns of light caused by the opening and closing of the shutter are the basis for transmitting messages by Morse code.

12-INCH INCANDESCENT SEARCHLIGHT The 12-inch incandescent searchlight is used primarily for signaling and secondarily for illumination.

Figure 11-34 shows a 12-inch incandescent searchlight, consisting of the mounting bracket, lamp-supporting yoke, and high-power (1,000-watt) incandescent lamp housed in a drum. By use of a brace or extension between the mounting bracket and the yoke, the light can be swung in an arc to clear fixed portions of the ship’s structure.

Besides holding the lamp, the drum provides a mounting for the signaling shutters. On top of the drum are vane sights, used to aim the light. The back door is hinged, allowing access to the drum interior. The parabolic reflector is mounted on the rear door. Signaling levers on both sides of the drum open and close the shutters to permit signaling up to 15 words per minute.

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11-40 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 11-34 12-inch incandescent searchlight

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11-41 UNCLASSIFIED The drum is mounted on the yoke with trunion bearings so that the light can be elevated or depressed. Locking clamps on the yoke secure the light in elevation; locking clamps beneath the mounting bracket lock the light in train.

There is very little to operating this type of light. You can learn in a short time the proper procedure for turning the lamp on and off, positioning it horizontally or vertically, and operating the shutter. Train the searchlight directly on the receiver in daytime, but not at night, for it might blind the receiver and bridge personnel. At night, train the searchlight slightly under or above the receiver.

Operation A remotely mounted rotary switch controls power to the searchlight. To open the signaling shutters, use pressure on the signaling lever to overcome spring pressure. When you release pressure on the signaling lever, the spring forces the shutters closed. Two leather bumpers cushion the return of the signaling lever, protecting the shutter from damage.

Do not keep the searchlight switched on longer than necessary. When the searchlight is not in use, lock it in the fore-and-aft position.

When the signal bridge is secured, as during overhaul, searchlight lay-up maintenance should be conducted according to the maintenance requirement card (MRC); also, all tests and care and maintenance procedures should be performed before redeployment, to ensure proper operation. During inclement weather, place a protective canvas cover over lights not in use.

Maintenance Maintain searchlights according to current MRCs. Electrical contacts must be kept clean and bright. Electrical leads should be checked daily and replaced as soon as defects appear. Depending on the amount of time they are used, moving parts such as trunion bearings and stanchion sockets must be lubricated at intervals. Shutter vane hinges and links should be lubricated once a quarter or more frequently if required. Searchlights should be operated for a few minutes after lubrication with the door glass and cover removed to allow the lubricant to evaporate.

Screws and bolts should be checked for tightness at regular intervals, particularly following the firing of the ship’s guns.

The two shutter stop screws should be adjusted at regular intervals to take up the wear in the leather bumpers. The leather bumper should just touch the stop adjustment when the vanes are closed to prevent twisting.

The reflector should be cleaned quarterly and/or when needed. Refer to your MRC for instructions on cleaning the reflector.

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11-42 UNCLASSIFIED Never paint a bearing surface or the working member of any part of the light. Do not paint bolts, locking nuts, or other parts accessing the interior. Do not paint over nameplates, and keep oiling cups and holes free of paint.

Replacing the lamp and focusing should be done only by qualified Electrician’s Mates unless a member of the signal gang is qualified and authorized to do so.

12-INCH MERCURY-XENON ARC SEARCHLIGHT The mercury-xenon arc searchlight uses a 1,000-watt mercury-xenon lamp. The searchlight is provided with an automatic lamp-starting circuit.

Parts consist of a drum, back dome, signaling shutter, mounting yoke, lamp, focusing device, starter box, and ballast assembly. The automatic starting circuit assembly is attached to the lower part of the drum. A screening hood with various color filters is supplied.

A high-voltage, pulse-type circuit is used. When the searchlight is turned on, the boost transformer supplies 130 volts to the primary coil of the transformer, which in turn provides a series of pulses of approximately 50,000 volts generated by high-frequency discharges through a spark gap.

When the main arc in the lamp is established, the voltage to the primary coil of the transformer drops to 65 volts. This voltage is not high enough to cause the secondary voltage of the transformer to break down the spark gap. Thus, the high-voltage pulse to the lamp automatically ceases.

Five resistors are connected in parallel and are, in turn, connected in series with the lamp. These resistors limit the current at starting and during operation, and supply the correct electrical values to the lamp.

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11-43 UNCLASSIFIED 12-INCH MODIFIED MERCURYXENON SEARCHLIGHT Some of the older mercury-xenon searchlights are 12-inch, incandescent lamp searchlights converted to use a 1,000-watt, compact, mercury-xenon arc lamp (fig. 11- 35). The addition of a small amount of mercury to xenon in a gaseous discharge arc lamp produces a much more brilliant light with a great deal of radiation in the green and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum. The increase in light intensity greatly increases the range of the searchlights.

Figure 11-35 12-inch modified mercury-xenon arc searchlight

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11-44 UNCLASSIFIED The modifications made to convert the searchlight include the installation of a lamp holder, lamp adjuster assembly, and lamp starter assembly mounted on the searchlight drum.

Other modifications include the following: 1. Providing a 115-volt, 60-Hz ballast unit to be mounted below the deck near the searchlight and connected to it by a flexible cable. 2. Installing the short-arc mercury-xenon lamp. 3. Furnishing the additional onboard repair parts necessitated by the changes. (The electrical components include a ballast, transformers, capacitors, spark gaps, and switch circuits.)

Operation To start the light, close the remote manual switch, then turn the starter counterclockwise on the rear of the starter unit. (See fig. 11-36.) Release the starter switch as soon as the lamp arcs. Be sure the starter switch returns to its previous position; otherwise, the higher current required to start the lamp may damage electrical components.

Initially, the lamp burns only at about 25 percent of designed intensity. It takes 2 to 3 minutes to reach maximum brilliance.

Figure 11-36 Starter unit for 12-inch mercury-xenon searchlight

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11-45 UNCLASSIFIED The light should not be elevated or depressed more than 10 degrees for extended periods of time because the life of the lamp is reduced considerably at extreme angles. Operate the shutters the same as you would the incandescent lamp shutters. To turn off the lamp, open the remote manual switch.

Maintenance The 12-inch mercury-xenon arc searchlight should be inspected and checked monthly. All screws, especially those of the reflector clamps, focusing mount, and lamp support, should be examined for looseness. All screws and fastenings should be checked after ship's guns have been fired.

Trunion and yoke bearings should be lubricated with grease; see the MRC for the type of grease.

Replacement of the lamp must be performed as explained in the applicable manufacturer’s manual, observing all precautions given.

When the return action becomes sluggish, the shutter bearing and links should be lubricated. The lubricant should be used sparingly and should not be allowed to contact the envelope of the mercury-xenon lamp. Should the shutters remain sluggish, replace the shutter springs.

The reflector and glass cover should be cleaned as required by the MRC.

When considered necessary, the cover of the ballast box should be removed and the five resistors examined and tightened in their sockets. Wiring should be checked and terminal screws tightened as required. The packing glands at the cable entrances should be kept secure and watertight.

Focusing is performed by means of a sliding plunger at the rear of the focusing box on top of the searchlight.

Maintenance is basically the same for the manual-starting and automatic-starting, 12- inch, mercury-xenon searchlights. For detailed differences in the construction and operation of these two types, see the applicable manufacturer’s manual.

Electrical maintenance should be left to the electricians unless a member of the signal gang is qualified to do it by the engineer officer.

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11-46 UNCLASSIFIED Because the lamp contains gas under pressure, take care when handling it or when cleaning the interior of the drum. The lamp shell is quartz, not glass. Keep it free of oil or grease, and do not handle it without the protective metal case provided. Grease or oil may, at lamp operating temperatures, set up stresses in the quartz and cause the lamp to explode. If the lamp should be soiled in any way, wash it off with alcohol or other grease-free solvent, and then dry it carefully with a clean cloth.

Before opening the drum, make sure the power is off. This can be done by turning the remote switch OFF and then removing the power cable plug from the starter unit.

When you remove or replace the lamp, wear the face guard and gloves provided. Place the protective metal guard over the lamp; disconnect the lamp leads from the binding post on top of the starter unit; loosen all wing nuts holding the lamp in the lamp adjuster assembly; then remove the lamp.

CAUTION Even when it reaches the end of its useful life, a mercury-xenon lamp is potentially dangerous. Turn it in to the mercury control officer or his/her representative for disposal.

When installing a new lamp, do not touch the quartz with your fingers. Keep the protective case around the lamp until it is in place.

Hold the lamp by the protective cover with the longer of the two leads pointing up, and insert them in the two vee-slots on the lamp supports. Fasten the lamp in place with the clamps and wing nuts; then connect the power leads to the binding post, making sure they do not touch any other metal parts.

For signaling at the greater design ranges, more accuracy in the aim is required. To align the sights with the beam, aim the light at a bulkhead 50 to 100 feet away. Focus the lamp for the narrow beam. Look through the sights; the beam should be in the center.

If the beam is not centered, remove the top cover plate of the lamp adjuster assembly. (See fig. 11-37.) If the beam is high or low, loosen the thumbscrew and turn the vertical adjustment screw to raise or lower the lamp. When you have it adjusted, tighten the thumbscrew. If the beam is off to one side, loosen the four horizontal screws on the transverse sliding plate; slide the plate by hand to center the beam; and retighten the screws.

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11-47 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 11-37 12-inch mercury-xenon lamp adjuster assembly

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11-48 UNCLASSIFIED MULTIPURPOSE SIGNAL LIGHT The multipurpose signal light (fig. 11-38) produces a high-intensity beam of light suitable for use as a spotlight or as a blinker for visual communication. The power source is three dry cell batteries or the ship's electrical power via a 120/20-volt transformer mounted in the storage box. The front handle is adjustable to maintain a steady position when signaling and front and rear sights are provided for holding the beam on target.

Supplied with the light are red, green, and amber lenses, a 15-foot power cord for supplying power from the ship’s electrical source to the storage box, and a 25-foot cord for supplying power from the storage box to the light.

For signaling, the light may be held in the hand and operated with the trigger. It has an effective signaling range of 4,000 yards and is designed to send up to 12 words per minute.

Figure 11-38 Multipurpose signal light

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11-49 UNCLASSIFIED 11.4.2 Yardarm Blinkers System Yardarm blinkers are 32-point, 360-degree white lights located on the yardarm or on separate supports on the mast. (See fig. 11-39.) The fixtures are spraytight and fitted with screens at their bases to prevent glare or reflection, which could interfere with navigation. The range of the yardarm blinkers is limited and can only be used effectively during hours of darkness.

Yardarm blinkers permit communication to several units simultaneously. These lights are operated from signal keys located on each side of the signal bridge and in the signal shelter. By selecting the appropriate position on the transmitter control panel, you can operate the beacons as a steady light or as blinkers using the signal key.

Normally, maintenance is the responsibility of the Electrician’s Mates. Cleanliness and upkeep of the light exteriors are tasks for Signalmen. This upkeep can be hazardous. Before going aloft, check Man Aloft Procedures.

Figure 11-39 Yardarm blinkers

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11-50 UNCLASSIFIED 11.4.3 Infrared Communication Equipment Infrared equipment consists of the AN/SAT 2 IR transmitting set or a searchlight fitted with an H hood. This equipment is popularly known as Nancy gear. Night vision sights (NVSs) make it possible to visually detect the invisible IR rays of the light spectrum. Together this equipment provides a measure of communication security.

Like visible light, IR is limited in range to the horizon, and range is further reduced by adverse weather conditions.

AN/SAT 2 TRANSMITTING SET The AN/SAT 2 IR transmitting set (see fig. 11-40) is designed to transmit signals in the IR region of the frequency spectrum; that is, between 0.75 and 1.2 microns. Infrared radiations are invisible, thus providing a secure means for signaling at night under darkened ship conditions. The two IR transmitters (beacons) may be operated as a steady source for point-of-train purposes, or they may be flashed in Morse code for signaling and recognition. The beacons are visible for 360 degrees and can be positioned to transmit fore and aft or port and starboard. For security, the beacons have been designed so they cannot be detected by the unaided eye at distances greater than 400 yards. The beacons are white-light tight; however, they are visible as dim red lights at short distances. The AN/SAT 2 is used mainly for nondirectional communication.

The IR transmitting set consists of two IR transmitters (beacons), a transmitter control panel, and two telegraph keys. The beacons may be operated separately or simultaneously by either manual key.

Figure 11-40 AN/SAT 2 infrared transmitting set

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11-51 UNCLASSIFIED Selection of the mode of operation is controlled by the transmitter control panel. The IR transmitter consists of a formed brass housing and a dome-shaped homogeneous tempered glass filter, which encloses a 300-watt, 110-volt, T20 clear bulb incandescent lamp and reflector. The transmitter control consists of a watertight brass housing with a removable front cover, and contains a switch, four fuses, two indicator lights, two terminal boards, and associated wiring. The front panel has a gasket to ensure a watertight fit, and is fastened to the housing by means of eight machine screws. Two locating pins ensure proper alignment of the door and housing. (This control panel is also utilized by the yardarm blinkers; however, this blinker is powered by a separate ship’s power supply to ensure the circuit is inoperable during darken ship.) The telegraph key consists of a watertight brass box containing a signaling key, a monitor indicator light, a terminal board, and a capacitor. The watertight housing consists of a formed and welded steel box with a formed steel cover and key guard.

The cover is attached to the housing by means of six machine screws. A locating pin ensures proper alignment. The base of the housing has three mounting lugs. The hinged key guard on the cover protects the key from damage when it is not in use. A hold-down lever permits steady operation of the beacons when placed in the down position.

Due to the constant exposure to the elements, strict compliance with planned maintenance system (PMS) requirements is essential for this equipment.

Normally, maintenance is the responsibility of the Electrician’s Mates. Cleanliness and upkeep of the light exteriors are tasks for Signalmen. This upkeep can be hazardous. Before going aloft, check Man Aloft Procedures.

The most widely used IR transmitting equipment is the standard 12-inch searchlight fitted with a type-H hood containing the special filter lens (fig. 11-41). The lens resembles a sheet of red glass. The light is operated in the same procedure for regular directional communication, but train must be more accurate.

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11-52 UNCLASSIFIED

11.4.4 Chemical Warfare Directional Detector The AN/KAS-1 chemical warfare directional detector system (fig. 11-42) is a passive IR imaging sensor that provides U.S. Navy ships with the capability for detection and identification of chemical warfare (CW) agent attacks. The AN/KAS-1 can be used to detect and identify nerve agent attacks against ships in a task force, against waves of amphibious assault ships/boats proceeding ashore, or against assault forces in the vicinity of the landing area. Chemical warfare agent cloud detection and identification can be accomplished against a sky background for all conditions under which CW attacks may be expected to occur. Detection of CW activity against a land background can be accomplished less effectively.

The inherent characteristics of an IR sensor make the AN/KAS-1 useful in low- visibility/night pilotage and area surveillance. The AN/KAS-1 operator can detect and provide relative bearing to prominent land features (light house, water tower) and buoys. Detection of personnel on the water surface (man overboard) can also be provided by the system.

The AN/KAS-1 consists of a sensor unit, a pivot mount, a power conversion unit (PCU), a carrying/stowage case, a maintenance kit, and an overboard lanyard. The sensor unit is equipped with the following controls: a field-of-view switch, which enables the operator to use both a wide field of view (WFOV) and a narrow field of view (NFOV); a range/focus knob; a contrast knob; a brightness knob; and a filter wheel switch. The filter wheel switch allows the operator to rotate a wheel positioned in the optical chain of the unit through four positions: filter 1, filter 2, filter 3, and filter out. These filters are used to identify CW nerve agent clouds.

Figure 11-41 Searchlight H hood

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11-53 UNCLASSIFIED The pivot mount provides the mechanical interface between the sensor unit and the standard bracket and lock assembly. The pivot mount provides a minimum elevation of minus 35 degrees to plus 45 degrees and 360 degrees of azimuth; the number of azimuth rotations is limited only by the length of the interconnecting cable. Handlebars are provided for operator positioning of the sensor unit. The interconnecting cable provides electrical connection/power transfer from the PCU to the sensor unit via a coiled, double- shielded cable.

Figure 11-42 Chemical warfare directional detector

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11-54 UNCLASSIFIED The PCU (fig. 11-43) provides operating power to the sensor from the ship’s 115-Vac, 60-Hz supply. Press-to-test switches/lights are included to verify the presence of input and output voltages. The unit consists of an electronics tray contained in a watertight protective housing.

A carrying/storage case is provided for transportation and storage of the AN/KAS-1. Space is also provided in the case for the storage of the sensor unit, pivot mount, interconnecting cables, overboard lanyard, maintenance kit, and foul-weather cover.

A foul-weather cover of waterproof canvas is used for protecting the sensor pivot mount when it is not in use.

A maintenance kit (fig. 11-44) (stowed inside the carrying/storage case) is provided with the AN/KAS-1. The kit consists of the following:

1. Spare bulbs and lenses

2. Lens-cleaning solution

3. Lens wipers

4. Purge kit regulator/connector assembly

5. Expendable nitrogen gas cartridges (six) to purge the sensor unit of moisture (30-day requirement)

Figure 11-43 Power conversion unit

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11-55 UNCLASSIFIED

An overboard lanyard (vinyl-covered stainless steel cable) is used to secure the sensor/pivot mount to an eyelet on the PCU unit mounting plate prior to installation or removal. The overboard lanyard and associated safety procedures will prevent accidental over-the-side loss or severe damage (fall to a lower deck) during installation or removal.

Figure 11-44 Maintenance kit

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11-56 UNCLASSIFIED MAINTENANCE The AN/KAS-1 has been designed for minimum maintenance. Scheduled maintenance procedures will be detailed on the MRC. Corrective maintenance consists of removal and replacement of the sensor/ pivot unit or the PCU when a failure occurs. The failure will be handled on a repair-and-return basis and does not require a requisition for replacement.

TRAINING Each AN/KAS-1 received will have a complete training package. This training should be incorporated into the Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS).

11.4.5 Optical Equipment You were born with the finest optical equipment you will ever use—your eyes. But even if you have 20-20 vision, it often is impossible to read flaghoist and other signals accurately with the naked eye. To magnify distant signals, some of the following aids to vision are carried aboard Navy ships.

SHIP'S BINOCULARS Ship's binoculars (known as big eyes) have a magnification of 20-power, with an apparent field of view of approximately 70 degrees. The binoculars are mounted on a height-adjustable carriage assembly that is adjustable through 70 degrees elevation ranging from 10 degrees depression to 60 degrees elevation with reference to the horizon, and that can rotate through 360 degrees in azimuth. Ship's binoculars consist of the binocular assembly, carriage assembly, and the pedestal (fig. 11-45).

Figure 11-45 Ship's binoculars

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11-57 UNCLASSIFIED The binocular assembly contains the optics required to obtain the desired magnification. Eyeguards are provided to keep stray light from the observer’s eye when sighting through the eyepiece.

The focusing knob enables the eyepiece to be individually adjusted. Each focusing knob is provided with a diopter scale, which is graduated from -3 to +l in ½-diopter increments. The interpupillary distance (IPD) of the eyepieces is controlled by an interocular handle, and is adjustable from 56 to 74 millimeters. An INCREASE- DENSITY control is provided to adjust the polarized light filter. Inlet and outlet valves, located on top of the main housing assembly, are provided to evacuate and recharge the binocular assembly with dry nitrogen.

The carriage assembly enables the binocular assembly to be positioned in the proper azimuth and elevation. The carriage assembly contains a 360-degree azimuth scale graduated in l-degree increments. The binoculars may be locked in any position from minus 10 degrees to plus 60 degrees by the elevation or azimuth knobs. The carriage also contains a handcrank that allows vertical adjustment of the binocular assembly through a range of 8 inches.

The pedestal assembly is used to mount the binoculars to the deck

Ship binoculars should be inspected daily to make sure they are in good working order both optically and mechanically. This includes checking the locking mechanisms, elevation, and rotation; external surfaces; rubber components for deterioration; and all controls to ensure a snug fit between their respective shafts and preformed packing.

The objective and eyepiece lenses are to be cleaned using appropriate cleaning material according to the MRC. However, unnecessary cleaning should be avoided. Wipe the metal parts of the binoculars with fresh water and detergent to prevent accumulation of salt and dirt.

When lubricating, remove the old lubricant and residue. Apply new lubricant sparingly as required. The angular elevation clamp, round boss, and lock pin should be lubricated at each removal or replacement.

Remove the access cover to lubricate the gear assembly. Take care to keep lubricant from the friction disc and the locking surfaces. Lubricate the yoke assembly by removing the binocular and removing the three screws and lift dial support; then lift the yoke from the carriage post and lightly coat the interior bearing surface of the yoke.

CAUTION Two persons should be used to lift either the binocular or yoke assembly.

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11-58 UNCLASSIFIED BINOCULARS Binoculars (fig. 11-46) are the most commonly used of all optical equipment. Although normally only 7-power, they give a wide range of vision and are best suited for searching over a wide area or for following moving targets. They require the use of both eyes and, because both eyes do not always have the same vision, it is better to adjust the focus for each lens individually. Proper focus is essential. If the focus is off, eyestrain is increased greatly, and you will not get maximum efficiency from your optics.

To obtain the proper focus for each eye, turn both binocular scales to the +4 setting. Hold the binoculars firmly against your eyebrows. To get the focus for your left eye (only one eye can be focused at a time), cup the right hand over the right lens, cutting all light to that eye. Be sure to keep both eyes open, however, because closing one eye will give an incorrect focus. Train the binocular on a small well-defined object.

Slowly turn the eyepiece from the +4 setting until the object stands out in sharp detail.

The reading on the scale gives you the correct focus for your left eye. Now do the same for your right eye. The chances are the setting will be different. Repeat this step several times to make sure the focuses are correct.

Once you get the glasses focused properly, remember your settings so you can focus your binoculars on a very dark night. The correct night focus usually is a -1 setting from your day focus for each eye.

Figure 11-46 7 × 50 binoculars

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11-59 UNCLASSIFIED The other adjustment for binoculars is the IPD adjustment. All Navy binoculars have the IPD scale on the hinges between the barrels. Find out what your IPD is and remember it. It may already be in your health record. If not, have a medical officer measure you for it. When you have set your correct IPD scale, you will see a complete circle, never overlapping circles. At night, if you have the wrong IPD setting, you will cut out a lot of light that should be going to your eyes.

Take a look through a pair of binoculars not adjusted for your eyes, then look through a pair that is adjusted properly. Notice the difference. If possible, always use the same binoculars.

Most glasses are treated scientifically to reduce glare, but there are times when the direct rays of the sun are so strong that it is almost impossible to distinguish shapes and colors. To overcome this handicap, glasses usually have colored lens filters that can be inserted over the regular lenses, reducing glare considerably.

CARE OF OPTICS Optical instruments require great skill and precision in their manufacture. They are both delicate and expensive. As with all precision equipment, careless handling can render them out of adjustment or useless. All maintenance should be accomplished according to current MRCs.

Your optics have many enemies. The major ones are dust, heat, light, and moisture. A severe shock, such as falling to the deck, may cause breakage either of lenses and prisms or mechanical parts. A sharp shock invariably causes the prisms and reticles to become misaligned.

Prevent dust from getting on the lenses as much as possible. Always leave the optics in their cases, or covered, when not in use. When dust gathers on the lenses, clean them only with lens paper, and make sure that your supply of lens paper is kept clean. Don’t clean a lens when it doesn’t need it. Repeatedly cleaning a lens, no matter how skillfully you do it, eventually damages the lens. Strong sunlight discolors the cement, and excessive heat often softens cemented lenses and filters and may allow them to separate. Moisture in any form, whether salt spray or the perspiration from your hand, causes film and chemical deterioration of the optical glass.

To have a useful piece of optical equipment when you need it, follow these few simple rules: • Handle your optical equipment carefully. Don’t let it bang against another object. • When the optical equipment is not in use, keep it stowed in its proper place. • Keep it dry and out of the weather. Keep it clean; use only appropriate material to clean it. • Don’t hang optical devices over the side, and when you are using binoculars, always keep them on a strap around your neck.

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11-60 UNCLASSIFIED • Don’t attempt to repair optical equipment. Send it to where they have the proper equipment to make repairs.

11.4.6 Night Vision Devices Night vision devices belong to a family of precision instruments that use electronic optics for observation, surveillance, and navigation. Night vision sights (NVSs) can be used in conjunction with the IR equipment discussed previously in this chapter.

Night vision devices are used to scan an area accurately and to detect enemy movement, to observe friendly forces, or to accomplish various other tasks associated with night devices.

Normally, night vision devices will be operated on ships from the signal bridge and bridge level. As a Quartermaster, you will be required to maintain and operate night vision equipment.

This section will acquaint you with the principles of operation, maintenance, and safety precautions for night vision devices.

MK 37 NIGHT VISION SIGHT The Mk 37 Mod 1 and Mod 3 NVS (fig. 11-47) are passive sights that emit no visible or IR light. An image intensifier tube is used to amplify received light, thus enhancing or allowing vision under nighttime or similar conditions of low illumination. The primary function of the Mk 37 NVS is long-range observation, such as enemy surveillance and target detection.

The two models of the Mk 37 NVS differ basically by the type of mount used. Mod 1 is mounted on a tripod, and Mod 3 is bracket-mounted on the ship’s signal bridge railing. The tripod mount supplied with the Mod 1 consists of three adjustable legs with a tripod adapter on top to secure the sight to the mount. The bracket mount for the Mod 3 is approximately 6 inches by 4 inches by 3.5 inches and is used when installing the sight at a suitable viewing location. The bracket mount is capable of positioning the Mk 37 Mod 3 through 360 degrees in train and from -28 degrees to +44 degrees in elevation.

The Mk 37 consists of three functional sections: objective lens, image intensification tube, and eyepiece.

The objective lens assembly consists of lens elements and mirrors, which function optically together and focus the image. The assembly is purged and sealed in an atmosphere of dry nitrogen to prevent lens fogging.

The image intensification tube consists of three stages of fiber optics, each with a photocathode and phosphor screen amplifying and transferring the image to the next stage. The adjustment for the intensifier is set at installation to prevent damage to the intensifier tube and must not be disturbed.

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The eyepiece assembly consists of glass elements that function to magnify and focus the image on the eye of the operator. The Mk 37 NVS has seven glass elements in each eyepiece. The eyepiece assembly is purged and sealed in an atmosphere of dry nitrogen to prevent fogging. The Mk 37 NVS is supplied with a monocular eyepiece; attached to the eyepiece is a rubber eyeshield, which protects the eyes and aids in security by covering the areas around the eye. Light leaks are thereby prevented. In addition to the monocular eyepiece lens, the Mk 37 NVS is supplied with a binocular eyepiece lens. This lens allows the observer to use both eyes, thereby reducing eye fatigue. The binocular eyepiece allows a small amount of backglow from the image tube to illuminate the operator but is acceptable for most surface-ship applications. Figure 11-47 Mk 37 Mod 1 and Mod 3 night vision sights

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11-62 UNCLASSIFIED A power converter is supplied with the NVS for convenience in use aboard ship or whenever 115-Vac, 60-Hz power is available. The power converter consists of the converter unit and cord assembly. It is sealed in a plastic cylindrical case in a threaded metal cap and is not repairable. The input connector of the converter is on the cap end, and the output spring contact is on the other end.

The converter unit screws into the battery case of the NVS after the battery has been removed. The 20-foot cord has a converter plug on one end and a standard shipboard 115-Vac, 60hz power plug on the other. If the entire cord is not required to reach the power source, roll up the excess to avoid creating a walking hazard. A BA 1100/U 6.8- volt disposable mercury battery is also supplied with the NVS. The battery has a 72-hour continuous-use life-span and a 2-year shelf life. The battery is placed in the main housing with the positive end first. The positive end is easily identified, even in the dark, by its slightly raised center.

Operation Before operating the Mk 37 NVS, the operator needs knowledge and skill in the installation and setting up of the equipment. Actions required prior to installation are as follows:

1. Relieve air pressure inside the carrying case by pressing the core of the relief valve, located near the carrying handle, before releasing the latches. 2. Cut wire seals by all case latches. 3. Release all case latches and remove the cover. 4. Inventory and inspect the contents to ensure they are ready for installation.

Installation of the NVS consists of mounting the sight on the appropriate operational location and installing the power converter or battery. Locate the NVS at two positions, one port and one starboard. Ensure 360-degree rotation and that the location provides ample clearance for operation of the sight in al1 positions of train and elevation without interference.

The setup consists of removing the NVS from the storage case. Secure the pintle in the bracket and locking assembly. If the sight is to be battery operated, insert the battery and replace the battery cap. If the power converter is to be used, store the battery cap in the case and insert the power converter in the battery housing; rotate it clockwise until it is secure. Connect the cord between the converter and a 115-Vac, 60-Hz power source. The sight is now ready for operation.

CAUTION • Do not leave the battery in the equipment during storage, or corrosive damage may result. • Do not remove the cover in daylight.

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11-63 UNCLASSIFIED The following steps are required to place the M 37 NVS in operation:

1. Place the power switch in the ON position. 2. Press your eye against the monocular lens eyeshield flap and view the image, or view the image with both eyes through the binocular eyepiece. 3. Adjust the diopter ring to create a sharp reticle image. 4. Adjust the focus ring for a clear image of the object desired.

AN/PVS-8 The AN/PVS-8 (fig. 11-48) is a portable, shipboard-mounted, battery-operated NVS used for long-range surveillance. The unit uses the mounting system common to the Mk 37 NVS. An eye shield is used to prevent the visible light emitted from the eyepiece from being externally visible on the operator's face. Power is provided by two 1.5V AA batteries with a life of 60 hours. Magnification of the unit is 6.2X with a 4.7-degree field of view. As with other NVSs, an internal image intensifier tube amplifies available light such as moonlight, starlight, and skyglow, so the scene becomes visible to the operator. An automatic brightness control is provided to automatically maintain the viewed scene illumination contrast during periods of changing light level conditions. The manual gain control (tube brightness) will not function when the automatic brightness control is in operation.

Figure 11-48 AN/PVS-8 long range night vision sight

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11-64 UNCLASSIFIED The image intensifier tube also has protection from high-intensity, short-duration flashes of light.

OPERATION Setup and operation of the AN/PVS-8 is similar to the Mk 37; actions required prior to installation are as follows:

1. Relieve air pressure inside the carrying case by pressing the core of the relief valve, before releasing the latches. 2. Release all case latches and remove the cover. 3. Inventory and inspect the contents to ensure they are ready for installation.

Setup of the NVS consists of mounting the sight on the appropriate operational location and installing the batteries. Remove the NVS from the storage case. Secure the pintle in the bracket and locking assembly. Rotate the TUBE BRIGHTNESS control switch fully counterclockwise to the OFF position. Insert the batteries and replace the battery cap. The sight is now ready for operation.

CAUTION Do not leave the batteries in the equipment during storage, or corrosive damage may result.

Do not remove the cover in daylight.

The following steps are required to place the AN/PVS in operation:

1. Rotate the TUBE BRIGHTNESS control clockwise to turn on the NVS. 2. Press your face against the eyeguard and view the image. 3. Adjust the TUBE BRIGHTNESS control to the setting that provides good target to background contrast. 4. Adjust the range focus ring for a clear image of the object desired.

Now that you have the sights operational, you must learn scanning procedures. A well- trained operator will see more than an inexperienced one.

Targets that are readily identifiable by a trained observer will invariably escape detection by the untrained eye. You must learn to scan through practice. Detailed information to help develop scanning skills is given in Basic Military Requirements.

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11-65 UNCLASSIFIED Maintenance To make sure the sights are always ready for operation, organizational maintenance personnel must perform a systematic inspection to discover and correct defects before they result in equipment failure. Scheduled maintenance is to be performed as described on current MRCs. If any part is defective or missing, other than those authorized for replacement or repair, requisition a replacement sight according to normal supply procedures.

NIGHT VISION GOGGLES Night vision goggles, AN/PVS 5A, 5B, and 5C (fig. 11-49) provide improved night vision, using available light from the night sky. An auxiliary IR light source provides illumination for close-up work when ambient light is low. The goggles enable the user to observe from the air, as well as perform normal ground tasks such as reading, walking, and driving.

The goggles are binoculars consisting of two identical monocular eyepieces mounted on an adjustable frame and may be moved sideways. Each monocular assembly consists of three primary subassemblies: objective lens assembly, image intensifier, and eyepiece lens assembly. The goggles are mounted in a cushioned face assembly, which is strapped on to the user. The goggles are approximately 5 inches high, 7 inches wide, 6 inches deep, and weigh 32 ounces without carrying case.

The mechanical function of the goggles is to accommodate differences in the physical characteristics of individual users. This is done by adjusting the IPD, diopter setting, focus, and eye relief.

The two monocular assemblies are mounted in the frame and may be moved laterally to coincide with individual user’s IPD. Lateral movement is performed by loosening the lever clamp, which releases tension from the guide assembly and permits each monocular eyepiece to slide on flanges of the tube housing. Each monocular eyepiece is moved manually to the desired IPD, and the lever clamp is tightened.

To adjust the diopter setting, adjust each eyepiece by rotating the diopter adjust ring, which moves the eyepiece assembly nearer to or further from the user's eye. Each eyepiece is adjustable through a range of +2 to -6.

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Figure 11-49 AN/PVS 5A, 5B, and 5C night vision goggles

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11-67 UNCLASSIFIED Each objective lens assembly is focused by rotating the focus knob. The objective lens is screwed into the mounting collar and the knob is attached to the lens and held in place by the focus knob retainer. Rotating the focus knob positions the objective lens for viewing at desired ranges.

The eye relief adjustment allows the binocular assembly to be moved within the frame for eye relief and comfort. Clamp knobs, located on either side, can be loosened by turning the knobs counterclockwise and manually moving the frame to reposition the binocular assembly with reference to the user’s eyes. The assembly is tightened into place by turning the clamp knob clockwise.

Operation The principles of operation are the same for the AN/PVS 5A, 5B, and 5C. The operating phase of night vision goggles consists of pre-operation, test operation, and post-operation instructions.

Pre-operation instructions: 1. Release the air pressure as instructed on the side of the storage case. 2. Release the latches and open the storage case and remove the goggles. Inspect the goggles for damage. 3. Ensure the rotary switch is in the OFF position. 4. Use only one battery compartment at a time. Insert battery/batteries (AN/PVS 5A uses only one lithium battery; the AN/PVS 5B and 5C use either one lithium battery or two alkaline batteries in one compartment) and replace the cap. 5. Snap the headstrap to the face mask, making sure all straps are extended to their maximum lengths. Place the head strap on your head, grasp the straps with both hands and slowly pull until the face mask cushion touches your face. Continue pulling until the goggles feel snug. Perform the same step for the vertical head strap. 6. Remove the objective and eyepiece lens caps. If demisting shields are used, snap them over the eyepiece lens. Be careful not to smudge the eyepiece lens or demisting shield. 7. Loosen the lever clamp and adjust the monoculars for proper distance between your eyes. Tighten the clamps. 8. Loosen the clamp knob and adjust the binocular assembly until the eyepieces are located a comfortable distance from your eyes with proper tilt. Tighten both clamps.

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11-68 UNCLASSIFIED Instructions for test operation: 1. Position the rotary switch to the ON position. 2. Loosen the lever clamp and adjust the goggles for proper spacing between the monocular eyepieces. Retighten the clamp. 3. Loosen both clamp knobs and adjust the goggles for proper tilt and eye relief. Retighten the clamp knobs. 4. On the AN/PVS 5A and 5B, turn the focus knob fully counterclockwise on each objective lens for distant viewing. Adjust for the clearest view. The focus knob may be turned fully clockwise to adjust for a minimum focus of 10 inches. On the AN/PVS 5C goggles, the focus function is part of the objective lens assembly. To focus the goggles for the sharpest view, grasp the outside of each objective lens assembly and turn it to obtain the sharpest image. 5. Adjust each diopter ring until the image is sharp (the diopter ring adjusts the diopter for each individual user and does not require movement after initially set). 6. Pull and turn the rotary switch for IR operation (optional test). Return the switch to ON for normal operation. The rotary switch turns the goggles and IR illuminator on and off. Be sure it is turned to OFF when the goggles are not in use.

Post-operation instruction: 1. Remove the demisting shields, if installed, by grasping them and pulling them off the eyepiece lenses. Return them to their case. 2. Replace the objective and the eyepiece lens cap. 3. Ensure the rotary switch is in its OFF position. Remove the battery (or batteries) from the battery compartment(s) and return it to its case. Replace the battery caps. 4. Inspect the face mask cushion for tears, cracks, or missing snaps; also inspect the goggles for missing parts. 5. Clean the goggles, carrying case, and shipping case as necessary with fresh water. Ensure both cases and liner are dry prior to storing the goggles in them. 6. Loosen the clamp knobs and the lever clamp. 7. Store the goggles, batteries, and accessories in the cases, making sure they are properly positioned to close, and then latch the carrying case. 8. Store the carrying case in the storage case if the goggles are to be placed in prolonged storage. Latch the storage case.

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11-69 UNCLASSIFIED AN/PVS-11 Pocketscope The pocketscope (fig. 11-50) is a hand-held, submersible NVS equipped with either a 1X or 3X magnification lens used for short-range observation in either passive or active mode. The power source is two 1.5V AA batteries with a life of 40 hours. This NVS is provided with an IR source for close-up viewing. It can illuminate a man-size target at 15 meters in active mode. The unit also has an optional adapter for a 35mm camera or closed circuit television.

OPERATION This NVS is similar in operation to other NVSs used by the Navy. The same precautions should be exercised with it as with the others. For passive operation, set the OFF-ON- PULL IR switch to on and observe that a green glow is visible in the eyepiece. Adjust the eyepiece and objective lens for proper focus. The pocketscope is ready for passive night vision operation. For IR illuminator mode (active), pull out the OFF-ON-PULL IR switch and rotate it to the PULL-IR position. Observe that the area in the immediate front of the pocketscope is illuminated.

CAUTION The IR source is a light that is invisible to the unaided eye. However, the light from the illuminator can be detected by opposing forces using NVSs.

Figure 11-50 AN/PVS-11A pocketscope

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11-70 UNCLASSIFIED Maintenance Routine maintenance for night vision goggles and the pocketscope is basically the same as for the Mk 37 and AN/PVS-8. Scheduled maintenance is to be performed as described on current MRCs to discover and correct any defects before they result in operational failure. If any part is defective or missing, other than the parts authorized for replacement or repair at the organization level, requisition replacement units. Review the technical manual before performing any maintenance on night vision devices.

GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Night vision devices are precision electro-optical instruments and must be handled carefully at all times. The image intensifier assembly phosphor screen contains toxic material. If an assembly becomes broken, be extremely careful to avoid inhalation of the phosphor screen material, and do NOT allow it to come in contact with the mouth or open skin wounds. If the phosphor screen material comes into contact with the skin, wash immediately with soap and water. If phosphor screen material is swallowed or inhaled, induce vomiting and seek medical help. The batteries used in NVSs require special handling to avoid possible physical harm or equipment damage. Return all used or damaged batteries to the property disposal officer. The following are the batteries used in NVS:

1. BA 1567/U battery. 2. Alkaline Battery BA 3058/U. 3. Lithium Battery BA 5567/U. This battery contains sulfur dioxide gas under pressure. Do not heat, puncture, disassemble, or otherwise tamper with the battery. Turn off the equipment if the battery compartment becomes too hot; wait until batteries have cooled before removing them. Batteries have a safety vent to prevent explosion. When they are venting gas, you will smell gas, your eyes may become irritated, or you may hear the sound of gas escaping. When safety vents have operated, batteries must still be handled with care.

Do not remove any covers during daylight. During nighttime operation do not leave sights pointed at a bright light for extended periods of time, because the image intensifier tube may be permanently damaged.

Before using any NVSs, you must review the technical manual.

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11-71 UNCLASSIFIED 11.5 FLAGS AND HALYARDS Flags are used to send messages and tactical signals during daylight, to identify a ship’s nationality, and, on occasion, to indicate the seniority of an officer or civil official on board. Individual flags are discussed in other chapters. This section is confined to describing flags and halyards in general.

Bunting, the cloth of which flags are made, is available in cotton, wool, and nylon. Because cotton costs less, it is usually used in simply designed flags and pennants. Cotton bunting is not as durable as wool and will not stand as much weathering, but it is often less expensive to wear out two cotton flags than one woolen flag. Flags and pennants that are in almost constant use, however, usually are made of wool or nylon. Wool is also used in flags of complicated design when the original cost of material is less important than the labor involved.

11.5.1 Flag Nomenclature The parts of flags and pennants are shown in figure 11-51. The fly is the horizontal length of the flag; the hoist is the vertical width. Tabling is a reinforced border of light duck, stitched to the edge of the flag at the hoist. A length of line leads through the tabling, at the top of which a ring is spliced. The other end of the line, extending several inches below the tabling, is the tail line. A snap hook is attached to it. The tail line serves as a spacer between flags, and the snap and ring are used to secure flags to each other in a hoist.

Figure 11-51 Parts of flags and pennants

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11-72 UNCLASSIFIED 11.5.2 Care of Flags Wind and moisture cause flags to deteriorate rapidly. Unless stowed promptly and handled carefully, flags quickly become dirty. The flagbag (fig. 11-52) is designed to provide proper stowage for the flags and rapid access to them. It also keeps them clean and, with the canvas cover in place during inclement weather, dry. Flags should be washed in the ship’s laundry periodically. Only mild soap and warm water (not hot) should be used for cleaning flags. Grease spots can be removed with dry-cleaning solvents.

Damp or wet flags are mildew prone. When flags are wet, dry them as soon as possible by hoisting them on the signal halyards. This should not be done when under way or when in high winds. Air bunting is an excellent way to dry flags. This can be done on request from the senior officer present.

Figure 11-52 Flagbag

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11-73 UNCLASSIFIED 11.5.3 Repair of Flags Although ships carry spare sets of flags, Signalman strikers or third class petty officers may be assigned to repair bunting. If a bunting space is available, it will contain a sewing machine, bunting, thread, tapes, and tabling material. If a bunting repair space is not available, repairs may be done by using a sewing machine located in the deck spaces.

When repairing flags, never mix materials. Wool and cotton shrink differently, and combinations invariably become misshapen after the first wetting. For correct dimensions, refer to NTP 13, Flags, Pennants and Customs.

11.5.4 Halyards Signal halyards are made of either nylon or natural color braided cotton line. The braided cotton line is no longer used aboard ship, because it could not hold up under the effects of ships’ high speeds, stack temperatures, and gases. Ashore, however, cotton halyards are still used. Double-braided 1 l/8-inch nylon rope is required by the Board of Inspection and Survey (INSURV). Double-braided 1 l/2-inch nylon rope is permitted alternately with twisted rope for dressing lines. The twisted nylon and double-braided nylon rope withstand the heat and gases much better than braided cotton line.

Halyard blocks are single, roller-bushed sheave blocks. They are attached by means of sister hooks to U-bolts welded to the yardarms. Those attached to stays and mastheads may be of other construction, adapted to the construction of the stay or masthead.

CARE OF HALYARDS When reeving halyards through signal halyard blocks, always reeve forward to aft. Rings and snaps on halyards are put on with a halyard eye splice.

Splicing double-braided nylon rope is explained and illustrated in the following section.

At night and during inclement weather, ease off the halyards to prevent unnecessary strain cased by shrinkage. At other times, however, keep halyards clear and taut to give the signal bridge a sharp appearance. Periodically check the condition of the halyards. Replace them before they become too worn.

SPLICING DOUBLE-BRAIDED LINE When double-braided nylon line is being spliced, the end must be worked into the center, and special tools are needed for the job. For line 3 inches in circumference or smaller, a fid and pusher are used. For line larger than 3 inches in circumference, only a wire fid is used. Steps 1, 2, and 3 in figure 11-53 show how to secure the fid to the line. Stamped on each fid is a number indicating the size of line for which the fid was made. Fids also serve as rulers to measure with while splicing is being done. The wire fid lengths in figure 11-54 are in l/2 and l/3 scale. Friction or masking tape and a soft lead pencil, crayon, or preferably, a wax marking pencil are needed. Sharp-pointed shears also are handy.

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Figure 11-53 Fids used for splicing double- braided line

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11-75 UNCLASSIFIED The splice described here, and the line on which it is used, were developed by the Samson Cordage Works of Boston, Massachusetts.

Figure 11-54 Measuring and taping

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11-76 UNCLASSIFIED Standard Eye Splice in New Double-Braided Line The standard eye splice can be performed on new line only. It retains up to 90 percent of the average new line strength. Until you become familiar with splicing this material, follow each step in detail. Figure 11-53 shows the fids and pushers used for splicing; steps 1 through 3 explain how to secure the wire fid to the line that is to be spliced. Figure 11-54 shows how to mark the line and extract the core.

1. Tape the end to be spliced with one thin layer of tape. Then, measure one tubular fid length (two wire fid lengths, because the wire fid is l/2 size) from the end of the line and mark. (This is point R (reference), step 1 of fig. 11-55.) From R, form a loop the size of the eye desired and mark. (This is point X, where you extract the core from inside the cover.)

2. Tie a tight slipknot approximately five fid lengths from X. This must be done to keep the core and cover from becoming uneven. Bend the line sharply at X. With the pusher or any sharp tool, such as a ice pick, awl, or marlinespike, spread the cover strands to expose the core (step 2 of fig. 11-55). First pry, then pull the core completely out of the cover from X to the taped end of the core. DO NOT pull cover strands away from the line when you are spreading the cover, as this will distort the line unnecessarily. To assure correct positioning of mark 1, do the following: holding the exposed core, slide the cover as far back toward the tightly tied slipknot as you can. Then, firmly smooth the cover back from the slipknot toward the taped end. Smooth again until all cover slack is removed. Then, mark the core where it comes out of the cover. (This is mark 1.)

3. Again slide the cover toward the slipknot to expose more core. From mark 1, measure along the core toward X a distance equal to the short section of tubular fid (two short sections with wire fid) and make two heavy marks. (This is mark 2.) From mark 2, measure in the same direction one fid length plus another short section of the fid (with wire fid, double measurements) and make three heavy marks. (This is mark 3, step 3 of fig. 11-55.)

4. Note the nature of the cover braid—it is made up of strands, either one or two (pair). Notice that half the pairs revolve to the right around the rope and half revolve to the left. Beginning at R and working toward the taped end of the cover, count eight consecutive strands (single or pairs) that revolve to the right (or left). Mark the eighth strand. (This is mark T, step 4 of fig. 11-55.) Make mark T go completely around the cover. Starting at T and working around the taped cover end, count and mark every fifth right and left strand (single or paired) until you have progressed down to the end of the taped cover.

5. Insert the fid into the core at mark 2. Slide it through and out at mark 3. (Step 5 of fig. 11-55.) Add extra tape to the tapered covered end, then jam it tightly into the hollow end of the fid (see insert). Hold the core lightly at mark 3; place the pusher point into the taped end; push the fid and cover through from mark 2 and out at mark 3.

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11-77 UNCLASSIFIED With the wire fid, first press prongs into the cover, then tape over. Then after the fid is on, milk the braid over the fid while pulling the fid through from mark 2 to mark 3. Take the fid off the cover. Continue pulling the cover tail through the core until mark R on the cover emerges from mark 3 (see step 6 of fig. 11-55). Then remove the tape from the end of the taped cover.

6. Make sure the tape is removed from the cover end. Start with the last marked pair of cover strands toward the end; cut and pull them out completely (see step 7 of fig. 11-55). Cut and remove the next marked strands and continue with each right and left mark strand until you reach point T; do NOT cut beyond this point. The result should be a gradual taper ending in a point. Very carefully pull the cover back through the core until point T emerges from mark 2 of the core (see step 8 of fig. 11-55). From point X on the cover, measure approximately one-half fid length toward the slipknot on the line and mark this point Z (see step 9 of fig. 11-55).

7. You are now ready to put the core back into the cover from T to Z. Insert your fid at T (step 9 of fig. 11-55). jam the taped core end tightly into the end of the fid. With the pusher, push the fid and core through the cover “tunnel,” past point X, to, and through the cover at point Z. When using the wire fid, attach the fid to the tapered core. After the fid is on, milk the braid over the fid while pulling through from T to Z. When pushing the fid past X to Z, make sure the fid does not catch any internal core strands.

NOTE Depending on eye size, the fid may not be long enough to reach from T to Z in one pass. If not, bring the fid out through the cover, pull the core through, and reinsert the fid into the same hole it came out of. Do this as many times as needed to reach point Z.

8. Alternately pull on the core tail at Z, and then pull the tapered cover at mark 3. The crossover should be tightened until the crossover is equal to the diameter of the line. Remove all the slack from the eye area by smoothing the cover from point T toward X. Mark where the core tail emerges through the cover at point X (see step 10 of fig. 11-55). Pull the core tail out until the mark just made on the core is exposed at Z. The diameter of the core must now be reduced by cutting and removing one strand of each group around the complete circumference. Measure one-third fid length from the first reduction cut toward the end and make a mark. Cut off the remaining tail at this point. Make the cut on a 45-degree angle to prevent a blunt end (see the insert of step 10). With one hand, hold the crossover part (mark T). Smooth the cover section of the eye out firmly and completely from the crossover toward mark X. The reduced-volume core tail should disappear into the cover at 2. Smooth out the core section from the crossover toward mark 3, and the cover taper will disappear into the core. Hold the rope at the slipknot, and with your other hand milk the cover toward the splice, gently at first, then more firmly (see step 11 of fig. 11-55). The cover will slide over mark 3, mark 2, the crossover, T, and R. (It may be necessary to occasionally smooth out the eye during milking to prevent the reduced-volume tail from catching in the throat of the splice.)

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Figure 11-55a Completing the double-braided eye splice (page 1 of 2)

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Figure 11-55b - Completing the double-braided eye splice (page 2 of 2)

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11-80 UNCLASSIFIED If bunching occurs at the crossover, preventing full burying, smooth the cover from T to X. Grasp the crossover at T with one hand, and then firmly smooth the cover slack (female side of eye) with the other hand towards the throat (X). Repeat as necessary until bunching disappears. Continue milking until all of the cover slack between the knot and the throat of the eye has been removed.

NOTE Before burying the cover under the crossover, you should do the following:

• Anchor the loop of the slipknot to a stationary object before starting to bury the cover. You can then use both hands and the weight of your body to more easily bury the cover over the core and crossover.

• Holding the crossover tightly, milk all excess cover from R to X.

Flex and loosen the line at the crossover point during the final burying process. Hammering the cover at point X will help loosen the strands.

With larger ropes, it is helpful to securely anchor the slipknot; attach a small line to the braided core at the crossover; and mechanically apply tension with either a block and tackle, capstan, come-a-long, or power winch. Tension will reduce the diameter of the core and crossover for easier burying.

9. Prior to whipping (see fig. 11-56), it is to your advantage to stitch-lock the splice to prevent no-load opening. You will need approximately one fid length of nylon or polyester whipping twine. The twine should be about the same size as the strands of line you are stitching. Strands cut from the line may be used. To begin the lock stitch, pass the twine (A) through the line as shown in step 1, figure 11-56. Reinsert the twine as in step 2, figure 11-56. (Ensure that all stitching is just snug. DO NOT TIGHTEN.) Continue until you have four complete stitches. After you have four stitches, turn the line 90 degrees and pass the remaining end (B) through the line perpendicular to the original stitches to make four more stitches. The line should now look like step 4, figure 11-56. Now take ends A and B, tie a square knot, and bury the ends in between the cover and the core. You may now whip the line or leave it.

You will become more proficient at splicing line each time you do it. Remember to follow each step the manufacturer has laid down in the splicing manual. This must be done for safety reasons. The splices described and the methods for accomplishing them have been tried and proven. They leave no margin for shortcuts.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-81 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 11-56 Making the lock stitch

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11-82 UNCLASSIFIED Eye Splice To make an eye splice with manila or synthetic ropes, untwist the strands in the end of your line as you think necessary, and splice them into the standing part of the line by tucking the unlaid strands from the end into the standing part. Learn to estimate the length of line you need to unlay for your complete splice so you will not finish short or waste a lot of line by cutting it off. An original round of tucks plus three more complete rounds are enough for an ordinary eye splice. With large lines you must whip the ends of the strands before you start; otherwise, they will unravel and become troublesome. Large lines also must be seized at the point where the unlaying stops, or you will have trouble working them. With any line up to about 2 inches, you can open the strands in the standing part with your fingers. The fid must be used for larger lines.

Your first round of tucks must be taken in proper order to avoid getting fouled up. Separate the strands in the end and hold them as indicated in view 1 in figure 11-57. Always tuck the middle strand (facing you) first. Be sure to keep the right-hand strand, shown in view 2 of figure 11-57, on the side of the line that is toward you. Tuck that one next, over the strand you just tucked the other one under, and under the strand just below it, shown in view 3 of figure 11-57.

Figure 11-57 Making an eye splice

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11-83 UNCLASSIFIED Now turn the whole thing over. In view 4 of figure 11-57 you can see that you now have only one strand from the end left untucked, and only one strand in the standing part that does not already have a strand under it. Do not forget to tuck the last strand from outboard toward you.

The first round of tucks is the key to making perfect eye splices; the rest is easy. Simply tuck each strand from the end over the strand of the standing part that it is now above, and under the next strand below that one, until you tuck each strand twice more beside the original tuck. Three tucks to each strand in all is enough for natural fiber rope. Four or five are needed for synthetic fiber, especially the more slippery nylon.

Going Aloft Quartermasters must be familiar with the procedures for going aloft, if for conducting maintenance, removing Irish pennants, or rigging for full dress ship.

Whatever the reason, permission to go aloft must be granted by the officer of the deck in port or the commanding officer when under way. Guidance for requesting permission should be included in the signal bridge standing orders.

OPNAVINST 5100.19 Series, Navy Occupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH) Program Manual, contains instructions and general precautions for going aloft.

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11-84 UNCLASSIFIED 11.6 SHIPS CHARACTERISTICS Before we can discuss the techniques used to steer a ship, you’ll have to learn the basics of shiphandling. Use the following table and figure 11-58 to learn the terms associated with a ship’s characteristics.

Figure 11-58 Turning circle

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11-85 UNCLASSIFIED Term Definition Pivot Point A ship’s pivot point is a point on the centerline about which the ship turns when the rudder is put over. The pivot point scribes the ship’s turning circle.

A ship’s pivot point is nearly always located about one-third the ship’s length from her bow when moving ahead, and at or near her stern when moving astern. The location of the pivot point will vary with ship’s speed. An increase in speed will shift the pivot point in the direction of the ship’s movement. Turning Circle A ship’s turning circle is the path followed by the ship’s pivot point when making a 360 degree turn. The diameter of the turning circle varies with rudder angle and speed. With constant rudder angle, an increase in speed results in an increased turning circle. Very low speed (those approaching bare steerageway) also increases the turning circle because of reduced rudder effect.

Knowledge of the turning characteristics of one’s ship is essential to safe shiphandling, particularly when in restricted waters. Advance Advance is the amount of distance run on the original course until the ship steadies on the new course. Advance is measured from the point where the rudder is first put over. Transfer Transfer is the amount of distance gained towards the new course. Tactical Diameter Tactical diameter is the distance gained to the left or right of the original course after a turn of 180° is completed. Final Diameter Final diameter is the distance perpendicular to the original course measured from the 180° point through 360°. If the ship continued to turn at the same speed and rudder indefinitely, it would turn on this circle. The final diameter is almost always less than the tactical diameter.

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11-86 UNCLASSIFIED Term Definition Standard Tactical Diameter Standard tactical diameter is the specific distance recorded in tactical publications for each ship. It varies with each ship class. Standard Rudder Standard rudder is the amount of rudder angle used to make the ship turn in the standard tactical diameter. On most ships, this is equal to 15°. Angle of Turn Angle of turn is the angle measured from the point where the rudder was put over to the point where the ship steadies on the new course.

For example, if a ship is on course 300° and turns starboard to new course 345°, the angle of turn is 45°.

Using Turn Bearing: Finding the angle of a turn is necessary for using turn bearings. A turn bearing is a bearing from an ATON on which the ship will put the rudder over to execute a turn. Every ship maintains a tactical characteristics folder, which contains advance and transfer tables as shown in table 11-1. Advance and Transfer tables are used to determine turn bearings. They are entered using the angle of turn and the ship’s speed.

Drift Angle Drift angle is an angle at any point on the turning circle between the intersection of the tangent at that point and the ship’s keel line. Kick Kick is the swirl of water toward the inside of the turn when the rudder is put over. Also, the momentary movement of the ship’s stern toward the side opposite the direction of the turn.

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11-87 UNCLASSIFIED

When the rudder is put over in making a turn, the stem is forced away from the direction of the turn. Because of momentum, the ship turns very slowly from her original course for several lengths. She then commences to gain ground in the new direction, moving sideways through the water to a considerable degree. This naturally results in loss of speed and is why, when a column turn is made, a vessel gains rapidly on the ship ahead while that ship is turning, but loses this distance during her own turn when the first ship completes her turn and steadies on the new course.

Each ship should have available on the bridge a folder of the ship’s tactical characteristics. It should be carefully studied by all shiphandlers. Pertinent data should also be available at other stations concerned with ship maneuvers, such as the combat information center (CIC).

These tables are drawn up with the ship making several turning runs at different speeds and using various rudder angles. Table 11-1 is a sample advance and transfer table for a ship making a turn at 15 knots, using standard rudder. Similar tables are compiled for other rudder angles at the same and different speeds. The time required to make the various turns may also be shown.

Table 11-1 Sample from Advance and Transfer Table

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11-88 UNCLASSIFIED 11.6.1 Acceleration and Deceleration Tables At times, allowance must be made for the rate at which a ship increases and decreases speed. Another part of the tactical data folder, therefore, is the acceleration/deceleration table, of which a sample is given in table 11-2. Practical examples of its use follow.

Example 1: A ship is standing up a channel at 15 knots. The captain desires to maintain speed as long as possible, but must pass an anchored dredge at a maximum speed of 10 knots. Determine how far before reaching the dredge a speed reduction should be commenced.

From the deceleration table, it is determined that 1 minute is required to decelerate from 15 knots to 10 knots. Because the rate of deceleration is always constant between any two speeds, the average of these two speeds is the average speed of the ship during this time period. By computation, 15 knots plus 10 knots gives an average speed, during 1 minute of deceleration, of 12 l/2 knots. Determination of average speed is the crux of this problem. To compute the distance the ship will travel in 1 minute at 12 l/2 knots, multiply 2,000 (yards) by 12.5 (knots) and divide by 60 (minutes). The result is approximately 417 (yards). Measure back 417 yards along the DR track from a point abeam the dredge. This latter point is where it is recommended that turns for 10 knots be rung up on the engines.

Example 2: A ship is proceeding through Ambrose channel at 10 knots. The navigator is informed that 25 knots is L be ordered when the ship clears the channel. One computation is requested by the OOD:

• How far along the DR track will the ship travel from the time 25 knots is rung up until she is making that speed?

• Because the ship is proceeding at only 10 knots, a running tabulation of speeds and times must be considered. Going to the acceleration part of the table, compute the distance traveled in three steps: 10 to 15, 15 to 20, and 20 to 25.

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11-89 UNCLASSIFIED

11.7 STEERING THE SHIP

11.7.1 Helmsman and Master Helmsman In normal steaming conditions, the helmsman is normally a nonrated Seaman from the Deck Department. However, only QMs qualified as master helmsman man the helm during situations where precise shiphandling is required (unrep, restricted waters, and special evolution). Keeping a ship exactly on course can be a tough job, especially in heavy seas. As you advance to higher paygrades, you will be required to complete PQS and stand watch as helmsman and master helmsman.

The following discussion will cover standard orders to the helm, effects of wind and current, and steering the ship for special evolutions.

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11-90 UNCLASSIFIED 11.7.2 Standard Helm Orders

Rules:

• The courses the helmsman steers must be ordered by the conning officer. The helmsman should have the ship on course before he or she surrenders the wheel to his or her relief. This does not apply to master helmsman.

• The words port and starboard are never used when giving orders to the helmsman. When an order necessitates a change of rudder angle to right or left, the direction of change is always stated, such as right full rudder.

• The helmsman always repeats all orders back to the conning officer, as they were given (word for word). Standard orders to the helmsman and their corresponding meanings are as follows:

Helm Order Action RIGHT (LEFT) HARD RUDDER Normally equal to 35° of rudder. COME RIGHT (LEFT) TO 148° Means to swing the ship’s head in the direction stated and steady it on the course given; in this example, 148°. The order is frequently stated “COME RIGHT (LEFT) TO 148°." STEER 190° Usually given for only a minor change of heading to the number of degrees specified. STEADY ON 225° States the course on which the ship’s head is to be steadied. It is normally given while ship’s head is swinging. You may use up to 30° of opposite rudder to steady the ship. INCREASE YOUR RUDDER Means to increase the rudder angle and is usually ordered when the conning officer wants the ship to move more rapidly. May be given as a specific amount such as increasing to right full rudder. EASE YOUR RUDDER TO (SPECIFIED) DEGREES Signified to reduce the rudder angle. It may be given as "EASE TO 15° (10° 20° RUDDER" or "EASE YOUR RUDDER TO RIGHT 15)." RUDDER AMIDSHIPS Means to put the rudder on the centerline; no rudder angle. As a rule, this order is merely "RUDDER AMIDSHIPS!" MEET HER Means to check the swing by putting on opposite rudder. STEADY AS YOU GO Means to steady the ship on the course it is heading at the time the order is given. If the ship is swinging at the time, heading must be noted and the lubber’s line brought back to and steadied on it as soon as possible. The order is also stated as "STEADY," or "STEADY AS SHE GOES."

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11-91 UNCLASSIFIED Helm Order Action SHIFT YOUR RUDDER Commands you to change to the same number of degrees of opposite rudder angle. MIND YOUR RUDDER! A warning that the ship is going off the course because of bad steering. NOTHING TO THE RIGHT (LEFT) OF (SPECIFIED HEADING) Given when the presence of some danger on one side or the other makes it necessary to avoid a set in that direction. KEEP HER SO Continue to steer the course you are heading. Usually given after you state the course you are steering. MARK YOUR HEAD A statement to the helmsman. He or she should give the ship’s head at the time of the command, for example, "two seven five, sir." VERY WELL Reply of conning officer to helmsman, meaning that the response is understood.

11.7.3 Techniques The helmsman must repeat distinctly, word for word, every order he or she receives. This is done so the conning officer knows the helmsman understands his or her command. To respond to an order such as STEADY AS YOU GO, follow the repeating of the order with the reply STEADY ON 110, or whatever the course was you marked when you received the order. Do this once the ship steadies up.

As a master helmsman, you must know more about how your ship steers than anyone else. Every ship handles differently. Many hours on the helm will allow you to anticipate how the ship will react. Here are some tips, which were gathered from senior Quartermasters concerning steering the ship.

General Techniques: The first rule that you must follow is to pay attention at all times! Many helmsmen have found themselves in a world of trouble because they lost focus, and then chased the helm. This is how ships become damaged (which the U.S. Navy frowns upon).

Never oversteer. Steering a ship is often a situation where less is more. Always use the least amount of rudder necessary to maintain course. Be patient, the ship will respond. A common mistake is to use more rudder than needed to maintain course, which results in a snaking effect.

On the other hand, use the rudder when needed. Commands like MEET HER and STEADY AS YOU GO warrant the use of rudder up to 30°, if necessary. Other ships in formation judge another ship by the way she makes her turns. Make sure your ship turns smartly. Quick and precise maneuvers are the name of the game!

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11-92 UNCLASSIFIED Find the weather helm: If you were to leave the rudder amidships (0°), the wind, current, and even the ship’s list would put you off course. Before relieving the helm, make a habit of observing the swell and wind waves. Then, always ask what rudder combinations are currently being used to maintain course. For example, if the wind and swell is hitting the ship on the port bow at 45°, the stem will be pushed to the right. This action could cause the ship to fall off course to the left. Knowing this, you could imagine that some amount of right rudder will be required to maintain course. When finding the weather helm, you are actually looking for the amount of rudder that is a real time 0°.

The weather helm varies with the weather and currents. If it takes a constant 2° of right rudder, then the weather helm equals 2° right, which is the same as 0° with no wind or current.

11.7.4 During UNREP Steering the ship during underway replenishment is no simple task. There are more factors to consider other than wind and current. When two ships are alongside, a vortex effect is created. This vortex works like a cushion between the two ships, normally pushing them apart slightly. Also, when the rigs are tensioned, the ships are pulled together slightly.

Close attention to keeping the ship exactly on course cannot be stressed enough. Use the least amount of rudder to accomplish this. Often, the master helmsman will be required to steer courses on 0.5 degrees such as 010.5. While unreping .5° is the maximum deviation allowed from ordered course. Also, ships alongside often make turns while rigs are hooked up. This requires the ship on the outside of the turn to slightly increase speed. This type of maneuver is normally completed in 5-degree increments until the final course is reached.

Prior to beginning a UNREP, the bridge watch team should go over emergency procedures for loss of steering.

11.7.5 In Restricted Waters Steering the ship in restricted waters requires precise shiphandling. As with UNREP evolutions, every effort must be made to stay exactly on ordered course. Often the ship will be transiting narrow channels where tidal currents may be strong. This is not much of a problem when the bow is pointed into the current; however, a strong current from astern can cause the bow to fall off course. This is especially true when the ship’s speed is 10 knots or less.

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11-93 UNCLASSIFIED 11.7.6 During Special Evolutions Special evolutions include general quarters, launching of amphibious craft, or whenever the OOD or navigator requires that the more experienced master helmsman man the helm.

11.7.7 From After Steering Steering the ship from after steering requires total concentration. This is due mainly to the fact that there is nothing to see and the trick wheels used to move the rudders face towards the stem. If steering control is lost on the bridge, steering control will be shifted to the after steering helmsman. The after steering helmsman will receive orders directly from the conning officer (relayed by the helm safety officer) or from the rudder angle order indicator.

11.8 NAVIGATIONAL LIGHTS

11.8.1 Rules of the Road According to the Rules of the Road, every ship is required to display navigational lights. The Quartermaster is responsible for turning on the ship’s running lights at sunset and during periods of reduced visibility and for turning them off at sunrise.

11.8.2 Navigational Light Panel The ship’s running lights consist of the forward mast light, the after mast light, the port and starboard side lights, and the stem light. A typical running light control panel is shown in figure 11-59. Before turning these lights on, you should test each light by pressing the test button with all power switches on. Above the test button there are two indicator lights. Each running light has a primary and a secondary filament. When you are testing the lights and a red indicator light comes on, this means the primary filament is burned out, and the light should be replaced by an Electrician’s Mate. Under most conditions, you should turn on all of the light switches, leaving the master switch off. When you are ready to energize the lights at sunset, turn on the master switch and all the ship’s running lights are energized at the same time.

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11-94 UNCLASSIFIED

11.8.3 Special Lighting Control Panel In addition to being familiar with the normal running light control panel, the Quartermaster must also be familiar with the operating of the special lighting control panel. A description of the lights on the special lighting control panel follows. Refer to figure 11-60.

Figure 11-59 Running light control panel Figure 11-60 Special light control panel

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11-95 UNCLASSIFIED NOTE: The panel position of the switches for the various lights may vary by ship type.

Name Description Energized When 1. Wake Light The wake light (white) for ships is installed on the fantail or afterpart of the ship to illuminate the wake. It is mounted so that no part of the ship is illuminated. The fixture is watertight and of tubular construction. The wake light, like the running lights, has a two filament bulb with a primary and secondary switch position on the control panel. Engaged in towing operations or whenever the wake needs to be illuminated. 2. Blinker The blinker lights are located on the yardarms and are used for sending flashing light. The blinker lights are used with signal keys, which are normally installed on the bridge and signal bridge. The blinker light switch must be in the ON position for the signal key to be activated. Used as an alternative method of sending flashing light at night. 3. Aircraft Warning The aircraft warning lights are 360° red lights. They are installed at the truck of each mast that extends more than 8 meters (26 feet) above the highest point of the superstructure. Two aircraft warning lights are installed if the one light cannot be seen throughout 360°. If two masts are tall enough to require these lights but are less than 15 meters apart, they will be installed only on the higher mast. From sunset to sunrise when your ship is at anchor or moored.

When operating aircraft at night. 4. Not Under Command/ Man Overboard The crank/switch controls a pair of red lights that have multiple uses. The lights are located 6 feet apart (vertically) and mounted on brackets that extend abaft the mast or structure and to port thereof. This mounting arrangement permits visibility, as far as practicable, throughout the 360° arc. Not Under Command— When the switch is in the ON position, it turns on the red lights, which indicate that your ship has had a breakdown.

Man Overboard--When the switch is continually turned ON and OFF by use of the crank, it causes the pair of red lights to blink ON and OFF (pulsate), indicating that your ship has a man overboard.

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11-96 UNCLASSIFIED 5. Task The proper light signal to let other ships know that your ship cannot easily maneuver is red- white-red. If you turn on the lights as you would to indicate that your ship is broken down and add a white light in the center, this will give you the proper lights. The required white light is mounted in the center of the Not Under Command/Man Overboard lights, and the controlling switch is mounted on the bulkhead in the vicinity near the special lighting control panel. Whenever the ship is in a situation where it cannot easily maneuver. For example, when a ship is alongside another ship taking on food, fuel, or ammo, it is involved in a task and cannot maneuver easily. Also used when a ship is constrained by its draft. 6. Blue Stern The blue stern light is a light similar to the white stern light the ship uses for normal running lights. Your ship is engaged in convoy or formation steaming during periods of darken ship. It is also used when engaged in some forms of plane guard duty during recovery/launch flight operations. 7. Anchor Aft The after-anchor light is a 360° white light mounted at the top of the flagstaff. From sunset to sunrise and during periods of reduced visibility when your ship is at anchor or moored. 8. Anchor Forward The forward anchor light is a 360° white light mounted at the top of the jackstaff. It is used at the same time as the after-anchor light. Same as above. Not Shown: ASW Light [Grimes light) The ASW light is a colored light, visible as nearly as practical, all around the horizon. Each ship is provided with two red, two green, and two amber lenses. The ASW light is installed on all ASW- capable ships. The color to be used is determined by the squadron commander. The ASW light is installed on either the yardarm or mast platform where it can be seen all around the horizon. Conducting ASW operations.

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11-97 UNCLASSIFIED 11.9 EXTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS There are several ways by which to communicate with other ships and shore commands while at sea. One of the oldest is communicating by flaghoist using signal flags. The newest methods incorporate the use of satellite uplinks to transfer data. The objective of the material presented in this section is to give you a basic knowledge of methods of communicating. You will be referred to reference material for instructions concerning each method.

The following table gives you a snapshot of different methods used to communicate while at sea.

Method Description VHF Radio (Electronic) The VHF radio commonly refer to as the bridge-to- bridge circuit is often used to exchange unclassified information between ships. All vessels over 100 meters in length are required to be equipped with VI-IF capability. Radiotelephone (R/T) (Electronic) When conducting operations, the RT circuits are probably the most frequently used method of communicating. Each ship involved is assigned a call sign. There are normally at least two secure frequencies assigned for any operation by the officer in tactical command (OTC). One frequency is used for encoded tactical signals, while the other is used for secure plain voice communications. Flaghoist Visual) Tactical and information signals are communicated using signal flags. The flags and pennants are divided into two flag bags. The allied bag contains 68 flags and pennants that are used to communicate with other naval ships. The international flag bag contains 40 flags and pennants that are used to communicate with merchant ships.

Flaghoists are always read from the top outboard side then down and inward. In other words, if three hoists are closed up (at the top of the halyard) start at the top outboard side and read down, then go to the top of the next inner hoist and again read down, and so on.

Make up and execution of flaghoist messages or signals are directed by the OOD. Flashing Light Searchlights equipped with special shutters and red lenses are used at night to send messages or signals. Standard Morse code is transmitted to the receiving ship. Semaphore Semaphore is much faster than flashing light when transmitting messages over a short distance. It is normally used while ships are alongside conducting UNREP.

Messages are sent using hand flags or light wands.

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11-98 UNCLASSIFIED 11.9.1 Responsibilities As you continue to advance as a QM, you will be required to gain experience in the use of the methods of external communication as listed. As a PO2 or PO3, you are required to be able to read signal flags and pennants. As step-by-step instructions are given in ACP 129, Communication Instructions, Visual Signaling Procedures, they will not be repeated here.

At the PO1 and higher paygrades, you are required to encode and decode tactical signals. Instructions to meet this requirement are found in ATP, Allied Tactical Publication l, Volumes I and II. OJT is really the only way to become proficient at encoding, decoding, and transmitting tactical signals. The navigator can normally set up training through the operations boss on this material.

11.9.2 Exchanging Navigational Data Occasions will arise when the exchange of navigational data with other ships is necessary. In general terms, a position, time of position, and course and speed are all that is required. Navigational data must never be exchanged on unsecured frequencies. Always notify the navigator when an exchange of navigational data is requested.

11.10 BRIDGE WATCH PERSONNEL The numbers and assignments of personnel on watch vary from ship to ship, depending on the ship’s size and availability of personnel.

The watch on the bridge, under way, normally consists of the following personnel:

Officer of the deck (OOD)

Junior officer of the deck (JOOD)

Quartermaster of the watch (QMOW)

Boatswain’s mate of the watch (BMOW)

Helmsman

Lee helmsman (who mans the engine order telegraph and RPM indicator)

Sound-powered telephone talker

Messenger

Lookouts

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11-99 UNCLASSIFIED In the following text, we will discuss the duties of the OOD, BMOW, and helmsmen. The Quartermaster, as an assistant to the OOD, must know the duties of all bridge personnel.

11.10.1 Officer of the Deck The officer of the deck under way is designated in writing by the commanding officer and is primarily responsible, under the commanding officer, for the safe and proper operation of the ship.

The following is a list of the OOD’s primary duties as prescribed by the Standard Organization and Regulations of the US. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32 Series. The officer of the deck under way will:

1. Keep continually informed concerning the tactical situation and geographic factors that may affect the safe navigation of the ship, and take appropriate action to avoid the danger of grounding or collision according to tactical doctrine, the Rules of the Road, and the orders of the commanding officer or other proper authority.

2. Keep informed concerning current operation plans and orders, intentions of the OTC and the commanding officer, and such other matters as may pertain to ship or force operations.

3. Issue necessary orders to the helm and main engine control to avoid danger, to take or keep an assigned station, or to change the course and speed of the ship according to orders of proper authority.

4. Make all required reports to the commanding officer. When a command duty officer is specified for the watch, he or she will make the same reports to the command duty officer.

5. Ensure that required reports to the OOD concerning tests and inspections and the routine reports of patrols, watches, and lifeboat crews are promptly originated and that the bridge watch and lookouts are properly posted and alert.

6. Supervise and direct the personnel on watch on the bridge, ensure that all required entries are properly made in the Ship’s Deck Log, and sign the log at the conclusion of the watch.

7. Issue orders for rendering honors to passing ships as required by regulations and custom.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-100 UNCLASSIFIED 8. Ensure that the executive officer, command duty officer (when assigned), and department heads concerned are kept informed of changes in the tactical situation, operation schedule, the approach of heavy weather, and other circumstances that would require a change in the ship’s routine or other action on their part.

9. Keep informed of the status and current capabilities of the engineering plant and keep the engineering officer of the watch advised concerning boiler power requirements and the operational situation so that he or she may operate the engineering plant intelligently.

10. Carry out the routine of the ship as published in the plan of the day and other ship’s directives, keeping the executive officer advised of any changes that may be necessary.

11. Supervise and control the use of the general announcing system; the general, chemical, collision, sonar, and steering casualty alarms; and the whistle according to the orders of the commanding officer, tactical doctrine, and the Rules of the Road.

12. Permit no person to go aloft on the masts or stacks or to work over the side except when wind and sea conditions will not expose him or her to danger; and then only when all applicable safety precautions are observed.

13. Supervise and control all transmissions and acknowledgments on the primary and secondary tactical voice radio circuits, and ensure that proper phraseology and procedures are used in all transmissions.

14. Supervise and conduct on-the-job training for the JOOW, the JOOD, and enlisted personnel of the bridge watch.

15. Assume such other responsibilities as may be assigned by the commanding officer.

16. Supervise the striking of the ship’s bell to denote the hours and half-hours from reveille to taps, requesting permission of the commanding officer to strike eight bells at the hours of 0800, 1200, and 2000.

17. On ships that do not station a damage control watch officer, supervise the maintenance of a log of all fittings that are in violation of the material condition of readiness prescribed. Entries will show the name and rate of the person requesting permission to open a fitting, approximate length of time to be open, and time closed. Anyone who, without permission, violates the material condition of readiness in effect shall be made the subject of an official report.

As you can see from the list of duties, the OOD can be a very busy person. This is especially true when your ship is operating in company with other ships or close to a shipping lane. For this reason, you, as the Quartermaster of the watch, can be of great assistance to him or her. The QMOW is the direct assistant to the OOD.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-101 UNCLASSIFIED 11.10.2 Junior Officer of the Deck/Conning Officer On many ships, the JOOD and conning officer watch stations are manned by one person. In this capacity the JOOD maintains a constant watch on all radar contacts along with CIC personnel. He or she receives reports on contacts from lookouts and gives orders to the helmsman and lee helmsman. The JOOD also encodes, decodes, transmits, and receives tactical signals and acts as an assistant to the OOD.

11.10.3 Boatswains Mate of the Watch (BMOW) The BMOW is in charge of the underway watch section. The status of the BMOW in this respect is the same whether the ship is in condition of readiness I, II, or III, or the regular sea watch or in-port watch has been set.

The normal peacetime underway watch for which the BMOW is responsible consists of the helmsman, lee helmsman, messenger, lookouts, lifebuoy watch, and lifeboat crew of the watch. Besides being an enlisted assistant and executive arm of the OOD, the BMOW is the watch PO. It is the responsibility of the BMOW to make sure that all deck watch stations are manned and that all personnel in the previous watch are relieved. The BMOW makes a report to the OOD when the deck watch has been relieved.

The ship’s organization and regulations manual shows the sea watch stations that must be manned and the divisions required to man them. From this, the BMOW knows which division section leader must be contacted if any person fails to report at his or her watch station.

Helmsman: The helmsman is responsible for keeping the ship on course as directed by the conning officer.

Lee Helmsman: The lee helmsman is responsible for operating the engine order telegraph (EOT) and relaying information between the bridge and main control.

Lookouts: There are normally three lookouts assigned to each watch section. One stationed on the port bridgewing, one on the starboard bridgewing, and one aft on the fantail. Each lookout is responsible for reporting any contacts or objects in the water to the OOD immediately. The aft lookout also watches the wake for personnel who may have fallen overboard.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-102 UNCLASSIFIED 11.11 RELIEVING THE QMOW Always arrive on station ahead of the scheduled time for relieving the watch. There is nothing more unprofessional and aggravating than a late relief. More importantly, you must obtain much information about the general situation before you can assume the watch. The general pattern of relief is as follows:

One-half hour before the hour, the relief arrives on station. The relief will make inspection, read logs and turnover sheets, and obtain other information from watch standers. Fifteen minutes before the hour, watch standers are relieved.

When you relieve the watch, make sure you obtain all information the person you relieve may have for you. Such information includes verbal orders to the wheel that still are standing, steering peculiarities because of unusual weather situations, or anticipated aids to navigation.

When you arrive on the bridge, you must assess the general situation. You should have a good knowledge of what is happening aboard your ship. How much information you need depends to some degree on the situation your ship is in at the time. If you are in company with other ships, you will need much more information than you would if you were steaming independently. Never relieve the watch until you have been briefed on the ship’s position and turning or rendezvous points. Additionally, you should sight all navigational aids (visual, radar, or other electronic means) that are being used to fix the ship’s position.

Look over the Ship’s Deck Log entries of the previous watch and see if there is anything pertaining to your watch. Report officially to the OOD that you have relieved the watch. As previously mentioned, you serve as the assistant to the OOD. In this capacity, you are very close to events occurring on the bridge and at other stations. Your nearness makes it possible for you to observe the watch personnel and the jobs they are performing. Frequently, the OOD is involved in a problem with maneuvering or navigation and may fail to notice the omission of small details in the ship’s daily routine. The plan of the day or pages from the ship’s organization book listing the routine of the day are available in the pilothouse. It is an important part of your job as QMOW to remind people concerned when the time approaches for performing each detail.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-103 UNCLASSIFIED 11.12 COMMANDING OFFICERS NIGHT ORDER BOOK The navigator is also responsible for the preparation of the CO’s night order book. Night orders are the captain’s orders of how he or she wants the ship run when he or she is not on the bridge. The book is normally divided into two separate parts: standing orders and night orders.

Standing orders are the commanding officer’s statement concerning his or her policies and directions under all circumstances. Night orders, written on a daily basis, are a summary of tactical, navigational, and readiness information for bridge watch standers. Additional information and guidance are added by the captain and the navigator.

Prior to writing the night orders, the navigator reviews the ship’s operational orders and the nightly schedule of events for anticipated evolutions or activities. Should any conflicts exist between the schedule of events and the standing orders, the navigator informs the commanding officer.

The navigator then writes the night orders for the commanding officer, providing ship’s information and operational data, including anticipated evolutions and a schedule of events, if needed. The commanding officer then adds his or her remarks and the night order book is placed on the bridge.

Among the watch standers required to read and initial are the OOD, JOOD, BMOW, and QMOW. This initialing ensures that the orders have been read and understood.

11.13 THE SHIP’S DECK LOG As QMOW, one of your duties is to act as an observer and recorder. There are many logs and records that you must maintain. Probably the most important log will be the Ship’s Deck Log. The basic requirements for maintaining the Ship’s Deck Log are contained in U.S. Navy Regulations, 1973, and OPNAVINST 3120.32 series. We will discuss the general policy and regulations, the form preparation, the assembly and disposition procedures, the abbreviations, and the required entries in the Ship’s Deck Log.

11.13.1 General Policy and Regulations All U.S. Navy ships in commission and other craft, as required, must maintain a Ship’s Deck Log. The deck log is the official daily record of a ship by watches. Entries should describe every circumstance and occurrence of importance or interest that concerns the crew and the operation and safety of the ship. Entries should also include information that may be of historical value.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-104 UNCLASSIFIED The deck log must be a chronological record of events occurring during the watch that will meet the needs of the commanding officer.

Additionally, the deck log will provide a document of historical, value.

Accuracy in describing events recorded in a Ship’s Deck Log is a must. Deck log entries often make important legal evidence that may be used in judicial and administrative fact finding proceedings arising from incidents involving the ship or its personnel.

Under certain circumstances, such as limited local operations of service craft, the maintenance of a deck log is not required. However, other adequate records of events must be maintained by the command. If doubt exists as to whether a deck log is required, the facts must be submitted to the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) for a determination.

The Ship’s Deck Log must be “unclassified” except when another classification is required by security regulations such as wartime operations, special operations, and so forth. Basically, information in the Ship’s Deck Log is FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.

11.13.2 Form Preparation All ships must prepare an original and one copy of the deck log. The original log must be submitted monthly to the CNO for permanent retention. The copy must be retained on board for a period of 12 months, after which time it may be destroyed.

Sample entries should be used as guides for recording the remarks of a watch. Entries, such as reveille, meals for the crew, payday, and so forth, which would not serve any useful purpose or add to the historical value of the log, are not required.

All entries in the Ship’s Deck Log must be made with a ballpoint pen, using black ink. The Quartermaster of the watch, or other designated watch personnel, must write the log of the watch legibly. Each event must be recorded at the time it happens or as directed by the OOD, who will supervise the keeping of the log.

Most ships normally adhere to a 4-hour watch schedule (00-04, 04-08, 08-12, and so on.), but note as follows: uniform time segments for the scheduling of watches are prescribed for the deck log. The remarks in the deck log must be recorded daily by watches that consistently adhere to the individual ship’s schedule. The circumstances under which a ship is not required to make entries daily by watches can be found in OPNAVINST 3100.7.

The top of each form must be filled in as follows:

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-105 UNCLASSIFIED 1. In spaces 3 and 4 (fig. 11-61), enter the first two letters of the ship type, and enter remaining letters, if any, in the next two shaded unnumbered spaces. In spaces 5 through 7, enter the ship’s hull number. Use leading zero, as required. If the hull number consists of four digits, enter the first digit in the shaded unnumbered space.

Figure 11-61 Sample of the Ship’s Deck Log

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-106 UNCLASSIFIED 2. In box 12, enter the last digit of the month; for example, 02 for February. In box 15, enter the letter designation for the time zone used to record time entries. In boxes 16 and 17, enter two digits for the day of the month.

3. In the space provided, enter the ship’s position, latitude, and longitude at the hours of 0800, 1200, and 2000. This entry should be made each day during underway periods. Indicate the type of fix by entering that number from the legend to the right.

Make entries in the columns of the log as follows:

1. TIME: Enter the exact time of occurrence of event(s) being recorded.

2. ORDER: Enter the standard abbreviation (maximum of seven characters) for orders requiring course, speed, or depth changes.

Standard abbreviations will be discussed later in this chapter. Orders consisting of more than seven characters are to be recorded in the EVENTS OF THE DAY column.

3. COURSE, SPEED, DEPTH: Enter the changes resulting from an ORDER. Example: after a rudder order and the ship is steady, the resulting course should be entered.

4. RECORD ALL EVENTS OF THE DAY: All entries in the Ship’s Deck Log must be printed clearly and legibly. The remarks for each event must commence on the line entry of the time of the occurrence. When necessary, the remarks will be continued on succeeding lines. Ships, other than submarines, must start recording the events of the day in the DEPTH column.

Rewriting of the deck log sheets should not be required. When necessary, corrections to log entries must be accomplished according to the following procedures:

1. When a correction is deemed necessary, a single straight line must be drawn through the original entry so that the entry remains legible. The correct entry must then be inserted in such a manner as to ensure clarity and legibility. Corrections, additions, or changes must be made only by the individual required to sign the record for the watch and must be initialed by that individual in the left margin of the page.

2. When the commanding officer directs a change or addition to a log entry, the individual responsible for the watch must comply. If the individual responsible for that watch believes the change or addition to be incorrect, the commanding officer must enter the change or addition on the log over his or her own signature.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-107 UNCLASSIFIED Only the OOD must sign the log following the last entry made during a watch. The name of the OOD must also be stamped or printed beneath the signature. Facsimile signatures are not acceptable.

11.13.3 Deck Log Disposition A Ship’s Deck Log Title Page must be completed and attached to each original and duplicate monthly log. The front and reverse sides of each original log sheet may be used for either continuation of entries for a day or for commencing entries for a new day. Ships that are directed to prepare a duplicate copy for antisubmarine warfare (ASW) data must start a new page when the day or time changes.

When a ship is directed to provide a duplicate copy of the log for specific ASW missions, two duplicate Ship’s Deck Log sheets must be prepared in the following order:

1. The FIRST duplicate copy must be provided for ASW systems evaluation use.

2. The SECOND duplicate copy must be retained on board ship.

The navigator must examine the Ship’s Deck Log daily and take such corrective action as may be necessary and within his or her authority to ensure it is properly kept. When each month’s log is complete, the navigator must certify the correctness of its contents. This certification should be made in the space provided on the Ship’s Deck Log Title Page. Daily signature of the navigator is not required.

The commanding officer must approve the log at the end of each month, when relieved of command, or when the ship is decommissioned. The commanding officer must signify approval by signing the Ship’s Deck Log Title Page in the space provided. Both the original and duplicate logs must be signed. When a change of command occurs during the month, the log title page for that month must bear the signatures of each commanding officer. Additionally, the date of the change of command should be entered. The log must not be terminated for submission upon a change of command and must be submitted in its entirety at the end of the month.

Each month’s log must be assembled beginning with the title page, followed by the deck log sheets. The deck log sheets should be unnumbered and in chronological order. The log pages for the month must be secured by round head paper fasteners or ribbon. Staples or other types of permanent binding must not be used.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-108 UNCLASSIFIED 11.13.4 Assembly and Disposition On the first day of each month or within 10 days thereafter, the original deck log for the previous month must be forwarded directly to the CNO. If required, the original deck log must be forwarded to the CNO by way of the administrative commander. Unclassified logs must be forwarded to the CNO by First Class Mail. Classified logs must be forwarded in the manner prescribed in OPNAVINST 5510.1 Series.

Ships on extended patrols or conducting special operations and unable to submit logs as required must do so within 10 days after reaching port.

The duplicate deck log provides a temporary record for shipboard use and for the reconstruction of events. It must be retained on board for a period of at least 12 months, after which time it may be destroyed.

When duplicate deck log sheets are required for ASW data use, instructions for those sheets should be provided by the directing commander.

When the original log or any portion of the log is withheld for any legal proceedings, the CNO must be notified. Specific guidelines for using the deck log in any legal matter can be found in the Manual of the Judge Advocate General, JAGINST 5800.7 Series.

11.13.5 Standard Abbreviations There are several abbreviations that are allowed in the ship’s deck log. Entries such as A/A/Full for all engines ahead full or R/AMID for rudder amidships are completely acceptable. The deck log instruction contains a complete list of frequently used abbreviations.

11.13.6 Required Log Entries As previously stated, events that serve no useful or historical purpose should not be logged. This statement is not meant to minimize deck log entries to the extent that an important event might be omitted. If there is any doubt as to whether or not an event should be logged, the best rule to follow is log it. You can always get guidance on the event in question at a later time. It is easier to delete an event than to add an event. The following is a partial list of required deck log entries. The complete listing of 31 required entries is contained in the deck log instruction and should be consulted when necessary.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-109 UNCLASSIFIED 1. Every injury, accident, or casualty, however slight, among the officers, crew, passengers, visitors, longshoremen, harbor workers, or repairmen on board must be recorded. The large number of claims for pension or other compensation submitted by persons alleging injury makes this information of great importance to the government. This information serves both to protect the government from false claims and to furnish a record for bona fide claims. Care must be taken to record the full particulars in each instance.

2. All peculiar or extraordinary appearances of the sea, atmosphere, or heavens, preceding or following sudden changes of wind, heavy squalls of wind, or of heavy gales.

3. All unusual appearances of the sea, tide rips, discolored water, extraordinary luminescence of the sea, strange birds or fish, icebergs, driftwood, seaweed, and so forth.

4. All unusual meteorological phenomena, extraordinary refractions, waterspouts, meteors, shooting stars, auroras, halos, fata morganas, iceblinks, corposantos, and all Earth satellites.

5. The behavior of the vessel under different circumstances of weather and sea, such as pitching, rolling, weathering qualities, and so forth.

6. The sighting of vessels, land lighthouses, lightships, and all dangers to navigation, with time, bearings, and distances.

7. The bearing and distance of the object taken for a departure.

8. Any sounding, the record of which is important with the character of the bottom.

11.14 GENERAL DUTIES OF THE QMOW You will spend many hours standing watch as QMOW on the bridge. Your duties are diverse and at times difficult; this is especially true when you are operating with other ships. In this section of the chapter we will begin to put together topics covered in other areas of the book. The overall goal is to show practical application of what you have learned and introduce you to a few new topics.

The general duties of the QMOW are:

• Maintaining the DR plot and updating the ship’s position. • Recording entries in the Ship’s Deck Log. • Observing and reporting the weather. • Assisting the OOD.

Let’s take a look at what is required of the QMOW.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-110 UNCLASSIFIED 11.14.1 Fixing the Ship’s Position The ship’s position must be determined and plotted at regular intervals. Normally, the navigator determines the fix interval. The interval between fixes depends on the area in which the ship is operating. As the situation changes the navigator may change the fix interval.

For example, if the ship is scheduled to make an rendezvous with another ship in 4 hours, the fix interval may be changed from every hour to every l/2 hour. The following table gives generally accepted fix intervals for routine situations.

Situation Obtain a fix every Open Ocean Navigating, no land within 50 nm. hour Open Ocean Navigating, land is within 50 nm, but not closer that 25 nm. l/2 hour Coastal Navigating, land is within 25 nm, but not closer that 10 nm. 15 minutes Coastal Navigating, land is within 10 nm, but not closer that 5 nm. 10 minutes Restricted Water, piloting. 3 minutes

11.14.2 Using All Available Means to Determine Position It is important to use all methods available to fix the ship’s position. The navigator is required by instruction to fix the ship’s position by all available means. You as the QMOW must make every effort to accomplish this. In actual situations, you will often use a combination of methods to determine the ship’s position. If transiting along a coastline and visual or radar fixes are available, use them! In the following list you’ll find methods of fixing the ship’s position listed by accuracy, from the most accurate to the least accurate:

• A visual fix on three objects 120° apart • A visual fix on two objects 90° apart • An electronic fix by GPS in the encrypted mode • A visual bearing and radar range on one object • A radar fix using three range arcs on objects 120° apart • A radar fix using two range arcs on objects 90° apart • An electronic fix by the AN/SRN 12 SATNAV • An electronic fix by LORAN

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-111 UNCLASSIFIED 11.14.3 Approaching Land When approaching land from the open ocean, the QMOW must start checking to see if radar fixes can be obtained. At about 25 nm, the shoreline will start to become distinct. If sharp points of the shoreline are available, radar fixes should be obtained. Radar fixes are used in addition to whatever means are currently in place. In other words, if fixes were being determined by GPS, you would continue to plot GPS and also plot radar. As the ship progresses toward land, visual fixes would be added. This process continues until the ship enters restricted waters and the navigation detail takes over the watch.

During all of this activity, you must continue to maintain the DR plot. As you learned in chapter 8, the DR plot must never be neglected while you perform other tasks. In obtaining a fix, you are actually updating the DR plot. You’ll find that as a ship draws closer to land, changing course often becomes necessary due to shipping traffic. This makes keeping your DR plot up to date even tougher. On the open ocean, the QMOW’s ability is not taxed often; however, the watch becomes very busy when approaching land. Always make an effort to be prepared. Make sure that you have the next chart available and that your books and logs are up to date. If at any time, you are unsure of the ship’s position, do not hesitate to contact your LPO or assistant navigator for guidance.

11.14.4 Maintaining Logs As you now know, maintaining the Ship’s Deck Log is a big part of the QMOW’s duties. You must also maintain the following records:

• Magnetic Compass Record Book • Standard Bearing Book • Weather observation sheets • Passdown log

The Magnetic Compass Record Book must be filled in each time the ship changes course and on the hour and every l/2 hour. For example, if a ship changed course at 1947 an entry would be made. The next entry would be 2000 and 2030, and so on until the next course change. Gyrocompass error is entered in the remarks column each time it is computed.

The Standard Bearing Book is used to record bearing, range, and location of ATONs or radar points used to fix the ship’s position, during piloting. Remember to enter the latitude and longitude of every ATON or radar point used to fix the ship’s position beginning on the inside of the back cover or as directed by the navigator.

Weather observation must be made each hour whenever a ship is under way. You should begin your observations about 15 minutes before the hour. This allows you to completely record the observation data on the weather observation sheets prior to obtaining the hourly fix of the ship’s position.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-112 UNCLASSIFIED The passdown log is used to pass pertinent information down from watch to watch. Make sure to record any information passed down to you that concerns any aspect of the watch.

11.14.5 Plotting to Support Weapons During some operations, you may be required to maintain a plot in support of live firing exercises. Maps that use a grid system of coordinates are used to maintain the plot. This type of plotting requires specialized training involving both OSs and QMs and is scheduled by the Operations Department. The OSs maintain the manuals and instructions that give complete information on his topic.

11.14.6 Making Reports to the OOD After each fix, you are required to make reports of the ship’s position to the OOD. When reporting, it is normal to report whether the ship is on track, the distance left or right of track, course and speed the ship is making good, any set and drift encountered, recommended course and speed changes, and estimated time of arrival at the next departure point (A, B, C, and so on) or rendezvous.

As you can see, there is quite a bit of information to report. To gather the required information, you will have to evaluate two or more fixes. This is a simple task that only takes a few minutes with a little practice. Let’s break the evaluation down into sections, beginning with where the ship is in relation to track.

As you know, a ship steers a course to follow the track to its destination. The bow is actually always falling off left or right of course and then the helmsman uses the rudders to correct. This is due mainly to wind and current. Rarely does a fix fall exactly on the ship’s track. To determine how far off track the ship has gotten, simply use the dividers to measure the distance left or right, 90° to the track, and jot down the results.

To find the course and speed made good since the last fix, use the parallel rulers and compass rose or PMP aligned on the last two fixes to find the course made good (CMG). Measure the distance between the last two fixes to find the speed made good (SMG). Remember from earlier chapters to use the time, speed, and distance triangle. Distance divided by time equals speed. Jot down your results. We now have two elements of our report. The next element to find is set and drift.

Set and Drift: What exactly is set and drift? Well, the term set means the direction in which the ship is being pushed off course. Drift is the speed or velocity that the ship is being pushed off course.

You will need recommended courses and speed changes to offset the effects of set and drift. In some cases, it may be necessary steer several degrees left or right of the desired course to make that course good. Once again, keep in mind that set and drift are directly related to the amount of wind and current. Let’s work an example problem to find the value of set and drift.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-113 UNCLASSIFIED Example: The ordered course and speed is 080° at 10 knots. You have just plotted the 1000 fix, which shows the ship right of track. What is the set and drift? Refer to the following table and figure 11-62 to find set and drift.

Step Action 1. Find the CMG and SMG between the 0900 (A) and 1000 (C) fixes. You can see the CMG = 089 and SMG = 11.2 kn. 2. Using a parallel ruler or PMP, find the direction between the 1000 DR (B) and the 1000 fix (C). As you can see, this equals 140°, the ship is being set in the direction of 140° 3. Using dividers, measure the distance between the 1000 DR (B) and the 1000 fix (C). The distance is equal to 2.0 nmi. 4. To find drift, divide the distance by the time between the two fixes. For our example the time between the two fixes is 1 hour. Drift equal 2.0/1.0 or 2.0 kn.

Note: You may measure set and drift over many hours, if necessary. For example, if distance = 8.4 nmi, time = 7.5 hours what is the drift? 8.4 + 7.5 = 1.12; drift equals 1.12 knots

Allowing for Set and Drift: Once you have determined set and drift, you can allow for it to make your desired course and speed.

Example: Let’s assume that you need to make course 265° and speed 15 knots good to arrive at the desired location on time. Set and drift are determined to be 185° at 3 knots. Use the following table and figure 11-63 for this example.

Figure 11-62 Finding set and drift

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-114 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 1. From your latest fix (A), lay out course and speed to make good (B). 2. From A, lay out a line in the set direction of 185° and the amount of drift of 3 knots (3 nmi), which gives you point C. 3. Determine the course to steer by finding the direction between C and B. This is equal to 276° in our example. 4. Determine speed necessary to make 15 knots good by dividing the distance between C and B by the time of the run.

11.14.7 Making Recommendations You now have the knowledge to make recommendations to the OOD. Remember, after each fix you should make a report and any recommended course and speed changes required. Also, when maintaining the DR plot, always check to see that new courses ordered by the conning are clear of obstructions. The OOD will often have to maneuver the ship to avoid other ships.

11.14.8 Ship’s Position Reports As prescribed by Naval Regulations, the navigator must report the ship’s position to the commanding officer. These reports, called Ship’s Position Reports, are prepared and submitted three times a day; 0800, 1200, and 2000. The report provides the commanding officer with the ship’s current position, how it was determined, distance traveled since the last report, distance to the destination, and compass information.

The completed report is submitted to commanding officer about 5 to 10 minutes prior to the appointed hour. As the QMOW, you may be tasked with providing some of the information for the report. Normally you would begin the report about one-half hour prior to the appointed hour and fill in position and compass information only.

Figure 11-63 Allowing for estimated current

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-115 UNCLASSIFIED 11.14.9 Observing Sunrise and Sunset Another duty of the QMOW under way is to observe sunrise and sunset. The times of sunrise and sunset are normally determined for the entire transit prior to departing port. To observe sunrise, turn off running lights, report to the OOD, and make deck log entry when the Sun appears on the horizon. To observe sunset, energize and check for proper operation of all running lights, report to the OOD, and make deck log entry when the Sun disappears from the horizon.

11.14.10 Rendering Honors As QMOW, you may be required to render honors to passing honors to U.S. Navy, Coast Guard, or foreign Navy ships. This applies to small boats carrying official parties also. The following table lists the procedure to be used to render honors. Complete information on honors and ceremonies can found in chapter 12 of Naval Regulations and BM TRAMANs.

Close aboard equals 600 yards for ships and 400 yards for boats.

Step Action 1. When close aboard with the bow of each ship about to pass, the junior vessel sounds the command ATTENTION TO PORT OR STARBOARD. 2. When abreast, the junior vessel sounds the command HAND SALUTE. 3. When the senior acknowledges the rendered honors, the junior vessel sounds the command CARRY ON.

11.14.11 Reporting Contacts While under way, it’s the lookout’s job to report visual contacts (other ships). Again, remembering that the QMOW is an assistant to the OOD, report any contacts that you observe.

Report a new contact to the OOD by relaying the following information about the vessel:

• Relative bearing • Range in yards • Type of vessel and class if possible (merchant, naval, DDG, and so on)

11.14.12 Making Recommendations Based on Rules of the Road The OOD is thoroughly versed in the Rules of the Road; however, you may make recommendations concerning navigational light displays and prescribed sound signals required by the rules.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-116 UNCLASSIFIED 11.14.13 Special Evolutions The bridge must be set up for all special evolutions. These include evolutions such as, general quarters, UNREP, entering restricted waters, and running a measured mile. As each ship is different, only general discussion will be provided.

In general, the QMOW with the assistance of the QM gang will set about getting the bridge ready for scheduled evolutions. Items like sound-powered phones, phone and distance lines, and light wands must be put in place and tested prior to the beginning of any evolution.

When preparing to run a measured mile, the navigation detail should be set.

11.14.14 Duties While at Anchor The rules for relieving the watch at anchor are the same as when under way except that night orders aren’t signed. The OOD may be stationed on the bridge or at the quarterdeck. An anchor watch stationed on the forecastle reports how the anchor is tending and the amount of strain on the anchor chain.

Fixes are taken from available objects. A combination of visual and radar fixes are used when suitable lighted aids are unavailable. Fixes are normally taken on the hour and l/2 hour. However, once again the navigator is responsible for determining the frequency of fixes. On many ships, fixes are taken every 15 minutes when winds of more than 30 knots are present. The anchor watch report is obtained at the time of each fix and reported to the OOD. You are also required to maintain a close watch of any shipping traffic in the area. If any ship anchors within 2,000 yards of your own ship, make a report to the OOD.

If, at any time, the ship plots outside of the drag circle or you suspect the anchor of dragging, immediately inform the OOD. You must begin fixing the ship’s position continuously until directed to resume normal fixes by the CDO or navigator.

Radio Communications: You may be required to monitor R/T and VHF circuits. You should receive specific directions on which circuits you must guard. Always take appropriate action as required on any messages received over the circuits, and properly maintain the required logs.

11.14.15 QMOW in Port While in port, your major responsibility is to hold morning and evening colors and turn on and off inport lights. To start the day, you observe sunrise and secure inport lights. At 0745, arrive on the bridge to execute morning colors. At precisely 0755, SOPA will hoist PREP at the Dip, you will announce over the 1 MC “FIRST CALL, FIRST CALL TO COLORS.” At 0800 SOPA will close up PREP and sound one whistle blast over the one MC, you will do the same. After the National Anthem is finished playing, SOPA will haul down PREP and sound three whistles and once again you’ll do the same. Immediately after evening colors is executed, turn on inport lights. The duty SM is responsible for posting PREP on your ship.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11-117 UNCLASSIFIED You may be tasked from time to time with gathering weather or navigational data for the CDO.

11.15 SUMMARY In this lesson you learned about bridge watch standing procedures, duties, tools, and equipment utilized in the Pilot House.

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12-1 UNCLASSIFIED 12 VOYAGE PLANNING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Plan and construct great-circle tracks. 2. Plan and construct coastal tracks. 3. Plan and construct restricted water tracks. 4. Plan and construct precision anchorages. 5. Plan for deployments. 6. Plan and construct navigation briefs. 7. Prepare to enter or depart port.

12.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will discuss one of the most important aspects of navigation; voyage planning. Every successful voyage starts with a well thought out plan. We will cover all details of developing a plan that will enable you to have a successful voyage.

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12-2 UNCLASSIFIED 12.2 PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTING GREAT-CIRCLE TRACKS The navigator (NAV) and assistant navigator (ANAV) must lay out the ship’s complete intended track on the proper chart format. This task is undertaken after the planning stage is complete but several days or weeks before getting under way, depending on the length of cruise.

If your track will be less than 300 nautical miles, a small-scale Mercator chart will be adequate. However, for those tracks exceeding 300 nautical miles, you will probably use the gnomonic or great-circle chart. There may be some cruises longer than 300 nautical miles where a Mercator or other type of chart is more appropriate than the great-circle chart.

You will recall from chapter 1 the shortest distance between two points is a straight line. A straight line is perfect for navigational track planning using a great-circle chart (gnomonic projection).

The Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) publishes a number of charts, at various scales, using the gnomonic projection and covering the usually navigated portions of Earth. These are listed in the DMA Catalog of Maps, Charts, and Related Products, part 2, volume X. The point of tangency is chosen for each chart to give the least distortion for the area to be covered. On this type of chart, a great circle appears as a straight line. Because of this property, the chart is useful in great-circle sailing.

The following table shows the different stages of constructing a great-circle track:

Stage Description 1. Select a great-circle chart that has a point of tangency nearest your ship’s predicted track. 2. Draw the track and check for dangers (consult sailing directions). 3. Transfer to open ocean Mercator charts (plotting sheets). 4. Label all departure points. 5. Determine SOA and lay out PIM.

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12-3 UNCLASSIFIED 12.2.1 Track Construction Use the following step action table to construct a great-circle track:

Step Action 1. Plot the departure and arrival points on the gnomonic chart projection. 2. Draw a line between the two points (see fig. 12-1). 3. Inspect the track to make sure that is does not cross any dangers. Redraw if necessary.

Note: If the track must be redrawn, always do so on the gnomonic chart. This will have less impact on overall mileage than navigating around dangers on a Mercator chart. 4. Select convenient points to use to transfer the track to small scale Mercator charts. Normally these points should be about 300 nmi apart; refer again to figure 12-1. 5. Label the points beginning with the letter A. 6 Extract and record the latitude and longitude of each point. This information can be used later for the movement report (MOVREP). 7. Transfer the points to small scale Mercator charts (fig. 12-2) to show the entire transit.

Transfer the points to larger scale Mercator charts that cover about one leg of the transit each.

Example: Transfer points A and B on the first Mercator chart selected; transfer points B and C on the second Mercator chart selected; and so on. 8. Label the track with course and distance for that leg. 9. Go to steps 7 and 8 until all legs of the track have been transferred and labeled.

Now the last stage is to lay out PIM. Move on to page 5.

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12-4 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 12-1 Great-circle route; Norfolk to Gibraltar Figure 12-2 Rhumb line approximation to the great-circle track

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12-5 UNCLASSIFIED 12.2.2 PIM At this point in track construction, we have done everything except determine PIM. Use the following step action table to determine PIM and label the track. As an example, we will assume that the ship departs at 10SEP1200Z and arrives at the straits of Gibraltar on 19SEP0700Z.

Step Action 1. Find the total hours available for the transit. 19 0700 = 18 3100 10 1200 10 1200 8 1900 = 8 days x 24h + 19h or 211 hours 2. Add together all rhumb line distances between points A through H. For our example, we’ll assume this to be 2247.5 nmi. 3. Determine the overall SOA. 2247.5 nmi ÷ 211 hours=l0.65kn. Always round up to the nearest l/10 of a knot. SOA = 10.7 4. Begin with the departure point and lay out PIM times and date in GMT for every 4 hours of transit time. Also label the time of departure from each individual point. At this point we have completed our track construction. As an aid to tracking the ship’s progress it is highly recommended that the track also be transferred to a small scale chart, as shown in figure 12-3.

Figure 12-3 Segment of overall track

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12-6 UNCLASSIFIED 12.2.3 Considerations There is a great difference between planning coastal tracks and great-circle tracks. Coastal tracks often require more attention to dangers and shoals. Normally coastal navigation may be defined as any ship operating within 50 nmi of a coastline. Often there are many shoals or dangers which must be avoided. Let’s look at a real world example.

Ships departing Norfolk for southern OPAREAs often depart the traffic separation scheme of Chesapeake Bay and steer on a SE heading. Careful attention must be paid to this route due to shallow water and submerged obstructions up to about 25 nmi from the coast in many places. Also, hazards to navigation when turning south around Cape Hatteras are too numerous to mention.

The point of this discussion is to make clear the dangers of coastal navigation. The following rules apply to coastal track construction.

Rules: • Always review all applicable coast pilots and sailing directions before laying down tracks • Check the proposed track thoroughly for dangers. Never allow the track to pass within 5 nmi of any danger. • Highlight all coastal aids to navigation • Highlight any shoals, towers, OADS buoys, or other obstructions.

Use the best scale of chart available for any area the ship transits.

Step Action 1. Choose points from a small scale Mercator chart that covers the entire area the ship will transit. Draw lines for tracks and label. 2. Transfer track to the best scale coastal charts available. 3. Check each leg of the transit for dangers. 4. Determine SOA and label each chart with PIM. 5. Apply all rules making sure to highlight shoal water, dangers, and NAVAIDs.

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12-7 UNCLASSIFIED 12.3 PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTING RESTRICTED WATER TRACKS The most critical track the QM will construct is the restricted water track. This is because the ship is at its most vulnerable time when transiting dangerous channels. You must plan for all contingencies. It seems that Murphy’s Law applies most often when a ship is in a channel.

Chart selection: Professional and thorough chart selection and preparation is the foundation on which safe piloting through restricted water tracks is based.

Effective chart selection requires a combination of skill and judgment. Here are some questions to consider when selecting charts for restricted water tracks.

Has the best scale chart been selected for the given area?

Have conspicuous NAVAIDs been lost due to choosing the largest scale chart available?

Are the latest editions of selected charts available?

Research: During the research phase, all reference material on the port should be consulted and notes made. Often port directories and fleet guides will provide invaluable data concerning entering or departing a given port. Often information concerning best approaches, traffic separation schemes, tidal currents, berths available, channel depths, and so on are listed.

Taking detailed notes on this information will speed the process of constructing the restricted water tracks. Once you have gathered information about the port and selected the charts to use, you can start the actual laying down of tracks.

Before you can lay down the actual tracks, you’ll have to learn about red and yellow soundings, turn bearings, highlighting dangers, and danger bearings and angles.

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12-8 UNCLASSIFIED 12.3.1 Red and Yellow Soundings Red soundings are defined as the minimum depth beneath the keel that the CO deems acceptable. For example, the CO may desire that the ship’s draft + 3 feet equal the value for red soundings. For a ship with a draft of 30’, the red sounding would equal 33’. This means that at no time may the ship enter water with a depth of less than 33’.

Yellow soundings are defined as the depth beneath the keel that indicates potential danger. This depth is also determined by the CO. It may be the ship’s draft + 6 feet.

Red and yellow soundings are marked on the chart using a fine felt tip marker of the correct color (red or yellow). After studying the charted depths, freehand draw the red and yellow soundings limits. The result will yield a red or yellow line similar to a fathom curve.

12.3.2 Highlighting NAVAIDS All prominent NAVAIDS must be highlighted in yellow. This includes any radar navigation points that are selected for use. Radar points should be labeled beginning with the letter A in the direction of travel.

12.3.3 Turn Bearings and Ranges Turn bearings and ranges indicate the instant at which the rudder is put over to execute a left or right turn. Turn bearings and ranges are created by using the advance and transfer quantities (see fig. 12-4) of your ship’s handling characteristics to plot a point on your track to which a bearing line or range arc is laid to a prominent NAVAID. A lighted NAVAID is best for day and night versatility for bearing lines only. The NAVAID should be as nearly perpendicular to the ship’s track as possible. In narrow channels or tight turns the ship’s transfer quantity must be closely considered when laying the turn bearing or range arc. See figure 12-5.

Turn ranges present a few differences from turn bearings. The turn range is an arc segment and should be identified’ on the primary chart by a unique color or plotted only on the CIC secondary plot chart. If the use of turn ranges is necessary, for example, fog restricted visibility; the navigator will normally shift his or her station to the CIC secondary plot.

The slide bar technique is accomplished by paralleling the next intended course to the ship’s actual course. By doing this, the turn bearing can be easily revised as shown in figure 12-5.

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12-9 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 12-4 Advance and transfer Figure 12-5 Turn bearings and slide bar technique

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12-10 UNCLASSIFIED 12.3.4 Danger Bearings A danger bearing is used by the navigator to keep the ship clear of an outlying area of danger close to where the ship must pass. In all probability, a danger area has been previously surveyed and is plotted on the chart, but, in the vast majority of cases, it will give no warning of its presence to the eye. Examples of such dangers are submerged rocks, reefs, wrecks, and shoals. A danger bearing must be established between two fixed objects, one of which is the danger area. The other object must be selected to satisfy the following conditions: (1) It must be visible to the eye; (2) it must be indicated on the chart; and (3) true bearing from the danger area should be in the same general direction as the course of the ship as it proceeds past the danger.

As shown in figure 12-6, a ship is proceeding along a coast on an intended track of 090°T at a speed of 5 knots (line AB). A shoal on the port side is to be avoided. A line is drawn from lighthouse H, tangent to the outer edge of the danger (line HX). As long as the bearing of lighthouse H is less than line XH (the danger bearing), the ship is in safe water. The danger bearing in this illustration is 074°T. You will notice that the danger side of the danger bearing is hatched. The danger bearing is also labeled with NMT (meaning NOT MORE THAN). An example of a bearing to lighthouse H that would indicate that the ship is in safe water is the broken line YH. No part of this bearing line passes through the danger area. Any bearing greater than the danger bearing (line XH), such as the broken line ZH, indicates a possible dangerous situation. If the danger area is being passed on the port side, as in this illustration, the safe bearing is less than the danger bearing. Danger angles are not normally used; however, you should use Pub 9, Bowditch, to learn more about using them.

Figure 12-6 Example of a danger bearing

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12-11 UNCLASSIFIED 12.3.5 Constructing the Restricted Water Track In the following table, you’ll find all of the steps listed to construct the restricted water track. This list assumes that all information has been obtained about the port.

Step Action 1. Mark all red and yellow soundings. 2. Lay down intended tracks. Normally, the intended track is laid down in the middle of the channel (see fig. 12-7). The only exceptions are very wide channels with mid-channel buoys where the track is laid in the center of one-half of the channel.

Turn points are normally established by the intersection of two course lines that have been laid for different legs of the track. 3. Label all courses, speeds, and distances. 4. Check for hidden dangers; construct danger bearings if necessary. 5. Create turn bearings for each turn. Remember to use lighted NAVAIDs where possible. 6. Highlight all NAVAIDs and radar points; record in the Standard Bearing Book. 7. On several areas of the overall track, display forecasted wind and current data. This may be done by drawing arrows that point in the direction of wind or current with the force labeled. Alternately, you may cut out arrows labeled with the information and then use tape to stick the arrows to the chart.

Note: On larger deep draft vessels, 1 knot of current can equal about the same as 10 knots of wind. Strong winds along with 1 knot or more of current may make larger vessels crab up a channel.

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12-12 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 12-7 Example restricted water track

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12-13 UNCLASSIFIED 12.4 PRECISION ANCHORING An anchorage position in most cases is specified by higher authority. Anchorages for most ports are assigned by the local port authority in response to individual or joint requests for docking or visit. Naval ships submit a port visit (PVST) request letter or logistic requirement (LOGREQ) message well in advance of the ship’s scheduled arrival date. Operational anchorages in areas outside the jurisdiction of an established port authority are normally assigned by the senior officer present afloat (SOPA) for ships under his or her command.

If a ship is steaming independently and is required to anchor in other than an established port, the selection of an anchorage is usually made by the navigator and then approved by the commanding officer. In all cases, however, regardless of whether the anchorage is selected by higher authority or by the navigator, the following conditions should always apply insofar as possible:

• The anchorage should be at a position sheltered from the effects of strong winds and current.

• The bottom should be good holding ground, such as mud or sand rather than rocks or reefs.

• The water depth should be neither too shallow, hazarding the ship, nor too deep, facilitating the dragging of the anchor.

• The position should be free from such hazards to the anchor cable as fish traps, buoys, and submarine cables.

• The position should be free from such hazards as shoals and sandbars.

• There should be a suitable number of landmarks, daymarks, and lighted NAVAIDs available for fixing the ship’s position both by day and by night.

• If boat runs to shore are to be made, the anchorage chosen should be in close proximity to the intended landing.

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12-14 UNCLASSIFIED 12.4.1 Selecting an Anchorage Even when an anchorage has been specified by higher authority, the commanding officer is ultimately responsible for the safety of the ship. The commanding officer has the choice of refusing to anchor at the location assigned if he or she judges it to be unsafe. In these circumstances, the commanding officer should request an alternate location less exposed to hazards.

Many of the coastal charts of the United States and its possessions drawn up by the National Ocean Survey contain colored anchorage circles and anchor symbols of various sizes for different types of ships.

The circles are located on the chart in those areas best suited for anchoring, taking into account the factors listed above. These circles and symbols are lettered and numbered, allowing a particular berth to be specified. Foreign charts often have anchorage areas specified as well. Amplifying information on possible anchorage sites can be obtained from the applicable volume of the Coast Pilots, for U.S. waters; from the proper volume of the En-Route Sailing Directions, for foreign waters; and from the Fleet Guide, for ports in foreign or domestic waters frequented by U.S. Navy ships.

When it is desired to anchor at a location other than that shown as an anchorage berth on a chart, the anchorage is normally specified by giving the range and bearing to it from a charted reference point, along with the radius of the berth.

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12-15 UNCLASSIFIED 12.4.2 Terms Associated With Anchoring After the anchorage position has been determined, the navigator is ready to begin plotting the anchorage. In so doing, reference is often made to the following terms:

Term Definition Approach track This is the track along which the ship must proceed in order to arrive at the center of the anchorage. Its length will vary from 2,000 yards or more for a large ship to 1,000 yards for a ship the size of a Navy destroyer or smaller. Under most circumstances, it should never be shorter than 1,000 yards. Head bearing If at all possible, the navigator selects an approach track such that a charted NAVAID will lie directly on the approach track if it were extended up to the aid selected. The bearing to the aid thus described is termed the head bearing; it should remain constant if the ship is on track during the approach. Letting-go circle This is a circle drawn around the intended position of the anchor at the center of the berth, with a radius equal to the horizontal distance from the hawsepipe to the pelorus. Letting-go bearing Sometimes referred to as the drop bearing, this is a predetermined bearing drawn from the intersection of the letting-go circle with the approach track to a convenient landmark or NAVAID, generally selected near the beam. Range circles These are preplotted semicircles of varying radii centered on the center of the anchorage, drawn so that the areas are centered on the approach track. Each is labeled with the distance from that arc to the letting-go circle. Swing circle This is a circle centered at the position of the anchor, with a radius equal to the sum of the ship’s length plus the length of chain let out. Drag circle This is a circle centered at the final calculated position of the anchor, with a radius equal to the sum of the hawsepipe to pelorus distance and the final length of chain let out. All subsequent fixes should fall within the limits of the drag circle.

Note: The actual radii of both the swing and drag circles will in reality be less than the values used by the navigator in plotting them on the chart, because the catenary of the chain from the hawsepipe to the bottom is disregarded. Thus, a built-in safety factor is always included in the navigator’s plot.

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12-16 UNCLASSIFIED 12.4.3 Before Constructing the Anchorage Before constructing the anchorage plot, it is always wise to draw a swing circle of estimated radius around the designated anchorage site to check whether any charted hazards will be in close proximity to the ship at any time as it swings about its anchor. If any such known hazards are located either within or near the swing circle, an alternate anchorage should be requested.

If the anchorage appears safe, the navigator begins the anchorage plot by selecting the approach track. During this process, due regard must always be given to the direction of the predicted wind and current expected in the vicinity of the anchorage. Insofar as possible, the approach should always be made directly into whichever of these two forces is predicted to be strongest at the approximate time at which the anchorage is to be made.

12.4.4 Constructing the Anchorage Use the following table to construct an anchorage:

Step Action 1. Select the approach track by considering the different objects available for a head bearing, taking into account the expected winds and current in the bay. Assuming negligible current and a northerly wind, the tower in figure 12-8 is a good choice for a head bearing.

Figure 12-8 W-5 anchorage assignment

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12-17 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 2. Lay out and label the approach track (minimum of 1,000 yd) and label as shown in figure 12-9. 3. Lay out and label the intended track that will intercept the approach track. 4. Lay out and label the turn bearing for the turn onto the approach track. In figure 12-9, a turn bearing of 345° on the tank is used. 5. Lay out the letting-go circle; remember that the radius of this circle is equal to the distance from the pelorus to the hawsepipe. 6. Lay out and label the letting-go bearing (LGB). In figure 12-9, a LGB of 096° is constructed using the stack. 7. Lay out range to anchorage distance arcs beginning at the edge of the letting-go circle. Use 100-yard increments out to 1,000 yards and then also at 1,200, 1,500, and 2,000 yards, as shown in figure 12-9.

Figure 12-9 The completed anchorage track

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12-18 UNCLASSIFIED 12.4.5 Executing the Anchorage When executing the actual anchorage, the navigator’s dual objective is to keep the ship as near as possible on its preplanned approach track and to have all headway off the ship when the hawsepipe is directly over the center of the anchorage. As mentioned above, the navigator obtains frequent fixes as the ship proceeds along its track, and keeps the bridge continually informed as to the position of the ship in relation to the track and the letting- go circle. The navigator recommends courses to get back onto track if necessary. Since every ship has its own handling characteristics, speeds that should be ordered as the ship proceeds along the track are difficult to specify. In general, however, with 1,000 yards to go, most ships usually slow to a speed of 5 to 7 knots. Depending on wind and current, engines should be stopped when about 300 yards from the letting-go circle, and the anchor detail should be instructed to “stand by.” As the vessel draws near the drop circle, engines are normally reversed so as to have all remaining headway off the ship as it passes over the letting-go circle. When the pelorus is exactly at the letting-go bearing, the word “Let go the anchor” is passed to the anchor detail, and the anchor is dropped.

As the anchor is let go, the navigator should immediately call for a round of bearings to be taken, and he or she should record the ship’s head. After the resulting fix is plotted, a line is extended from it in the direction of the ship’s head, and the hawsepipe to pelorus distance is laid off along the line, thus plotting the position of the anchor at the moment that it was let go. If all has gone well, the anchor should have been placed within 50 yards of the center of the anchorage.

12.4.6 Post Anchoring Procedure After the anchor has been let go, the chain is let out or “veered” until a length or “scope” of chain 5 to 7 times the depth of water is reached. At this point, the chain is secured and the engines are backed, causing the flukes of the anchor to dig into the bottom, thereby “setting” the anchor.

When the navigator receives the word that the chain has been let out to its full precomputed length and that the anchor appears to be holding round of bearings and the ship’s head, as well as the direction in which the chain is tending. With this information, the navigator plots another fix and recomputes the position of the anchor by laying off the sum of the hawsepipe to pelorus distance plus the scope of chain in the direction in which the chain is tending. This second calculation of the position of the anchor is necessary because it may have been dragged some distance from its initial position during the process of setting the anchor.

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12-19 UNCLASSIFIED After the final position of the anchor has been determined, the navigator then draws a second swing circle. This time the navigator uses the computed position of the anchor as the center, and the sum of the ship’s length plus the actual scope of chain let out as the radius. If any previously undetermined obstruction, such as a fishnet buoy or the swing circle of another ship anchored nearby, is found to lie within this circle, the ship may have to weigh anchor and move away from the hazard. If the ship is anchored in a designated anchorage area, due care should be taken to avoid fouling the area of any adjacent berths, even though they might presently be unoccupied. If the swing circle intersects another berth, it may be necessary to take in some chain to decrease the swing radius; if this is not possible, a move to a larger berth may be advisable.

If the navigator is satisfied that no danger lies within the swing circle, he or she then draws the drag circle concentric with the swing circle, using as a radius the sum of the hawsepipe to pelorus distance plus the scope of chain. All fixes subsequently obtained should fall within the drag circle; if they do not, the anchor should be considered to be dragging. Both the swing circle and the drag circle are shown in figure 12-10, assuming that a scope of chain of 50 fathoms to the hawsepipe has been let out.

Figure 12-10 Swing and drag circles

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12-20 UNCLASSIFIED After plotting the drag circle, the navigator then selects several lighted NAVAIDs suitable for use in obtaining fixes by day or night and enters them in the bearing book for use by the anchor-bearing watch. The anchor-bearing watch is charged with obtaining and recording in the bearing book a round of bearings to the objects designated by the navigator at least once every 15 minutes, and plotting the resulting fix on the chart each time. Should any fix fall outside the drag circle, another round of bearings is immediately obtained. If the second fix also plots outside of the drag circle, the ship is considered to be dragging anchor and all essential personnel are notified. In practice, if the ship is to be anchored for any length of time, the navigator will usually have the anchor watch cover the area of the chart containing the drag circle with a sheet of semiclear plastic. This is done so the chart will not be damaged by the repeated plotting and erasures of fixes within the drag circle.

When a ship is dragging anchor, especially in high wind conditions, there is often no unusual sensation of ship’s motion or other readily apparent indication of the fact. The safety of the ship depends on the ability of the anchor watch to accurately plot frequent fixes and to alert all concerned if they begin to fall outside the drag circle. If conditions warrant, the ship may have to get under way. As interim measures to be taken while the ship is preparing to do this, more chain may be veered to increase the total weight and catenary of chain in the water, and a second anchor may be dropped if the ship is so equipped.

Situations in which high winds are forecast, the ship should assume an increased degree of readiness, with a qualified conning officer stationed on the bridge, and a skeleton engineering watch standing by to engage the engines if necessary. As an example, during a Caribbean cruise a U.S. Navy submarine was anchored off St. Thomas, V.I., in calm waters with less than 5 knots of wind blowing. Because high winds had been forecast for later in the night, the OOD was stationed on the bridge, and a skeleton engineering watch was charged with keeping the engines in a 5-minute standby condition. Two hours after anchoring, after the liberty sections had gone ashore, the wind began to increase. In the next 45 minutes, wind force increased to the point where 55-knot gusts were being recorded. The ship got under way and steamed throughout the night until the storm abated the next day. For additional information on anchoring, types of anchors, and anchoring gear, refer to Naval Ships’ Technical Manual, chapter 581, titled “Anchors and Anchoring.”

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12-21 UNCLASSIFIED 12.5 THE NAVIGATION BRIEF The purpose of the navigation brief is to provide a standard procedure that all ships follow prior to getting under way or entering port. The briefing is presented by the navigator to the commanding officer and all key personnel and provides a forum for discussion of the anticipated ship movement. The joint Commander Naval Surface Forces Atlantic and Pacific Instruction 3530.2, Navigation Standards and Procedures, provides specific guidance on the minimum requirements of the contents of the navigation briefing.

The following table lists items that may be found on the navigation brief and is meant for illustrative purposes only. Do not rely solely on this table but rather the joint instruction 3530.2 when constructing a navigation briefing.

Item Description Watch Assignments All key individuals are identified by name; for example, the OOD, JOOD, EOOW, CICWO, and helm safety officer. Charts All charts and tracks are reviewed. Information briefed includes items such as course and speed of each leg, all dangers and hazards, NAVAIDs, port requirements, demarcation lines, emergency anchorages, and turn bearings. Engineering The status of the engineering plant is reported. Navigation Equipment The status of all navigation equipment is reported. Environmental Conditions Tide and current data is briefed for each leg of the transit. Forecasted weather is briefed. Pilot and Tugs Pilot pickup or drop off is briefed along with the number of tugs anticipated.

12.5.1 Construction The actual construction of the navigation brief varies from ship to ship. Some ships use preapproved forms while others use word processors or data bases to construct a navigation brief. For either case the senior Quartermaster and the navigator usually gather all required information for the navigation briefing.

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12-22 UNCLASSIFIED 12.6 PREPARING TO DEPART PORT Standard Checklist: Use the following standard checklist to prepare to depart port. The items listed may be modified as necessary by individual ships.

Time Prior Action 48 Hours Establish getting under way schedule to cover propulsion plant light off, shift from shore to ship’s power, last boat run, rigging in of accommodation ladder, disposal of ship’s vehicles, light off and testing of electronics suite, and U.S. and guard mail.

Release MOVEREP. 24 Hours Conduct navigation brief.

Verify arrangements for tugs/pilot.

Compare bridge and CIC charts.

Conduct steering system PMS.

Verify schedule for lighting off power plant.

Check navigation lights for proper operation.

Verify arrangements for running the degaussing range.

Ascertain scheduled ship movements. 8 Hours Energize gyrocompass.

Energize and calibrate all radar repeaters.

Energize and initialize all electronic navigation equipment. 4 Hours Determine gyro error.

Confirm tugs/pilot/line handlers. 3 Hours Verify arrangements for discontinuance of shore services.

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12-23 UNCLASSIFIED Time Prior Action 2 Hours Find out from the XO:

1. If any variation in standard sequence of stationing special sea and anchor detail exists. 2. Time of heaving in to short stay or singling up lines. 3. Disposition of boats and vehicles. 4. Instructions concerning U.S. and guard mail. 5. Number of passengers and expected time of arrival.

After obtaining permission from the executive officer, start hoisting boats and vehicles as soon as no longer required.

After obtaining permission from the executive officer, rig in booms and accommodation ladders not in use and secure for sea.

Promulgate under way time to all hands.

Energize all radars except those prohibited by local electromagnetic emission restrictions.

Conduct radio checks on all required circuits. (Include bridge-to-bridge RT.) 1 ½ Hours Muster the crew.

Shift into the uniform of the day, if applicable. 1 Hour Set condition YOKE. Clear ship of visitors. MAA inspect for stowaways. Tune and peak radars. Ensure cleanliness of pier.

Ensure that the pit sword is in raised position, if applicable.

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12-24 UNCLASSIFIED Time Prior Action 45 Min Station the special sea and anchor detail.

In reduced visibility: (1) station the low visibility detail; and (2) set material condition ZEBRA on the main deck and below.

Make reports to DCC. Embark pilot. Display CODE HOTEL. Prepare anchor for letting go. Test anchor windlass. OOD shift watch to the bridge. Conduct loss of steering drill. Test sound-powered phone circuits in use. Post tide/current/NAVAID information on the bridge and CIC. Receive departmental reports for readiness to get under way. MAA make report of inspection for stowaways. Record draft of ship fore and aft in ship’s deck log, if applicable. Raise deck edge antennas, if required. 15 Min Obtain commanding officer’s permission to test main engine(s) and direct engineering control accordingly after ensuring that the screw(s) is/are clear.

Test ship’s whistle and general alarms.

If alongside a pier, ensure that all shore connections are broken and that the brows are ready to be removed.

Single up lines when so ordered.

Conduct time check throughout the ship.

Report when ready for getting under way to the executive officer. 10 Min Order maneuvering bells by setting the engine revolution indicator system on a certain repetitive number combination beyond the range of the engines, such as "999", if applicable.

Warn engineering control to stand by to answer all bells.

If a flag officer or unit commander is embarked, request permission to get under way as scheduled. ZERO Under way. After U/W Shift colors/close up international call sign. When clear of restricted waters, lower pit sword. When clear of restricted waters, conduct loss of steering drill. Advise CO when entering international waters and haul down international call sign.

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12-25 UNCLASSIFIED 12.7 PREPARING TO ENTER PORT OR RESTRICTED WATERS Standard Checklist: Use the following standard checklist to prepare to enter port or restricted waters. The items listed may be modified as necessary by individual ships.

Time Prior Action 24 Hours Conduct navigation plan brief. Ensure CIC and bridge chart tracks are the same. When Directed Dump all trash and garbage overboard. Pump bilges when conditions permit. Blow tubes if required. Raise the pit log. Ensure the smart appearance of the ship. 3 Hours Ascertain the expected time of anchoring or mooring from the navigator, and notify the engineer officer, weapons officer, first lieutenant, and EOOW. 1 Hour Pass the word, MAKE ALL PREPARATIONS FOR ENTERING PORT. THE SHIP WILL ANCHOR (MOOR SIDE TO) AT ABOUT ALL HANDS SHIFT INTO THE UNIFORM OF THE DAY.

Weather permitting, remove such canvas covers as are normally off when in port.

Obtain information concerning boating from the XO; inform the first lieutenant. Lay out mooring lines if required. Set up and check all harbor and tug frequencies.

Test ship’s whistle and general alarms. Station the navigation detail. Conduct time check throughout the ship. 45 Min Pass the word GO TO YOUR STATIONS, ALL THE SPECIAL SEA AND ANCHOR DETAIL. Have anchor ready for use when appropriate. Determine and record fore and aft draft of the ship.

Prior to approaching restricted waters, conduct a loss of steering drill.

Hoist international call sign when entering inland waters.

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12-26 UNCLASSIFIED Time Prior Action 30 Min Obtain information from navigator on depth of water at anchorage, anchor and scope to be used, and inform first lieutenant.

Receive readiness reports for entering port.

Request permission to enter port from the proper authority.

When mooring to a pier, inform first lieutenant as to the range of tide and the time of high water.

Station line handlers. 20 Min When required, designated personnel fall in at quarters for entering port.

Direct CMAA to inspect upper decks to see that crew is in proper uniform. 15 Min Station in-port deck watches.

If mooring to a buoy, lower motor whaleboat with buoy detail as directed.

Stand by to receive tugs and pilots. Upon Mooring Secure main engines, gyros, and navigational radars as directed.

If anchored, obtain navigation bearings and determine swing circle.

12.8 SUMMARY In this chapter we discussed one of the most important aspects of navigation; voyage planning. Every successful voyage starts with a well thought out plan.

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13-1 UNCLASSIFIED 13 LOGS, RECORDS, AND PUBLICATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Identify logs used in the Pilothouse and the information they contain. 2. Identify the records maintained in the Pilothouse. 3. Identify the mission-related publications found in the Pilothouse and the information they contain and explain the requirements and procedures for stowing and handling the publications. 4. Discuss classified material destruction procedures and the reports required after classified documents are destroyed.

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13-2 UNCLASSIFIED 13.1 INTRODUCTION The efficient administration and operation of the Pilothouse requires that various records and logs be maintained and that reports be made. To ensure that these requirements are fulfilled, Quartermasters must know the essentials for maintaining the required logs, records, files, and publications. They also must be familiar with the many publications such as instructions, notices, OpOrders, and OpPlans; and the proper accountability procedures for maintaining them. QMs must also be familiar with emergency destruction procedures for all the classified material on the Bridge.

This chapter describes the basic logs, records, and other documents and explains how they must be maintained and destroyed.

13.2 COMMANDING OFFICERS NIGHT ORDER BOOK The Navigator is also responsible for the preparation of the CO’s night order book. Night orders are the Captain’s orders of how he or she wants the ship run when he or she is not on the Bridge. The book is normally divided into two separate parts: Standing Orders and Night Orders.

Standing Orders are the Commanding Officer’s statement concerning his or her policies and directions under all circumstances. Night Orders, written on a daily basis, are a summary of tactical, navigational, and readiness information for bridge watch standers. Additional information and guidance are added by the Captain and the Navigator.

Prior to writing the night orders, the Navigator reviews the ship’s operational orders and the nightly schedule of events for anticipated evolutions or activities. Should any conflicts exist between the schedule of events and the standing orders, the Navigator informs the Commanding Officer.

The Navigator then writes the night orders for the Commanding Officer, providing ship’s information and operational data, including anticipated evolutions and a schedule of events, if needed. The Commanding Officer then adds his or her remarks and the night order book is placed on the bridge.

Among the watch standers required to read and initial are the OOD, JOOD, BMOW, and QMOW. This initialing ensures that the orders have been read and understood. Retain for twelve months after the last dated entry.

13.2.1 The Ship’s Deck Log As QMOW, one of your duties is to act as an observer and recorder. There are many logs and records that you must maintain. Probably the most important log will be the Ship’s Deck Log. The basic requirements for maintaining the Ship’s Deck Log are contained in U.S. Navy Regulations, 1973, and Deck Log Instruction OPNAVINST 3100.7 series. We will discuss the general policy and regulations, the form preparation, the assembly and disposition procedures, the abbreviations, and the required entries in the Ship’s Deck Log.

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13-3 UNCLASSIFIED 13.2.2 General Policy and Regulations All U.S. Navy ships in commission and other craft, as required, must maintain a Ship’s Deck Log. The deck log is the official daily record of a ship by watches. Entries should describe every circumstance and occurrence of importance or interest that concerns the crew and the operation and safety of the ship. Entries should also include information that may be of historical value.

The deck log must be a chronological record of events occurring during the watch that will meet the needs of the commanding officer.

Additionally, the deck log will provide a document of historical, value.

Accuracy in describing events recorded in a Ship’s Deck Log is a must. Deck log entries often make important legal evidence that may be used in judicial and administrative fact finding proceedings arising from incidents involving the ship or its personnel.

Under certain circumstances, such as limited local operations of service craft, the maintenance of a deck log is not required. However, other adequate records of events must be maintained by the command. If doubt exists as to whether a deck log is required, the facts must be submitted to the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) for a determination.

The Ship’s Deck Log must be “unclassified” except when another classification is required by security regulations such as wartime operations, special operations, and so forth. Basically, information in the Ship’s Deck Log is FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.

13.2.3 Form Preparation All ships must prepare an original and one copy of the deck log. The original log must be submitted monthly to the CNO for permanent retention. The copy must be retained on board for a period of 12 months, after which time it may be destroyed.

Sample entries should be used as guides for recording the remarks of a watch. Entries, such as reveille, meals for the crew, payday, and so forth, which would not serve any useful purpose or add to the historical value of the log, are not required.

All entries in the Ship’s Deck Log must be made with a ballpoint pen, using black ink. The Quartermaster of the Watch, or other designated watch personnel, must write the log of the watch legibly. Each event must be recorded at the time it happens or as directed by the OOD, who will supervise the keeping of the log.

Most ships normally adhere to a 4-hour watch schedule (00-04, 04-08, 08-12, and so on.), but note as follows: uniform time segments for the scheduling of watches are prescribed for the deck log. The remarks in the deck log must be recorded daily by watches that consistently adhere to the individual ship’s schedule. The circumstances under which a ship is not required to make entries daily by watches can be found in OPNAVINST 3100.7 Series.

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13-4 UNCLASSIFIED The top of each form must be filled in as follows:

1. In spaces 3 and 4 (fig. 13-1), enter the first two letters of the ship type, and enter remaining letters, if any, in the next two shaded unnumbered spaces. In spaces 5 through 7, enter the ship’s hull number. Use leading zero, as required. If the hull number consists of four digits, enter the first digit in the shaded unnumbered space.

Figure 13-1 Sample of the Ship’s Deck Log

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13-5 UNCLASSIFIED 2. In box 12, enter the last digit of the month; for example, 02 for February. In box 15, enter the letter designation for the time zone used to record time entries. In boxes 16 and 17, enter two digits for the day of the month.

3. In the space provided, enter the ship’s position, latitude, and longitude at the hours of 0800, 1200, and 2000. This entry should be made each day during underway periods. Indicate the type of fix by entering that number from the legend to the right.

Make entries in the columns of the log as follows:

1. TIME: Enter the exact time of occurrence of event(s) being recorded.

2. ORDER: Enter the standard abbreviation (maximum of seven characters) for orders requiring course, speed, or depth changes.

Standard abbreviations will be discussed later in this chapter. Orders consisting of more than seven characters are to be recorded in the EVENTS OF THE DAY column.

3. COURSE, SPEED, DEPTH: Enter the changes resulting from an ORDER. Example: after a rudder order and the ship is steady, the resulting course should be entered.

4. RECORD ALL EVENTS OF THE DAY: All entries in the Ship’s Deck Log must be printed clearly and legibly. The remarks for each event must commence on the line entry of the time of the occurrence. When necessary, the remarks will be continued on succeeding lines. Ships, other than submarines, must start recording the events of the day in the DEPTH column.

Rewriting of the deck log sheets should not be required. When necessary, corrections to log entries must be accomplished according to the following procedures:

1. When a correction is deemed necessary, a single straight line must be drawn through the original entry so that the entry remains legible. The correct entry must then be inserted in such a manner as to ensure clarity and legibility. Corrections, additions, or changes must be made only by the individual required to sign the record for the watch and must be initialed by that individual in the left margin of the page.

2. When the Commanding Officer directs a change or addition to a log entry, the individual responsible for the watch must comply. If the individual responsible for that watch believes the change or addition to be incorrect, the Commanding Officer must enter the change or addition on the log over his or her own signature.

Only the OOD must sign the log following the last entry made during a watch. The name of the OOD must also be stamped or printed beneath the signature. Facsimile signatures are not acceptable.

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13-6 UNCLASSIFIED 13.2.4 Deck Log Disposition A Ship’s Deck Log Title Page must be completed and attached to each original and duplicate monthly log. The front and reverse sides of each original log sheet may be used for either continuation of entries for a day or for commencing entries for a new day. Ships that are directed to prepare a duplicate copy for antisubmarine warfare (ASW) data must start a new page when the day or time changes.

When a ship is directed to provide a duplicate copy of the log for specific ASW missions, two duplicate Ship’s Deck Log sheets must be prepared in the following order:

1. The FIRST duplicate copy must be provided for ASW systems evaluation use.

2. The SECOND duplicate copy must be retained on board ship.

The Navigator must examine the Ship’s Deck Log daily and take such corrective action as may be necessary and within his or her authority to ensure it is properly kept. When each month’s log is complete, the Navigator must certify the correctness of its contents. This certification should be made in the space provided on the Ship’s Deck Log Title Page. Daily signature of the navigator is not required.

The Commanding Officer must approve the log at the end of each month, when relieved of command, or when the ship is decommissioned. The Commanding Officer must signify approval by signing the Ship’s Deck Log Title Page in the space provided. Both the original and duplicate logs must be signed. When a change of command occurs during the month, the log title page for that month must bear the signatures of each Commanding Officer. Additionally, the date of the change of command should be entered. The log must not be terminated for submission upon a change of command and must be submitted in its entirety at the end of the month.

Each month’s log must be assembled beginning with the title page, followed by the deck log sheets. The deck log sheets should be unnumbered and in chronological order. The log pages for the month must be secured by round head paper fasteners or ribbon. Staples or other types of permanent binding must not be used.

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13-7 UNCLASSIFIED 13.2.5 Assembly and Disposition On the first day of each month or within 10 days thereafter, the original deck log for the previous month must be forwarded directly to the CNO. If required, the original deck log must be forwarded to the CNO by way of the administrative commander. Unclassified logs must be forwarded to the CNO by First Class Mail. Classified logs must be forwarded in the manner prescribed in OPNAVINST 5510.1 Series. Send to Navy Historical Center (DL Bldg 57 Washington Navy Yard Washington, DC 20374-0571.

Ships on extended patrols or conducting special operations and unable to submit logs as required must do so within 10 days after reaching port.

The duplicate deck log provides a temporary record for shipboard use and for the reconstruction of events. It must be retained on board for a period of at least 12 months, after which time it may be destroyed.

When duplicate deck log sheets are required for ASW data use, instructions for those sheets should be provided by the directing commander.

When the original log or any portion of the log is withheld for any legal proceedings, the CNO must be notified. Specific guidelines for using the deck log in any legal matter can be found in the Manual of the Judge Advocate General, JAGINST 5800.7 Series.

13.2.6 Standard Abbreviations There are several abbreviations that are allowed in the ship’s deck log. Entries such as A/A/Full for all engines ahead full or R/AMID for rudder amidships are completely acceptable. The Deck Log Instruction contains a complete list of frequently used abbreviations.

13.2.7 Required Log Entries As previously stated, events that serve no useful or historical purpose should not be logged. This statement is not meant to minimize deck log entries to the extent that an important event might be omitted. If there is any doubt as to whether or not an event should be logged, the best rule to follow is log it. You can always get guidance on the event in question at a later time. It is easier to delete an event than to add an event. The following is a partial list of required deck log entries. The complete listing of 31 required entries is contained in the Deck Log instruction and should be consulted when necessary.

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13-8 UNCLASSIFIED 1. Every injury, accident, or casualty, however slight, among the officers, crew, passengers, visitors, longshoremen, harbor workers, or repairmen on board must be recorded. The large number of claims for pension or other compensation submitted by persons alleging injury makes this information of great importance to the government. This information serves both to protect the government from false claims and to furnish a record for bona fide claims. Care must be taken to record the full particulars in each instance.

2. All peculiar or extraordinary appearances of the sea, atmosphere, or heavens, preceding or following sudden changes of wind, heavy squalls of wind, or of heavy gales.

3. All unusual appearances of the sea, tide rips, discolored water, extraordinary luminescence of the sea, strange birds or fish, icebergs, driftwood, seaweed, and so forth.

4. All unusual meteorological phenomena, extraordinary refractions, waterspouts, meteors, shooting stars, auroras, halos, fata morganas, iceblinks, corposantos, and all Earth satellites.

5. The behavior of the vessel under different circumstances of weather and sea, such as pitching, rolling, weathering qualities, and so forth.

6. The sighting of vessels, land lighthouses, lightships, and all dangers to navigation, with time, bearings, and distances.

7. The bearing and distance of the object taken for a departure.

8. Any sounding, the record of which is important with the character of the bottom.

13.2.8 Maintaining Logs As you now know, maintaining the Ship’s Deck Log is a big part of the QMOW’s duties. You must also maintain the following records:

• Magnetic Compass Record Book • Standard Bearing Book • Weather observation sheets • Passdown log

The Magnetic Compass Record Book must be filled in each time the ship changes course and on the hour and every l/2 hour as explained in chapter 3. For example, if a ship changed course at 1947 an entry would be made. The next entry would be 2000 and 2030, and so on until the next course change. Gyrocompass error is entered in the remarks column each time it is computed.

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13-9 UNCLASSIFIED The Standard Bearing Book is used to record bearing, range, and location of ATONs or radar points used to fix the ship’s position, during piloting. Remember to enter the latitude and longitude of every ATON or radar point used to fix the ship’s position beginning on the inside of the back cover or as directed by the Navigator.

As you learned in Chapter 10, weather observation must be made each hour whenever a ship is underway. You should begin your observations about 15 minutes before the hour. This allows you to completely record the observation data on the weather observation sheets prior to obtaining the hourly fix of the ship’s position.

The passdown log is used to pass pertinent information down from watch to watch. Make sure to record any information passed down to you that concerns any aspect of the watch.

13.2.9 Ship’s Position Reports As prescribed by Naval Regulations, the Navigator must report the ship’s position to the Commanding Officer. These reports, called Ship’s Position Reports, are prepared and submitted three times a day; 0800, 1200, and 2000. The report provides the Commanding Officer with the ship’s current position, how it was determined, distance traveled since the last report, distance to the destination, and compass information.

The completed report is submitted to Commanding Officer about 5 to 10 minutes prior to the appointed hour. As the QMOW, you may be tasked with providing some of the information for the report. Normally you would begin the report about one-half hour prior to the appointed hour and fill in position and compass information only.

13.3 LOGS Information received in the Bridge is recorded in notebooks or standard ledgers. These notebooks are called logs and are required to provide a permanent, continuous record of the ship’s operations. Generally, information contained in Bridge logs is divided into three categories: (1) personnel, (2) equipment, and (3) operation.

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13-10 UNCLASSIFIED Regardless of the log’s category or type, its purpose is to provide a complete and accurate record of performance and operations for later evaluation. It is also used in preparing reports and for verifying that certain evolutions were accomplished or that certain events occurred. Consider the following examples:

• When a navigation accident occurs, Bridge logs may be used to reconstruct the surrounding situation. • A training log can be invaluable in showing the amount and kind of training Bridge personnel have received. • A supply log can be a great help in keeping track of inventory and in preparing supply requisitions.

The OOD and Navigator have overall responsibility for all logs in the Bridge, but delegates (but does not relinquish) this responsibility to Bridge watchstanders. Specific entries, however, are made by Quartermasters or Boatswain Mates assigned as log keepers.

13.4 SHIP OPERATIONAL DATA FORMS Ship operational data forms, the OPNAV 3l00-3360 series, provide a standard format for recording operational and exercise data. You can find instructions for using each on the reverse side of the form or on the first page of the log.

The following is a partial list of surface ship operational data forms:

Title OPNAV Form No. General log 3100/2 Ships Position Log 3100/3 Surface Radar Contact Log 3100/5 EW Tactical Log 3100/7 Sonar Watch and Contact Log 3360/90

Spaces or boxes on the forms are numbered to facilitate computer entries. Figure 13-2 shows headers found on typical operational data forms. Except for ship type, header entries should be placed against the right-hand side of every box, with zeros entered in any unused spaces.

• Boxes 1 and 22 are data card identifiers and are preprinted on all forms. • Box 2 is the originator level and is preprinted on all forms. • Boxes 3 through 7 are for ship type and hull number. Enter the first two letters of the ship type in spaces 3 and 4, and the remaining letters in the next two shaded unnumbered spaces. If the hull number consists of four digits, enter the first digit in the shaded unnumbered space.

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13-11 UNCLASSIFIED

• Boxes 10 and 11 are for serializing the sheets. Number each sheet consecutively each day, beginning with 01; enter the time as 0001. • Box 12 is for the year. Enter the last digit of the current calendar year. • Boxes 13 and 14 are for the number of the current month. • Box 15 is for the time zone. Enter the letter designation for the time zone you have been directed to use for normal data entries. • Boxes 16 and 17 are for the day of the month. • Box 78 is for the security classification. TS—Top Secret; S —Secret; C — Confidential; U—Unclassified. • Box 79 is for special security handling. Leave this blank unless you receive special instructions.

Now that you are familiar with log headers, we will discuss some actual logs. The ones we discuss constitute the minimum logs recommended for adequate records in any Pilothouse. You may find additional logs used aboard your ship, since the number and types of logs vary from ship to ship.

13.4.1 Surface Radar Contact Log The Surface Radar Contact Log, OPNAV Form 3100/5, is used for recording radar contacts. When you pick up a contact, log its range, bearing, and time of detection. Enter the contact’s course, speed, and CPA when they are determined. Enter the time when the contact is put on watch or scrubbed. At the time a contact fades from the scope, enter its range and bearing. Figure 13-3 is an example of the Surface Radar Contact Log. Instructions for filling out the log are on the reverse side of each sheet (fig. 13-4).

Figure 13-2 Operational data form headers

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13-12 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 13-3 Surface Radar Contact Log Figure 13-4 Reverse of the Surface Radar Contact Log

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13-13 UNCLASSIFIED 13.4.2 Radiotelephone Logs Radiotelephone logs are logs that the Bridge maintains as directed by current operation orders and instructions. The TGT Tactical/Warning net log and the TG Reporting net log are among the most important radiotelephone logs. All messages transmitted on the TG Tactical/Warning net must be recorded verbatim. Standard abbreviations, tape recorders, and modified shorthand codes are useful in copying nets.

Other nets for which logs are maintained as the occasion arises include the anti-air warfare coordination net and the AW weapons coordination net.

A separate log must be kept for each radiotelephone net; instructions are placed on the fly sheet of each log.

When a watch is set on a circuit, the date and the name of the circuit log keeper must be logged. Any time a log keeper is relieved or closes a net, he or she must sign the log. In all instances, the name or signature of the log keeper must be legible, so there will be no confusion over the identity of the log keeper.

The log must also include the following additional data:

1. The time the monitoring station was opened and closed 2. Any cause(s) of delay on the net or circuit 3. All adjustments and changes of frequency 4. All unusual occurrences, procedures, and security violations

Although voice transmissions are spoken slowly and clearly to make sure a message gets through, it may be difficult for log keepers to copy accurately, particularly if they are slow writers. A number of abbreviations (besides pro-signs) have been adopted to enable shortcuts in copying. The following is a list of common abbreviations. The left column contains words heard on a circuit; corresponding shortcuts in writing a message are in the right column.

Words Heard Abbreviation This is DE Message for you M4U Acknowledge Ack Break BT Roger (Message received) R Wilco ( will comply with the order received) Wilco Course Cus/Cse/C Corpen Corp Speed Spd/S Position Posit/Pos Starboard Stbd

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13-14 UNCLASSIFIED Distance Dist Bearing Bng/Brg Range Rng Emergency Emerg Affirmative Afirm/Affirm Negative Negat/Neg Stand by Stdby Say again (I say again) IMI Execute (Execute to follow) EX/XTF Immediate execute IX Time of execution TOX Time of delivery TOD

To avoid any possibility of confusing a zero with the capital letter O, zero is distinguished by a slant line through it (Ø); the capital letter Z is written with a small bar (Ζ) to distinguish it from the numeral 2.

13.4.3 Radar Navigation Log A radar navigation log, sometimes called a navigational fix log, is necessary for all operations requiring CIC assistance in navigation. It usually is kept in a standard ledger- type notebook. This log is used whenever radar navigation is conducted, such as when the ship is entering port, leaving port, passing through narrow channels, conducting naval gunfire support, and performing boat control.

Entries in the radar navigation log include (1) identification of landmarks used (including latitude and longitude of each point, if necessary); (2) bearings, ranges, CPAs to landmarks, and times of observations; (3) set and drift; and (4) course and speed change recommendations sent to conn. The time of each entry must be recorded.

13.4.4 Lessons Learned Lessons Learned is almost self-explanatory. It contains information gleaned from previous actions or operations that is or may be useful in planning and conducting future actions or operations To qualify as a lesson learned, an item must reflect “value added” to existing policy, organization, training, education, equipment or doctrine such as:

(1) Identifying problem areas, issues, or requirements and, if known, suggested resolutions. (2) Identifying the need for specific, assignable, and accountable action to create, update, modify, clarify, or cancel a portion of or an entire tactic, procedure, system, general information document, etc. with regard to existing policy, organization, training, education, equipment, or doctrine. (3) Modifying existing or experimental policy or doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures.

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13-15 UNCLASSIFIED (4) Providing information of general or specific interest in operations planning and execution, (e.g., scheduling considerations, procedure/system checklists, etc.).

13.5 STORAGE OF CLASSIFIED MATERIAL Commanding officers are responsible for safeguarding all classified information within their commands and for ensuring that classified material not in actual use by appropriately cleared personnel, or under their direct observation, is stored in the manner prescribed.

Storage refers to the manner in which classified material is protected by physical or mechanical means. The degree of protection necessary depends on the classification, quantity, and scope of the material. The following general rules apply to all documents:

• Because of the increased risk of theft, valuables, such as money, jewels, precious metals, narcotics, etc., may not be held in containers used to store classified material. • Containers may not have external markings that indicate the level of classified information stored within them. However, for identification purposes, the exterior of each security container may bear an assigned number or symbol. • Files, folders, or groups of documents must be conspicuously marked to ensure their protection to a degree as high as that of the highest classified document included. Documents separated from the file, folder, or group must be marked as prescribed for individual documents.

13.5.1 Accountability Accountability requirements vary, depending on the classification level assigned to the document. The requirements become more specific and strict as the level of classification increases.

At every command, a standard, continuous chain of receipts for Top Secret material is required. A disclosure record form is attached to each Top Secret document that circulates within a command or activity. Each person having knowledge of its contents must sign the form. All Top Secret information (including copies) must be continuously accounted for, individually serialized, and entered into a command Top Secret Log. The log must completely identify the information and, as a minimum, include the date the document was originated or received, individual serial numbers, copy number, title, originator, number of pages, disposition (i.e., transferred, destroyed, transmitted, downgraded, declassified, etc.) and date of each disposition action taken. Top Secret materials must be physically sighted or accounted for at least annually, and more frequently as circumstances warrant.

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13-16 UNCLASSIFIED The accountability requirements for Secret materials are less specific. Each command establishes administrative accountability procedures for Secret materials that it originates or receives based on its operating environment. The same leeway also applies to Confidential materials.

13.5.2 Changes and Corrections All publications must be changed periodically to keep them current. When changes arrive, they must be entered accurately and immediately, as soon as they are effective, to ensure that their associated publications are reliable sources of information.

13.5.3 Publication Inventory To provide positive control of publications, a watch-to-watch inventory of the publications is used. At the change of the watch, the watches jointly conduct a sight inventory of every publication. By signing the watch-to-watch inventory, the relieving watch certifies that it sighted all of the publications and that it accepts responsibility for them. Any discrepancies must be resolved before the watch is relieved. All signatures must be in ink. A sample of a watch-to-watch publication inventory is shown in figure 13-5.

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13-17 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 13-5 Publication Custody Log. (Example)

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13-18 UNCLASSIFIED 13.6 SAMPLE NWPL LIST The following NWPL list of publications could be handy information in the Pilothouse and are normally contained in CIC. These are to just name a few and not all inclusive Actual publications will vary according to ship type. Also be aware that these publications frequently change numbers, and editions. For instance if a change is effected, the publication will change from (C) to (D), or may be reflected as (C) CHANGE 4 for example.

NWP1-01: Naval Warfare Publications Guide. NWP 1-01 is a guide to the naval warfare publication system, including periodic reviews and procedures, publication procurement, a general summary of each publication, and guidance for the operation of a naval warfare publications library (NWPL).

NWP 1-02 Naval Terminology. NWP 1-02 is a glossary of the most commonly used terminology of naval warfare.

NWP 6-01: Basic Operational Communications Doctrine. NWP 6-01 establishes the basic doctrine, policies, and principles governing operational communications.

NWP 1-03.1: Operational Reports. Part I summarizes the operational reports required by the CNO, fleet commanders, and operational commanders. Part II establishes movement report (MOVEREP) requirements.

NWP 4-01.4: Replenishment at Sea. NWP 4-01.4 describes operational procedures and equipment for the replenishment of ships at sea.

NWP 3-50.1: Navy Search and Rescue (SAR) Manual. NWP 3-50.1 provides guidance to units assigned SAR responsibilities. This manual is intended to promote and maintain standardization of U.S. Navy SAR procedures and techniques within the service.

NWP 3-04.1M: Helicopter Operations. NWP 3-04.1M describes the mandatory operational procedures and training requirements for the shipboard employment of helicopters.

AAP 6: NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions for Military Use. AAP 6 promotes effective communications within NATO by providing standardized terminology for military use.

APP 1: Allied Maritime Voice Reporting Procedures. APP 1 contains examples of procedures used on various voice channels: USW Air Coordination Net (USWAC-NET), USW Control Net (USW-NET), Surface Reporting Net (SR-NET), and Air Warfare Nets (AW-NETS). This publication gives examples of how action may develop during different phases of an operation.

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13-19 UNCLASSIFIED ATP 1Series, Volume I: Allied Maritime Tactical Instructions and Procedures. Volume I contains basic maneuvering instructions, tactics, and procedures for all Allied navies. A USN Addendum provides additional basic material for intra-service use by the U.S. Navy when it operates separately from other Allied navies.

ATP 1Series, Volume II: Allied Maritime Tactical Signal Book. Volume II contains standard maneuvering, operating, and common administrative signals. A USN Addendum provides additional basic material for intra-service use by the U.S. Navy when it operates separately from other Allied navies.

13.7 DESTRUCTION OF CLASSIFIED MATERIAL Destruction of classified material falls into two categories—routine and emergency. Destruction, when authorized or ordered, must be complete, and classified material must be destroyed as soon as it is no longer needed.

Unclassified material, including formerly classified material that has been declassified, unclassified messages, and For Official Use Only (FOUO) material, does not require the same assurances of complete destruction. To avoid overloading a command’s classified material destruction system, don’t destroy unclassified material unless the commanding officer or higher authority requires the destruction because of unusual security considerations or efficiency. Unclassified naval nuclear propulsion documents are an exception and, whenever practical, must be disposed of in the same manner as classified documents. When disposal in the same manner as classified documents is not feasible, the command concerned must devise an alternative method that will provide an adequate degree of control during and after disposal. Specific methods depend on local conditions, but the method used must afford reasonable protection against unauthorized recovery of naval nuclear propulsion information.

13.7.1 Destruction Procedures The level of security classification of the material being destroyed determines the destruction procedures used. These procedures are established by Department of Navy Information Security Program Regulation, SECNAVINST 5510.36 SERIES.

1. The destruction of classified material must be witnessed by personnel who have a security clearance at least as high as the level of the material being destroyed. Two witnesses are required for destruction of Top Secret and Secret material. The witnessing officials must be thoroughly familiar with the regulations and procedures for safeguarding classified information and must:

a) safeguard burn bags containing classified material according to the highest classification of the material they contain; b) observe the complete destruction of the classified documents or the burn bags containing classified material;

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13-20 UNCLASSIFIED c) check the residue to ensure that destruction is complete and that reconstruction is impossible; and d) take precautions to prevent classified material or burning portions from being carried away by wind or draft.

2. A record of destruction must be completed for Top Secret material and for special types of information outlined in paragraphs 7-7 and 10-17 of SECNAVINST 5510.36 SERIES (No record is required for the destruction of classified working papers, classified waste, Secret or Confidential material). The record may have any format, as long as it includes a complete identification of the information destroyed (originating command, subject, effective date, number of copies, etc.) and the date of destruction. It must be completed by two witnesses when the information is placed in a burn bag or actually destroyed and must be retained for 5 years.

3. When Top Secret material is placed in a burn bag for central disposal, the record of destruction must be signed by the witnessing officials at the time the material is placed in the burn bag. Burn bags must then be destroyed following the procedures given in paragraph 1 above.

13.7.2 Routine Destruction The destruction of superseded and obsolete classified materials that have served their purpose is called routine destruction.

The approved methods are burning, pulping, pulverizing, and shredding. Every member of the destruction detail should know exactly what is to be destroyed and should double- check each item before it is destroyed. Because classified messages and trash accumulate quickly and storage space is limited, these materials are generally destroyed daily. All material must be watched until it is completely destroyed. If you are directed to burn the classified material, be sure the documents are separated into individual pages and placed loosely into the burn bag. After the documents have burned, break up the ashes and sift through them to ensure the material has been completely destroyed.

Unclassified and FOUO (For Official Use Only) messages do not have a national destruction requirement. However, your command may require their destruction to avoid the possibility of message traffic analysis by unauthorized individuals, which could be detrimental to national security.

13.7.3 Emergency Destruction Commands located outside the United States and its territories, all deployable commands, and all commands holding COMSEC material must have (and practice) a procedure for destroying classified material to prevent its capture by enemy forces. The procedure is normally based on factors such as those listed below:

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13-21 UNCLASSIFIED • The level and sensitivity of the classified material held by the activity • The proximity of land-based commands to hostile or potentially hostile forces or to communist-controlled countries • Flight schedules or ship deployments in the proximity of hostile or potentially hostile forces or near communist countries • The size and armament of land-based commands and ships • The sensitivity of the material or the command’s operational assignment • The potential for aggressive action by hostile forces

As part of the planning for emergency destruction, each command should take the following measures:

• Reduce the amount of classified material it holds. • Emphasize the priorities for destruction, designation of personnel responsible for destruction and the designation of places and methods of destruction. • Authorize the senior individual present in an assigned space containing classified material to deviate from established plans when circumstances warrant. • Emphasize the importance of beginning destruction sufficiently early to preclude loss of material. The effect of premature destruction is considered inconsequential when measured against the possibility of compromise. • Conduct drills periodically to ensure that personnel responsible are familiar with the emergency plan. The drills help the command evaluate the effectiveness of the emergency destruction plan and equipment and serves as the basis for improvements in planning and equipment use.

For commands holding COMSEC material, additional emergency destruction guidance is contained in CMS 1A, Cryptographic Security Policy and procedures Manual.

13.7.3.1 Priority for Emergency Destruction In your command’s emergency destruction plan, all classified materials must be assigned a priority for emergency evacuation or destruction. The priorities will be based on the potential effect that a loss of the materials to an enemy will have on the national security.

Cryptographic material (COMSEC) has the highest priority for emergency destruction. Insofar as is humanly possible, it must not be permitted to fall into enemy hands. Other classified matter is destroyed in order of classification—highest classification first.

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13-22 UNCLASSIFIED The priorities for emergency destruction are as follows:

1. Priority One. Top Secret material in the following order: (a) COMSEC material; (b) Special Access material; (c) other material 2. Priority Two. Secret material in the following order: (a) COMSEC material; (b) Special Access material; (c) other material 3. Priority Three. Confidential material in the following order: (a) COMSEC material; (b) Special Access material; (c) other material

During an emergency destruction situation, you may use the following methods, in addition to routine classified material destruction equipment, to destroy classified material:

1. Jettisoning or sinking, under the following conditions:

a) Material. Refer to CMS 1A for criteria for jettisoning and sinking COMSEC material. b) Other Material. You may jettison classified material at sea at depths of 1,000 fathoms or more. If that water depth is not available and if time does not permit other means of emergency destruction, you may still jettison the material to prevent its easy capture. If your shipboard emergency destruction plan includes jettisoning, weighted bags should be available. If your ship is to be sunk through intentional scuttling or is sinking because of hostile action, be sure the classified material is locked in security filing cabinets or vaults and allowed to sink with the vessel, rather jettisoning it.

2. Dismantling or smashing metallic items beyond reconstruction by use of tools such as sledgehammers, cutting tools, and torches.

3. Using disposal equipment not normally associated with the destruction of classified material, such as garbage grinders, sewage treatment plants, and boilers.

4. As a last resort, dousing the classified material with a flammable liquid and igniting it, as an alternative to its certain loss.

13.7.3.2 Reporting Emergency Destruction During an emergency destruction, try to keep track of the documents that are destroyed. Your command will need this information for a report it must send to the Chief of Naval Operations and other interested commands. The report will contain the following information:

1. Identification of the items of classified material that may not have been destroyed 2. Information concerning classified material that may have been presumed to have been destroyed 3. Identification of all classified material destroyed and the methods of destruction.

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13-23 UNCLASSIFIED 13.8 SUMMARY In this lesson you learned about various types of logs, records, and publications. You learned about their preparation, disposition, and destruction procedures.

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14-1 UNCLASSIFIED 14 VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. State the purpose of a Signalman aboard ship. Identify five areas in which Signalmen must be proficient. 2. Describe the various types of signal bridges and state one characteristic all have in common. 3. Define the term phonetic alphabet; list procedures to form letters of the alphabet and numerals; state the purpose of the message blank. Describe the following Signalman duties: flagbag operator, spotter, searchlight operator, semaphore operator, Signalman of the watch, boat Signalman, in-port duty Signalman, and Signalman supervisor. 4. List 12 important communication publications and state the purpose of each. State how publications may be obtained. Explain the importance of publication corrections and changes, and state procedures for making publication changes. 5. Identify your responsibility regarding the location and operation of the ship's running lights. 6. Explain the procedure for signaling from the International Code of Signals, using explanation and general remarks, definitions, and general instructions. Explain the procedures for signaling using flags, flashing lights, sounds, radiotelephones, and hand flags or arms to communicate with merchantmen.

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14-2 UNCLASSIFIED 7. List and explain 10 sections contained in the General Signal Code. 8. Explain procedures for encoding and decoding medical signals. List procedures for instructions to Masters and Doctors. 9. List and define distress and lifesaving signals. Explain distress transmitting procedures. 10. Explain the procedures for the use of the index. 11. Explain the procedures for the display of the national ensign, union jack, U.S. Navy flag, and United Nations flag. 12. Identify procedures for the displaying of personnel flags and command pennants from ships, shore commands, vehicles, and aircraft. Explain the use of the commission pennant. 13. Explain procedures for dressing and full-dressing ship. Explain actions to be carried out when dressing and full-dressing in port, under way, when half-masting, and dipping. 14. Explain the procedures for conducting colors ceremony and sunrise. 15. Explain procedures for the display of the ensign, personal flags, and pennants in boats. List day and night procedure for conducting boat hails, and explain boat flagstaff topping ornaments. 16. Explain the procedures for conducting passing honors, side honors, honors for official visits, and honors on relief of command. List occasions when honors can be dispensed with. 17. Explain the use of the following flags and pennants: U.S. Navy flag, United Nations flag, homeward-bound pennant, church or Jewish worship pennant, Red Cross flag, the POW/MIA flag, award flags and pennants, and the absentee pennants.

14.1 INTRODUCTION All the planning, organizing, and training that go into the makeup of a signal gang are designed for one purpose—to perfect the Quartermaster’s ability to transmit and receive messages vital to the operation of the ship. The Quartermaster mans the visual communication link with semaphore flags, flaghoist, and searchlights.

In addition to visual communications, a Quartermaster also must be proficient in navigation. Navigation duties include the reading, stowing, and correcting of charts; being able to help pilot a ship in restricted waters; and being familiar with the Rules of the Road, navigational aids, and using navigational equipment. In addition, the Quartermaster must be skilled in voice radio operations and procedures; be able to properly render honors and ceremonies; be experienced in the principles of recognition and be quick to recognize personal flags and pennants of U.S. and foreign officers; be able to act as expert lookouts; and be able to demonstrate know how in many other related skills.

As a Quartermaster, you can expect to serve on a variety of ships—from the largest carrier to the smallest patrol craft—and at various shore commands. Aboard some ships, you may have to help with the navigation in addition to your visual signaling duties. On other ships you might practice only your visual signaling skills.

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14-3 UNCLASSIFIED 14.2 THE SIGNAL BRIDGE The signal bridge, where you will spend your working hours, is a platform high in the superstructure of a ship. All visual signaling takes place from this point. The size of the signal bridge and its location vary according to the type of ship. On some ships the bridge is on the same deck as the navigation bridge, where the conning officer is stationed. On others it is on the flag bridge or on a separate bridge.

A cruiser has a large bridge, providing ample space for the signal gang to operate. On the other hand, the bridge of a fast frigate cannot offer nearly as much signaling space. Some ships are equipped with divided signal bridges, port and starboard. Regardless of how the signal bridge is laid out, it always is designed to give the best possible vision from ship to horizon.

In many respects, flaghoist, semaphore, and flashing light are far superior to radio. Especially is this true when the mission of the unit or force demands radio silence; that is when security considerations silence all electronic communications. With radio silence in effect, only visual signals may be used to convey messages. Visual signaling is used widely, even in peacetime when security often is not a major issue. Flaghoist is used almost exclusively by task force commanders to maneuver their ships during daylight hours.

14.3 DUTIES TO PERFORM As a Quartermaster, you will be tasked to perform many duties. How you perform these duties could directly affect the mission of your ship. Some of these duties are explained in the following paragraphs.

14.3.1 Recording Messages One of your first duties after joining the signal gang will be to record visual messages. Probably on your first day on the bridge you heard one of the operators call out, "Stand by to record." You may have noted that the operator went directly to the signal light and began to receive the message, while another Quartermaster, maybe a striker like yourself, grabbed a message blank and began to record the information the operator called out.

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14-4 UNCLASSIFIED 14.3.2 Phonetic Alphabet Some of the words called out may not have made much sense to you—words like ALFA, YANKEE, and DELTA. To experienced communicators they mean the letters A, Y, and D. The Quartermaster was using the phonetic alphabet, a system set up in which each letter of the alphabet has a word equivalent. It is used widely in naval communications, to avoid mistaking letters that sound alike, such as B and C or M and N. You will have to know this alphabet before you can go any further in communications, so study the alphabet and the proper pronunciation, as shown in figure 14-1. It is not very difficult, and you should not have any trouble mastering it in a few days.

Figure 14-1 Phonetic and Morse code alphabet

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14-5 UNCLASSIFIED 14.3.3 Lettering The accuracy of communications, especially of coded messages, depends on exact adherence to procedures and on legibility of writing. For this reason it is necessary that all letters and numerals be distinctly and legibly made, not only so that you can read them but also so that they can be easily read by anyone else. If you write a letter or numeral and it is mistaken for some similar letter or numeral, confusion will result. Often one mistake can change the entire meaning of a message. This can be disastrous when lives and ships are at stake.

Figures 14-2, 14-3, and 14-4 show how letters and figures should be formed and what sequence should be followed in making the various strokes.

To ensure uniformity, it is necessary that letters and numerals be printed and that you learn the following system of lettering:

1. A straight line is the foundation stroke. The letters E, H, and F have the center horizontal stroke slightly above the middle. The strokes of the letters X, Y, and K join slightly above the middle.

2. The letters O, Q, C, and G are made as circles. The letter B is slightly smaller at the top and has the center horizontal part slightly above the middle. The letters R and S are slightly smaller at the top.

3. The top of 5 and 7, and the bottom of 2 are straight lines. The number 1 also has a straight line under it, slightly below the stem, to distinguish it from the letter I, and the zero has a bar diagonally through it (Ø) to distinguish it from the letter O. A horizontal bar through the riser of the letter helps prevent its being mistaken for the numeral 2.

The heavy dot at the end of each of the light lines, which parallel each letter and figure, indicates the starting point for the stroke. This dot and arrow indicate the direction in which the letter or figure is drawn. The numerals 1, 2, and 3 placed just beside each of the light lines indicate the number and the sequence in which the strokes of a letter or figure are made.

Practice printing the 26 alphabet letters and 10 numerals until you can make each character easily and legibly. Use a pencil with a good point, print each character carefully and accurately, and take care to have your printing evenly spaced. REMEMBER, the key to legible writing is practice.

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14-6 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 14-2 Straight-line lettering Figure 14-3 Circular lettering Figure 14-4 Numerals

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14-7 UNCLASSIFIED 14.3.4 The Message Blank Once you have mastered the phonetic alphabet and practiced the principles of legible printing, the next step is to learn about the message blank. As illustrated in figure 14-5, a typical signal bridge message blank has spaces for the different parts of the message. It is also broken down so that each group (for example, a complete word or code group) of the text has a separate space. This aids the counting of the groups. The well-trained recorder can tell at a glance if the message is complete.

Figure 14-5 Visual message blank

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14-8 UNCLASSIFIED 14.3.5 Flagbag Operator “Stand by your bag” is a statement that is frequently heard on a signal bridge. As the flagbag operator, it is your duty to ready your flagbag.

To become an efficient flagbag operator takes work and practice; you must become familiar with the contents of the flagbag to the point that you can close your eyes and be able to locate the various flags.

14.3.6 Spotter The spotter is the most valuable person in flaghoist communication. It is the spotter’s job to get the signal hoisted and to make sure it is correct. To become a spotter, you must be able to recognize all flags in the flagbag without hesitation, know flaghoist terminology, and be able to read flaghoist in proper sequences.

14.3.7 Searchlight Operator Flashing light is used daily on the signal bridge. To become a searchlight operator, a Quartermaster must be efficient in Morse code. He or she must be knowledgeable in all procedures when communicating via flashing light. Searchlight operators must be able to energize equipment and to spot any malfunctions.

14.3.8 Semaphore Operator Semaphore is a rapid and secure means of transmitting visual messages. It makes use of two hand flags (PAPA or OSCAR) attached to staffs about 22 inches long. This increases range of visibility. Semaphore may be used to send messages to several addresses at one time if they are positioned properly; because of its speed, it is better adapted for long messages. See appendix II for standard semaphore characters and a few helpful hints.

14.3.9 Signalman of the Watch No two signal bridges are run exactly the same; therefore, the duties of the Quartermaster of the watch will vary from ship to ship. The standard operating procedures (SOPs) on your signal bridge will define your duties as Signalman of the watch. In general, though, the Signalman of the watch must be efficient in all forms of visual communication.

14.3.10 Boat Signalman Boat Signalman is one of your most important assignments; it usually comes in play to help save someone’s life. Therefore, you must know all aspects of being a boat Signalman, including the identification of flares, directing boat by visual signaling, and being able to operate a pyrotechnic kit.

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14-9 UNCLASSIFIED 14.3.11 Expert Lookout On every ship, the lookout has an extremely important job. Even with today’s radar, a good lookout is one of the OOD’s most valuable sources of information. A Quartermaster’s duties by nature also require keeping a sharp lookout. As a matter of pride, the Quartermaster should be the first to sight and identify objects.

An expert lookout has to be plenty sharp on a lot of things. Not only must lookouts be able to sight and identify objects, but they must be able to report them correctly, using relative bearings, distances, target angles, and in the case of aircraft, position angles.

14.3.11.1 In-Port Duty Signalman The duties of the in-port duty Signalman include the holding of colors, sunrise, routing of visual messages, making preparations for getting under way, serving as a member of the rescue and assistance detail, and maintaining the visual station file and log.

The duties of the in-port duty Signalman will vary from ship to ship. Your SOPs will outline your duties.

14.3.11.2 Signals Supervisor The Signals supervisor is overall responsible to the leading Quartermaster and/or signal officer for the communication and conduct of personnel on watch.

14.4 COMMUNICATIONS PUBLICATIONS A variety of special publications is necessary in visual communication. You will be using these pubs daily, so you may as well familiarize yourself with them at the start.

Basic Operational Communication Doctrine, NWP 4, forms the basic communication plan for the operating forces.

Naval Telecommunication Procedures Fleet Communication, NTP 4, supports and amplifies NWP 4. It contains substantially the same procedures and instructions issued in the JANAP (joint Army, Navy, Air Force publication) and ACP (allied communications publication) series. In the case of conflict between NTP 4 and the JANAP/ACP series, NTP 4 will govern for intra—U.S. Navy use.

NTP 4 furnishes the instructions for the employment of all phases of naval communication on both the command and operator levels. Additional instructions for joint operations are contained in JANAPs, while the ACPs contain instructions for the proper use of communication in joint, allied, and combined operations.

Although there are many JANAP/ACP publications, the publications that contain the final word about communication procedures are the JANAP/ACP 121 through 134 series. They are known as the communications instructions group.

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14-10 UNCLASSIFIED Specifically, ACP 129, Communication Instructions, Visual Communication Procedures; ACP 121, Communication Instruction, General Procedures; and ACP 125, Communication Instructions, Radiotelephone Procedure, should be thoroughly understood by signal bridge personnel.

The Allied Maritime Tactical Signal Book, ATP 1, volume II, is a NATO restricted publication supplied to naval vessels. It contains maneuvering signals, standard operational signals, and the more common administrative signals. A thorough knowledge of the instructions in chapter 1 is a must for all Quartermasters.

NTP 13, Flags, Pennants, and Customs, is an excellent source of information on all matters concerning flags and pennants.

The International Code of Signals, Pub 102, contains signals for use with merchant vessels of all nationalities. Knowledge of the instructions in the front of this pub is also a must for all Quartermasters. Pub 102 also contains the Incidents On and Over the High Seas (INCSEA) agreement. This agreement between the U.S. and former Soviet countries helps to avoid the risk of collision at sea.

ACP 131, Communication Instructions, Operating Signals, and ACP 168, Pyrotechnic Signals, also contain valuable information for visual communicators.

You should also familiarize yourself with the uses and contents of the following joint call sign books:

ACP 113, Call Sign Book for Ships

ACP 100 Series, U.S./Allied Call Sign and Address System

JANAP 119, Joint Voice Call Sign Book

14.4.1 Obtaining Publications These publications and most corrections and changes, with the exception of Pub 102, which is distributed by the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic Center (DMAHC), are made available to you through the technical publications librarian or the registered publications custodian.

14.4.2 Publication Corrections and Changes As a Quartermaster, you should be familiar with the system used for making corrections and changes to publications.

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14-11 UNCLASSIFIED Each correction or change to a publication will have instructions for making the correction included in it. These instructions adequately describe the procedure to use. Read and thoroughly understand the instructions before you make the actual entry.

Since communications are in a constant state of flux, governing documents are subject to frequent changes. Unless otherwise stated, these changes are to be entered immediately, and the appropriate record sheet annotated. If new pages have been inserted, the publication must be thoroughly page checked.

Recommended changes to NTPs may be submitted using a feedback report (fig. 14-6). Changes of an urgent nature may be submitted by message. Correspondence regarding proposed changes to communications publications is submitted through the normal chain of command to the cognizant authority of the publication (found in the letter of promulgation).

Never use red ink when entering corrections. Normally, the only type of light you will use at night on the bridge is a red light. This light would render the red ink invisible, and you would be unable to read the corrections. If you have a quite lengthy pen-and-ink correction to make, it is better, both for neatness and legibility, to type it on a piece of paper and paste or tape it in. When you have a cutout correction to make (where you paste or tape the change to the old page of the pub), delete the superseded portion with, pen and ink.

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14-12 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 14-6 Communications procedure feedback report

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14-13 UNCLASSIFIED 14.5 ENERGIZING EQUIPMENT As a Quartermaster, you should also know how to locate and operate the switches for your ship’s running lights. You should be able to do this in the dark. The light panel, shown in figure 14-7, is located in the pilothouse; it controls the switches for the port and starboard running lights, towing lights, masthead light, second masthead light, and stern light. It affords an audible and visible signal when the primary filament burns out in any of the five running lights. At the same time, it automatically switches to the secondary filament so that the defective light remains in service. Although the light remains in service on the secondary filament, the electrician should be notified so the defective lamp can be replaced at the earliest opportunity. In addition to the running light control panel, there is a signal and anchor light supply and control panel, also located in the pilothouse. The supply switches for these lights are individual ON-OFF rotary snap switches. This panel normally controls the aircraft warning lights, blinker lights, not-under-command lights, steering lights, stern light (blue), and wake lights.

The Not-Under-Command light switch is fitted with a crank handle to facilitate pulsating when the lights are used as a man overboard signal.

Learn where each individual switch is, and also where the master switch is located. In the event of an emergency, you must be able to turn the correct switch at the proper time.

Figure 14-7 Supply, control, and telltale panel

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14-14 UNCLASSIFIED 14.6 INTERNATIONAL SIGNALING In wartime and peacetime, communications are necessary between U.S. Navy ships and merchantmen sailing throughout the world. Vessels of many nations come in contact with one another, exchanging messages of varying degrees of importance.

This section discusses some of the facets of international signaling, such as the manner of calling and answering, message construction, and use of procedure signals and signs. International signaling procedures are in many respects similar to those used by allied naval units. Every Quartermaster must be aware, however, there are significant differences.

When communicating with a merchantman, you must remember to use international procedure. Merchantmen do not have access to all of our publications, nor are they required to know Navy procedure. So take a little extra time and learn how to communicate with merchantmen.

Much of the information you will need to know to communicate with merchantmen is contained in the International Code of Signals, Pub 102.

14.6.1 Signaling Instructions The purpose of the International Code of Signals is to provide ways and means of communication in situations related essentially to safety of navigation and persons, especially when language difficulties arise. In the preparation of the Code, account was taken of the fact that wide application of radiotelephony and radiotelegraphy can provide simple and effective means of communication in plain language whenever language difficulties do not exist. The Code consists of four chapters, an appendix, and two indexes:

1. Chapter l—Signaling Instructions 2. Chapter 2—General Signal Code 3. Chapter 3—Medical Signal Code 4. Chapter 4—Distre ss and Lifesaving Signals and Radiotelephone Procedures 5. Appendix—U.S/Russia Supplementary Signals for Naval Vessels 6. Indexes— Signaling Instructions and General Signal Code, and Medical Signal Code

14.6.2 Definitions When a man-of-war and a merchant ship desire to communicate, it is extremely important for those involved in the use of the Code to follow the prescribed terminology. The following terms have the meanings indicated:

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14-15 UNCLASSIFIED 1. Sound signaling: Any method passing Morse signals by means of siren, whistle, foghorn, bell, or other sound apparatus. 2. Identity Signal: The group of letters and figures assigned to each station by its administration. 3. Station: A ship, aircraft, survival craft, or any place at which communications can be effected by any means. 4. Station of origin: Station where the originator submits a signal for transmission, regardless of the method of communication used. 5. Station of destination: Station in which the signal is finally received by the addressee. 6. Receiving station: The station by which a signal is actually being read. 7. At the dip: A hoist or signal is said to be at the dip when it is about half of the full extent of the halyards. 8. Group: Denotes more than one continuous letter and/or numeral that together compose a signal. 9. Numeral group: One or more numerals. Definitions of the following terms agree in meaning with allied signaling instructions:

• Visual signaling • Originator • Transmitting station • Addressee • Procedure • Procedure signal • Hoist • Tackline

14.6.3 Methods of Signaling The methods of signaling that may be used are as follows:

• Flag signaling • Flashing light signaling • Sound signaling • Voice over a loud hailer • Radiotelegraphy • Radiotelephone • Signaling by hand flags or arms

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14-16 UNCLASSIFIED 14.6.3.1 Flag Signaling The international flagbag consist of 40 flags: 26 alphabetical flags, 10 numeral pennants, 3 substitutes, and the ANSWER pennant.

14.6.3.2 Flashing Light and Sound Signaling The Morse symbols representing letters and numerals are signaled as in any other form of Navy communications.

In flashing light and sound signaling, it is best to err on the side of making the dots shorter in their proportion to the dashes. The distinction between the elements is then clearer. The standard rate of signaling by flashing light is 40 letters per minute.

14.6.3.3 Voice Over a Loud Hailer Whenever possible, plain language should be used where a language difficulty exists; groups from the International Code of Signals could be transmitted using the phonetic spelling tables.

14.6.3.4 Radiotelegraph and Radiotelephone When radiotelegraph or radiotelephone is used for the transmission of signals, operators should comply with the Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunications Union in force at that time.

14.7 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS Unless otherwise indicated, all signals between vessels are made from the master (or commanding officer) of the vessel of origin to the captain of the vessel of destination.

14.7.1 Identification of Ships and Aircraft Identity signals for ships and aircraft are allocated on an international basis. The identity signals may therefore indicate the nationality of a ship or aircraft.

14.7.1.1 Use of Identity Signals Identity signals may be used for two purposes:

1. To speak to, or call, a station 2. To speak of, or indicate, a station

Examples: YP LABC—I wish to communicate with vessel LABC by _____ . (Complements Table 1, chapter 2, page 108)

HY 1 LABC—The vessel LABC with which I have been in collision has resumed her voyage.

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14-17 UNCLASSIFIED 14.7.1.2 Names of Vessels and/or Places Names of vessels and/or places are spelled out, as follows:

RV GIBRALTAR— You should proceed to Gibraltar.

IT2 SS MICHIGAN—SS Michigan is on fire.

14.7.1.3 How to Signal Numbers Numbers are signaled as follows:

Flag signaling: By the numeral pennants of the Code.

Flashing light or sound signaling: Usually by the numerals in the Morse code; they may also be spelled out.

Radiotelephone or loud hailer: By the code words of the Figure Spelling Table in chapter 1, section 10, page 18.

Figures that form part of the basic signification of a signal are to be sent together with the basic group.

Examples:

DI 20—I require boats for 20 persons. FJ 2 —Position of accident (or survival craft) is marked by sea marker.

A decimal point between numerals is to be signaled as follows:

Flag signaling: By inserting the ANSWER pennant where it is desired to express the decimal point. Flashing light and sound signaling: By “decimal point” signal AAA.

Voice: By use of the word decimal (pronounced DAY-SEE-MAL).

Wherever the text allows depth to be signaled in feet or in meters, the figures should be followed by the letter F to indicate feet or by the letter M to indicate meters.

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14-18 UNCLASSIFIED 14.7.1.4 Azimuth or Bearing Azimuth or bearing is expressed in three figures denoting degrees from 000 to 359, measured clockwise. If there is any possibility of confusion, the figures should be preceded by the letter A. They are always true unless expressly stated to be otherwise.

Examples:

LW 005—I received your transmission on bearing 005°.

LT A120 T1540—Your bearing from me is 120° at (local time) 1540.

14.7.1.5 Course Course is expressed in three numerals denoting degrees from 000 to 359, measuring clockwise. If there is any possibility of confusion, the numerals should be preceded by the letter C. They are always true unless expressly stated to be otherwise.

Examples:

MD 025—My course is 025°. GR C240 Sl8 —Vessel coming to your rescue is steering course 240°, speed 18 knots.

14.7.1.6 Date Dates are signaled by two, four, or six numerals preceded by the letter D. The first two numerals indicate the day of the month; when used alone, they refer to the current month.

Example:

D15—Transmitted on the 15 th of the current month.

The two numerals that follow indicate the month of the year.

Example:

D1504 means 15 April.

Where necessary, the year may be indicated by two further numerals.

Example:

181096 means 18 October 1996.

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14-19 UNCLASSIFIED 14.7.1.7 Latitude Latitude is expressed by four figures preceded by the letter L. The first two figures denote the degrees and the last two the minutes. The letter N (north) or S (south) follows if it is needed; however, to keep things simple, the letter may be omitted if there is no risk of confusion.

Example:

L3740S—Indicates latitude 37°40’ S.

14.7.1.8 Longitude Longitude is expressed by four or, if necessary, five figures preceded by the letter G. The first two (or three) figures denote the degrees and the last two the minutes. When the longitude is more than 99°, no confusion will normally arise if the figure indicating hundreds of degrees is omitted. However, where it is necessary to avoid confusion, the five figures should be used. The letter E (east) or W (west) follows if it is needed; otherwise it may be omitted, as in the case of latitude.

Example:

G13925E— Indicates longitude 139°25’E.

A signal requiring the indication of position to complete its signification should be signaled as follows:

CH L2537N G4015W— Vessel indicated is reported as requiring assistance in lat. 25°37’N long. 40°15’W.

14.7.1.9 Distance Figures preceded by the letter R indicate distance in nautical miles.

Example:

OM A080 Rl0—Bearing and distance by radar of vessel indicated are bearing 080°, distance 10 miles.

The letter R may be omitted if there is no possibility of confusion.

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14-20 UNCLASSIFIED 14.7.2 Speed Speed is indicated by figures preceded by:

1. the letter S to denote speed in knots, or

2. the letter V to denote speed in kilometers per hour.

Examples:

BQ S300— The speed of my aircraft in relation to the surface of Earth is 300 knots.

BQ V300— The speed of my aircraft in relation to the surface of Earth is 300 kilometers per hour.

14.7.2.1 Time Times are to be expressed in four figures, of which the first two denote the hour (from 00— midnight up to 23—11 p.m.), and the last two denote the minutes (from 00-59). The figures are preceded by:

1. the letter T, indicating local time, or 2. the letter Z, indicating Greenwich mean time.

Examples:

BH T1045 L2015N G3840W C125—I sighted an aircraft at local time 1045 in lat. 20°15’N long. 38°40’W flying on course 125°.

RX Z0830—You should proceed at GMT 0830.

14.7.2.2 Time of Origin The time of origin may be added at the end of the text. It should be given to the nearest minute and expressed by four figures. Apart from indicating the time a signal originated, it also serves as a convenient reference number.

14.7.2.3 Communication by Local Signal Codes When a vessel or a coast station wishes to make a signal in a local code, the signal YV1—“The groups which follow are from the local code”—should precede the local signal in order to avoid misunderstanding.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-21 UNCLASSIFIED 14.8 FLAG SIGNALING A man-of-war desiring to communicate with a merchant vessel will hoist the CODE pennant in a conspicuous position and keep it flying during the entire time that signals are being made. This indicates that the signal groups are from the International Code of Signals.

Groups from the International Code of Signals may also be used between allied naval ships. They may be used alone or to supplement basic signals from the Allied Maritime Tactical Signal and Maneuvering Book, ATP 1, volume II. Whenever military use is made of the Code, groups will be preceded by CODE when transmitted by flaghoist, or INTERCO when transmitted by Morse, voice, or hand flags. When only international signals are used, CODE/INTERCO followed by TACK are to be used as the first group to indicate that all of the following groups are taken from the Code. When used to supplement other signals, CODE/INTERCO immediately precedes the signal group to indicate that only the one group is taken from the Code. When using international signals to supplement signals from ATP 1, volume II, or when international signals are preceded by a naval call sign, naval procedure is used. Under all other circumstances, international procedure is to be used.

As a general rule, only one hoist should be displayed at a time. Each hoist or group of hoists should be kept flying until it has been answered by the receiving station. When more than one group are shown on the same halyard, they must be separated by a tackline. The transmitting station should always hoist the signal where it can be most easily seen by the receiving station; that is, in such a position that the flags will blow out clear and free from smoke.

14.8.1 Calling The identity signal of the station(s) addressed is hoisted with the signal. If no identity signal is hoisted, it will be understood that the signal is addressed to all stations within visual signaling distance. If it is not possible to determine the identity signal of the station that it is desired to call, the transmitting station should hoist the group:

VF—“You should hoist your identity signal.”

CS—“Wh at is the name or identity signal of your vessel (or station)?”

At the same time, the transmitting station will hoist its own identity signal.

YQ—“I wish to communicate by... (Complements table 1, chapter 2) with vessel bearing... from me” can also be used.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-22 UNCLASSIFIED 14.8.2 Answering All stations to which signals are addressed will hoist the answering pennant at the dip as soon as they see each hoist (the dip is defined as being one-half the full extent of the halyard). Close up immediately when the signal is understood (closed up is the full extent of the halyard). The answering pennant is returned to the dip as soon as the hoist is hauled down by the transmitting station.

14.8.3 How to Complete a Signal The transmitting station hoists the answering pennant singly after the last hoist of the signal, to indicate that the signal is completed. The receiving station will answer this in the same manner as for any other signal. When the transmitting station hauls down the answering pennant, the receiving station will haul down its answering pennant at the same time.

14.8.4 How to Act When Signals Are Not Understood You cannot question the meaning of a hoist by displaying the INTERROGATIVE pennant used in naval procedure. If the receiving station cannot clearly distinguish or understand the signal, it keeps the answering pennant at the dip and hoists one of the following signals:

ZK—“ I cannot distinguish your signal.”

ZQ—“ Your signal appears incorrectly coded. You should check and repeat the whole.”

ZL—“ Your signal has been received but not understood.”

If the originating ship hoists a wrong signal group, it cannot cancel it with the NEGAT pennant. Although international procedure does not provide for special pennants, it does have signal groups that fulfill the same purpose. In this case, for example, the originating ship would hoist the signal group:

YN—“Cancel my last signal/message” or

ZP—“My last signal was incorrect. I will repeat it correctly.”

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-23 UNCLASSIFIED 14.8.5 Substitutes The basic reason for using substitutes in international signaling is the same as in naval procedure: a signal flag can be repeated one or more times in the same group, while the ship may carry only one or two sets of flags. Without substitutes, for instance, it is obvious that such a group as AAA or 1000 can be made only if three sets of signal flags are available. By using up to three substitutes, any two-, three-, or four-letter group can be hoisted with only one set of flags.

The FIRST SUBSTITUTE always repeats the uppermost signal flag of that class of flags that immediately precedes the substitute.

The SECOND SUBSTITUTE always repeats the second signal flag and the THIRD SUBSTITUTE repeats the third signal flag, counting from the top of that class of flags that immediately precedes them. No substitute can ever be used more than once in the same group.

There is an important difference between the use of substitutes in naval and international procedures. In naval procedure a substitute repeats ANY flag or pennant that precedes it on the base hoist. In international signaling, a substitute repeats only a flag or pennant of the same class (that is, alphabet or numeral) immediately preceding it. The signal VV, for example, would be made as follows:

V

FIRST SUBSTITUTE

The number 1100 would be made by numeral pennants as follows:

1

FIRST SUBSTITUTE

0

THIRD SUBSTITUTE

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14-24 UNCLASSIFIED The signal L 2330 would be hoisted as follows:

L

2

3

SECOND SUBSTITUTE

0

In this case, the SECOND SUBSTITUTE follows a numeral pennant and, therefore, can only repeat the second numeral in the group.

No substitute may be used more than once in the same group. For example, the signal AABA would be:

A

FIRST SUBSTITUTE

B

SECOND SUBSTITUTE

The FIRST SUBSTITUTE, used to repeat the first A, cannot be used again. But, having been used it is equivalent to having hoisted A as the second flag. Consequently, it is the second flag that is required to be repeated as the last flag of the group. Hence, the SECOND SUBSTITUTE is used.

When the ANSWER pennant is used as a decimal point, it is disregarded in determining the substitute to use.

14.8.6 Plain Language Names in the text of a signal are spelled out by means of alphabet flags. The signal YZ— “The words which follow are in plain language”—can be used, if necessary.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-25 UNCLASSIFIED 14.9 FLASHING LIGHT SIGNALING A signal made by a flashing light is divided into the following parts:

1. Call—Consists of the general call or identity signal of the station to be called. It is answered with the answering signal.

2. Identity— Transmitting station makes DE followed by its identity signal or name. This is repeated back by the receiving station, which then signals its own identity signal or name. This also is repeated back by the transmitting station.

3. Text—Consists of plain language or Code groups. When Code groups are to be used, they should be preceded by the signal YU. Words of plain language may also be in the text when the signal includes names, places, and so on. Receipt of each word or group is acknowledged by T.

4. Ending—Consists of ending signal AR, which is answered by R.

If the entire text is in plain language, the same procedure is followed. Call and identity may be omitted when two stations have established communications and have already exchanged signals.

14.9.1 Use of Procedure Signals and Signs The following is the list of procedure signals for flashing light transmissions.

AA “All after...“(used after the “repeat signal” (RPT)) means “Repeat all after....”

AB “All before...“(used after the “repeat signal” (RPT)) means “Repeat all before....”

AR Ending signal or end of transmission or signal.

AS Waiting signal or period.

BN “All between...and...” (used after the “Repeat signal” (RPT)) means “Repeat all between...and....”

C Affirmative—YES or “The significance of the previous group should be read in the affirmative.”

CS “What is the name or identity signal of your vessel (or station)?”

DE “From...” (used to precede the name or identity signal of the calling station.)

K “I wish to communicate with you” or “Invitation to transmit.”

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-26 UNCLASSIFIED NO Negative—NO or “The significance of the previous group should be read in the negative.” When used in voice transmission the pronunciation should be “NO.”

OK Acknowledging a correct repetition or “It is correct.”

RQ Interrogative or “The significance of the previous group should be read as a question.”

R “Received” or “I have received your last signal.”

RPT Repeat signal “I repeat” or “Repeat what you have sent” or “Repeat what you have received.”

WA “Word or group after...“(used after the "Repeat signal” (RPT)) means “Repeat word or group after....”

WB "Word or group before..." (used after the "Repeat signal" (RPT)) means “Repeat word or group before...."

Although the use of these signals is self explanatory, the following notes might be found useful.

These examples illustrate the convenience of international procedure signals and signs:

1. The general call signal (or call for unknown station) AA AA AA is made to attract attention when wishing to signal to all stations within visual signaling distance or to a station whose name or identity signal is not known. The call is continued until the station addressed answers.

2. The answering signal TTTT is made to answer the call and it is continued until the transmitting station ceases to make the call. The transmission starts with the signal DE followed by the name or identity signal of the transmitting station.

Example: When one of the stations is other than an Allied naval ship.

STATION “A” TRANSMITS STATION “B” TRANSMITS AA AA (until answered) TTTTT (until call ceases) DE NABC DE NABC KFLN KFLN AR R

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-27 UNCLASSIFIED 3. The letter T is used to indicate the receipt of each word or group.

4. The erase signal EEEEEE indicates that the last group or word was signaled incorrectly. It is answered with the erase signal. When answered, the transmitting station will repeat the last word or group that was correctly signaled and then proceed with the remainder of the transmission.

5. The repeat signal RPT is used as follows:

By the transmitting station to indicate that it is going to repeat (“I repeat”). If such a repetition does not follow immediately after RPT, the signal should be interpreted as a request to the receiving station to repeat the signal received (“Repeat what you have received”).

By the receiving station to request a repetition of the signal transmitted (“Repeat what you have sent”).

The special repetition signals AA, AB, WA, WB, and BN are made by the receiving station as appropriate. In each case, they are made immediately after the repeat signal RPT.

Examples:

RPT AB KL—“ Repeat all before group KL.”

RPT BN BOATS SURVIVORS—“ Repeat all between words boats and survivors.”

If a signal is not understood or, when decoded, is not intelligible, the repeat signal is not used. ‘The receiving station must then make the appropriate signal from the Code, indicating “Your signal has been received but not understood.”

6. A correctly received repetition is acknowledged by the signal OK. The same signal may be used as an affirmative answer to a question (“It is correct”).

7. The ending signal AR is used in all cases to indicate the end of a signal or the end of a transmission. The receiving station answers the signal R— “Received” or “I have received your last signal.”

8. The transmitting station makes the signal CS when requesting the name or identity signal of the receiving station.

9. The waiting signal or period signal AS is used as follows:

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-28 UNCLASSIFIED • When made independently or after the end of a signal, it indicates that the other station must wait for further communications (waiting signal).

• When it is inserted between groups, it serves to separate them (period signal) to avoid confusion.

10. The signal C should be used to indicate an affirmative statement or an affirmative reply to an interrogative signal; the signal RQ should be used to indicate a question. For a negative reply to an interrogative signal or for a negative statement, the signal N should be used in visual or sound signaling, and the signal NO should be used for voice or radio transmission.

When the signals N or NO and RQ are used to change an affirmative signal into a negative statement or into a question, respectively, they should be transmitted after the main signal.

Examples:

CY N (or NO, as appropriate)...”Boat(s) is (are) not coming to you.”

CW RQ—“Is boat/raft on board?

The signals C, N or NO, and RQ cannot be used in conjunction with single-letter signals.

14.10 SOUND SIGNALING Because of the apparatus used (whistle, siren, foghorn), sound signaling is necessarily slow. Moreover, the misuse of sound signaling could create serious confusion at sea. Sound signaling in fog should, therefore, be reduced to a minimum. Signals other than the single-letter signals should be used only in extreme emergency and never in frequented navigational waters.

The signals should be made slowly and clearly. They may be repeated, if necessary, but at sufficiently long intervals to ensure that no confusion can arise and that one-letter signals cannot be mistaken for two-letter groups.

Under international procedures, a transmitting ship calls in the same manner as by flashing light; the receiving ship replies with the answering sign. (No call or answer is sent, however, when transmitting single-letter signals.) The transmitting ship then sends the entire message. Unless the receiving ship misses a word or group, it does not answer until the ending AR is made; it then indicates receipt by sending R.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-29 UNCLASSIFIED If the receiving ship misses a word or group during the transmission, it immediately signals RPT to indicate the omission; the transmitting ship goes back a few words or groups, then continues the message. Ships do not exchange identities in this form of communication despite use of the general call AA.

14.11 RADIOTELEPHONE When using the International Code of Signals in cases of language difficulties, the principles of the Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunications Union then in force have to be observed. Letters and figures are spelled out according to phonetic spelling tables. When coast and ship stations are called, the identity signals or names shall be used.

14.11.1 Calling The call consists of the call sign or name of the station called, the group DE, and the call sign or name of the calling station.

Difficult names of stations should be spelled. After contact has been established, the call sign or name need not be sent again.

14.11.2 Answering The reply to a call consists of the call sign of the calling station, the group DE, and the call sign or name of the station called.

14.11.3 General Information When calling all stations in the vicinity, the group CQ is used.

To indicate that groups are from the International Code of Signals, the word INTERCO is inserted. The group YZ will be used when plain language is used in the text.

The signal AS is used when the station called is unable to receive traffic immediately.

To receipt for a transmission, the signal R is used.

Repetitions are obtained by RPT followed by prowords if needed.

To end a transmission, the signal AR is used.

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14-30 UNCLASSIFIED 14.12 MORSE SIGNALING BY HAND FLAGS OR ARMS A station that desires to communicate with another station by Morse signaling using hand flags or arms may indicate the requirement by transmitting to that station the signal K1 by any method. The call signal AA may be made instead.

On receipt of the call, the station addressed should make the answering signal or, if unable to communicate by this means, should reply with the signal YS1 by any available method.

The call signal AA AA AA and the signal T should be used, respectively, by the transmitting station and the addressed station.

Normally both arms should be used for this method of transmission, but in cases where this is difficult or impossible, one arm can be used.

All signals will end with the ending signal AR.

Figure 14-8 shows positions for Morse signaling by hand flags or arms.

Figure 14-8 Morse signaling by hand flags or arms

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-31 UNCLASSIFIED 14.13 SINGLE-LETTER SIGNALS International single-letter signals, which may be made by any method of signaling, have specific meanings that in most cases do not parallel the same single-letter signals from ATP 1, volume II. These important and commonly used signals are as follows:

A I have a diver down; keep well clear at slow speed.

B* I am taking in, discharging, or carrying dangerous goods.

C* Yes (Affirmative or "The significance of the previous group should be read in the affirmative.")

D* Keep clear of me; I am maneuvering with difficulty.

E* I am altering my course to starboard.

F I am disabled; communicate with me.

G* I require a pilot. When made by fishing vessels operating in close proximity on the fishing grounds, it means "I am hauling nets.”

H* I have a pilot on board.

I* I am altering my course to port.

J I am on fire and have dangerous cargo on board, keep well clear of me.

K I wish to communicate with you.

L You should stop your vessel instantly.

M My vessel is stopped and making no way through the water.

N NO (Negative or "The significance of the previous group should be read in the negative.") This signal may be given only visually or by sound. For voice or radio transmission, the signal should be “NO.”

O Man overboard.

P In harbor—All persons should report on board as the vessel is about to proceed to sea. At sea—It may be used by fishing vessels to mean “My nets have come fast upon an obstruction.”

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-32 UNCLASSIFIED Q My vessel is “healthy” and I request free pratique.

S* My engines are going astern.

T* Keep clear of me; I am engaged in pair trawling.

U You are running into danger.

V I require assistance.

W I require medical assistance.

X Stop carrying out your intentions and watch for my signals.

Y I am dragging my anchor.

Signals of letters marked by an asterisk (*), when made by sound, may only be made in compliance with the requirements of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea.

Signals K and S have special meanings as landing signals for small boats with crews or persons in distress.

14.14 SINGLE-LETTER SIGNALS WITH COMPLEMENTS These signals can be transmitted by any method of signaling. A list of the single-letter signals with complements are listed below:

AZIMUTH OR BEARING A with three numerals

COURSE C with three numerals

DATE D with two, four, or six numerals

LONGITUDE G with four or five numerals (the last two numerals denote minutes, and the rest, degrees)

COMMUNICATE ( I wish to communicate with you by (complement table 1)) K with one numeral

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-33 UNCLASSIFIED LATITUDE L with four numerals (the first two numerals denote degrees, and the rest, minutes)

DISTANCE in nautical miles R with one or more numerals

SPEED in knots S with one or more numerals

LOCAL TIME T with four numerals (the first two numerals denote hours, and the rest, minutes)

SPEED in kilometers per hour V with one or more numerals

GMT Z with four numerals (the first two numerals denote hours, and the rest, minutes

14.15 GENERAL SIGNAL CODE Each section in the General Signal Code covers specific actions. For example, section 1, Distress-Emergency, ranges from abandon ship to search and rescue; and section 3, Aids to Navigation, ranges from course to water depth. The sections and their contents are as follows:

1. DISTRESS—EMERGENCY

2. CASUALTIES—DAMAGES

3. AIDS TO NAVIGATION—NAVIGATION — HYDROGRAPHY

4. MANEUVERS

5. MISCELLANEOUS

6. METEOROLOGY— WEATHER

7. ROUTING OF SHIPS

8. COMMUNICATIONS

9. INTERNATIONAL SANITARY REGULATIONS

10. TABLE OF COMPLEMENTS

You can see that almost every situation possible is covered in the General Signal Code. This code is very important, so familiarize yourself with it.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-34 UNCLASSIFIED 14.16 MEDICAL SIGNAL CODE Chapter 3 of the International Code of Signals covers the Medical Signal Code. This code is divided into the four following sections:

1. Explanations and Instructions 2. Request for Medical Assistance 3. Medical Advice 4. Table of Complements

Medical advice should be sought and given in plain language whenever possible, but if language difficulties arise, the Code should be used.

Even when plain language is used, the text of the Code and the instructions should be followed as far as possible.

Reference is made to the procedure signals C, N or NO, and RQ, which when used after the main signal, change its meaning into affirmative, negative, and interrogative, respectively.

Example:

MFE RQ—Is bleeding severe?

MFE N—Bleeding is not severe.

14.17 INSTRUCTIONS TO MASTERS The master should make a careful examination of the patient and should try to collect, as far as possible, information covering the following subjects (under chapter 3 of the Code):

1. Description of the patient 2. Previous health 3. Localization of symptoms, diseases, or injuries 4. General symptoms 5. Particular symptoms 6. Diagnosis

Such information should be coded by choosing the appropriate groups from the corresponding sections of the Code. It would help the recipients of the signal if the information were transmitted in the order shown in the previous list.

After a reply from the doctor has been received and the instructions therein followed, the master can give a progress report by using signals from chapter 3.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-35 UNCLASSIFIED 14.18 INSTRUCTIONS TO DOCTORS Additional information can be requested by using chapter 3, section 3A.

Example:

MQB—I cannot understand your signal. Please use standard method of case description.

For diagnosis, chapter 3, section 3B should be used.

Example:

MQE 26—My probable diagnosis is cystitis. Prescribing should be limited to the “List of Medicaments” which comprises table M-3 in chapter 3, section 4.

For special treatment, signals from chapter 3, section 3C should be used.

Example:

MRP 4—Apply ice -cold compress and renew every 4 hours.

When prescribing medication, three signals found in chapter 3, section D, should be used as follows:

1. The first (chapter 3, section 3D-1 and table M-3 in chapter 3, section 4) signifies the medication itself.

Example:

MTD 32—You should give aspirin tablets.

2. The second (chapter 3, section 3D-2) signifies the method of administration and dose.

Example:

MTI 2—You should give by mouth two tablets/capsules.

3. The third (chapter 3, section 3D-3) signifies the frequency of the dose.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-36 UNCLASSIFIED Example:

MTQ 8—You should repeat every 8 hours.

The frequency of external applications is coded in chapter 3, section 3D-4.

Example:

MTU 4—You should apply every 4 hours.

Advice concerning diet can be given by using signals from chapter 3, section 3E.

Example:

MUC—Give water only in small quantities.

As an example, two cases of request for assistance and the corresponding replies follow:

CASE ONE

REQUEST FOR MEDICAL ASSISTANCE. “I have a male age 44 years. Patient has been ill for 2 days. Patient has suffered from acute bronchitis. Onset was sudden. Patient is delirious. Patient has fits of shivering. Temperature taken in mouth is 40°C. Pulse rate per minute is 110. The rate of breathing per minute is 30. Patient is in pain (chest). Part of the body affected is right (chest). Pain is increased on breathing. Patient has severe cough. Patient has bloodstained sputum. Patient has been given penicillin injections without effect. Patient has received medication in last 18 hours. My probable diagnosis is pneumonia.”

MEDICAL ADVICE. “Your diagnosis is probably right. You should continue giving penicillin injections. You should repeat every 12 hours. Put patient to bed lying down at absolute rest. Keep patient warm. Give fluid diet, milk, fruit juice, tea, mineral water. Give water very freely. Refer back to me in 24 hours, or before if patient worsens.”

CASE TWO

REQUEST FOR MEDICAL ASSISTANCE. “I have a male aged 31 years. Patient has been ill for 3 hours. Patient has had no serious previous illness. Pulse rate per minute is 95. Pulse is weak. Patient is sweating. Patient is in pain in lumbar (kidney) region. The part affected is left lumbar (kidney) region. Pain is severe. Pain is increased by hand pressure. Bowels are regular.”

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-37 UNCLASSIFIED REQUEST FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION. “I cannot make a diagnosis. Please answer the following questions. Temperature taken in the mouth is (number). Pain radiates to groin and testicle. Patient has pain on passing water. Urinary functions normal. Vomiting is present.”

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION. “Temperature taken in mouth is 37°C. Pain radiates to groin and testicle. Patient has pain on passing water. Patient is passing small quantities of urine frequently. Vomiting is absent. Patient has nausea.”

MEDICAL ADVICE. “My probable diagnosis is kidney stone (renal colic). You should give morphine injection. You should give by subcutaneous injection 15 milligrams. Give water freely. Apply hot water bottle to lumbar (kidney) region. Patient should be seen by doctor when next in port.”

14.19 DISTRESS AND LIFESAVING SIGNALS Chapter 4 of the International Code of Signals covers distress signals, lifesaving signals, and distress radiotelephone transmitting procedures.

The following signals, to be used or displayed either together or separately, indicate distress and need of assistance (see fig. 14-9):

A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute

A continuous sounding with any fog-signaling apparatus

Rockets or shells, throwing red stars fired one at a time at short intervals

A signal made by radiotelegraphy or by any other signaling method consisting of the group ...---... (SOS) in the Morse code

A signal sent by radiotelephony consisting of the spoken word “Mayday”

The international code signal of distress indicated by NC

A signal consisting of a square flag having above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball

Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, and so forth.)

A rocket parachute flare or a hand flare showing a red light

A smoke signal giving off orange-colored smoke

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-38 UNCLASSIFIED Slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering arms outstretched to each side

The radiotelegraph alarm signal

The radiotelephone alarm signal

Signals transmitted by emergency position indicating radio beacons

Vessels in distress may use the radiotelegraph alarm signal or the radiotelephone alarm signal to secure attention to distress calls and messages. The radiotelegraph alarm signal, which is designed to actuate the radiotelegraph auto alarms of vessels so fitted, consists of a series of 12 dashes sent in 1 minute.

The duration of each dash is 4 seconds, and the duration of the interval between two consecutive dashes is 1 second. The radiotelephone alarm signal consists of two tones transmitted alternately over periods of from 30 seconds to 1 minute.

The use of any of the foregoing signals except for the purpose of indicating that a vessel or seaplane is in distress, and the use of other signals that may be confused with any of the previously mentioned signals are prohibited.

Attention is drawn to the relevant sections of the Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual, and the following signals:

• A piece of orange-colored canvas with either a black square and circle or other appropriate symbol (for identification from the air)

• A dye marker

Signals used in situations of distress and search rescue are shown in figure 14-10 through 14-13.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-39 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 14-9 Distress signals

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-40 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 14-10 Lifesaving signals (page 1 of 4)

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-41 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 14-11 Lifesaving signals (page 2 of 4)

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-42 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 14-12 Lifesaving signals (page 3 of 4)

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-43 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 14-13 Lifesaving signals (page 4 of 4)

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-44 UNCLASSIFIED 14.20 RADIOTELEPHONE PROCEDURES Any message you hear prefixed by one of the following words concerns SAFETY:

MAYDAY (Distress)—Indicates that a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle is threatened by grave and imminent danger and requests immediate assistance.

PAN (Urgency)—Indicates that the calling station has a very urgent message to transmit concerning the safety of a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle, or the safety of a person.

SECURITE (Safety)—Indicates that the station is about to transmit a message concerning the safety of navigation or to give important meteorological warnings.

If you hear these words, pay particular attention to the message and call the master or the officer on watch.

Distress transmitting procedures are to be used only when immediate assistance is required. Use plain language whenever possible. If language difficulties are likely to arise, use appropriate tables from the International Code of Signals.

14.21 U.S. AND RUSSIA SUPPLEMENTARY SIGNALS On the 25 th of May 1972, an agreement between the governments of the United States and the Former Soviet Union on the prevention of incidents on the high seas was signed. This agreement was called the INCSEA agreement. The purpose of this agreement is to reduce the number of unintended serious confrontations between the United States and Former Soviet Forces on or over the high seas, to promote safety of operations where the United States and Former Soviet Naval and Air Forces operate in proximity, and to avoid the breaking of diplomatic relations.

As a part of this agreement, the U.S. and Russian warships and auxiliary vessels will use the signals listed below:

IR 1 I am engaged in oceanographic operations.

IR 2 I am streaming/towing hydrographic survey equipment...meters astern.

IR 3 I am recovering hydrographic survey equipment.

IR 4 I am conducting salvage operations.

JH 1 I am attempting to retract a grounded vessel.

MH 1 Request you not to cross my course ahead of me.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-45 UNCLASSIFIED NB 1 I have my unattached hydrographic survey equipment bearing in a direction from me as indicated...(table 3 of ICS).

PJ 1 am unable to alter course to my starboard.

PJ 2 I am unable to alter course to my port.

PJ 3 Caution I have a steering casualty.

PP 8 Dangerous operations in progress. Request you remain clear of the hazard which is in the direction from me as indicated...(table 3 of ICS).

QF 1 Caution I have stopped engines.

QS 6 I am proceeding to anchorage on course...

QV 2 I am in a fixed multiple leg moor using two or more anchors or buoys fore and aft. Request you remain clear.

QV 3 I am anchored in deep water with hydrographic survey equipment streamed.

RT 2 I intend to pass you on your port side.

RT 3 I intend to pass you on your starboard side.

RT 4 I will overtake you on your port side.

RT 5 I will overtake you on your starboard side.

RT 6 I am/Formation is maneuvering. Request you remain clear of the hazard which is in the direction from me as indicated...(table 3 of ICS).

RT7 I shall approach your ship on starboard side to a distance of...100’s of meters yards).

RT8 I shall approach your ship on port side to a distance of...100’s of meters (yards).

RT 9 I shall cross astern at distance of...100’s of meters (yards).

RU 2 I am beginning a port turn in approximately... minutes.

RU3 I am beginning a starboard turn in approximately...minutes.

RU4 The formation is preparing to alter course to port.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-46 UNCLASSIFIED RU5 The formation is preparing to alter course to starboard.

RU6 I am engaged in maneuvering exercises. It is dangerous to be inside the formation.

RU7 I am preparing to submerge.

RU8 A submarine will surface within 2 miles of me within 30 minutes. Request you remain clear.

TX1 I am engaged in fisheries patrol.

SL2 Request your course, speed, and passing intentions.

UY1 I am preparing to launch/recover aircraft on course....

UY2 I am preparing to conduct missile exercises. Request you remain clear of the hazard which is in the direction from me as indicated...(table 3 of ICS).

UY3 I am preparing to conduct gunnery exercises. Request you remain clear of the hazard which is in the direction from me as indicated...(table 3 of ICS).

UY4 I am preparing to conduct/am conducting operations employing explosive charges.

UY5 I am maneuvering in preparation for torpedo launching exercises. Request you remain clear of the hazard which is in the direction from me as indicated..(table 3 of ICS).

UY6 I am preparing to conduct/am conducting underway replenishment on course... Request you remain clear.

UY7 I am preparing to conduct extensive small boat and ship to shore amphibious training operations.

UY8 I am maneuvering to launch/recover landing craft/boats.

UY9 I am preparing to conduct/am conducting helicopter operations over my stern.

UY10 I am testing my gun systems.

UY11 I am testing my missile systems.

UY12 I am preparing to conduct/am conducting gunnery/bombing exercises from aircraft on a towed target. Request you remain clear of the hazard which is in the direction from me as indicated...(table 3 of ICS).

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-47 UNCLASSIFIED ZL1 I have received and understood your message.

ZL2 Do you understand? Request acknowledgment.

14.21.1 Signaling The INCSEA signals may be signaled by the following methods authorized by the ICOS:

• Flaghoist • Flashing light • Voice • Morse signaling by hand flags or arms

Signals taken from the INCSEA agreement are preceded by the local code indicator “YVp1.” Yvp1 and the signal will be separated by a tack.

14.21.1.1 Acknowledge To acknowledge signals from the INCSEA, use the signal YVp1 TACK ZLp1. The acknowledge signal is not hoisted to the dip; instead it is hoisted closed up after the signal is understood by the appropriate personnel.

14.21.1.2 Question To question signals from the INCSEA agreement, the signal YVpl TACK ZLp3 will be used.

14.21.1.3 Cancel To cancel signals from the INCSEA agreement, the code pennant followed by either YN or ZP must precede the group that cancels.

14.21.2 Special Warning Signals To inform foreign naval vessels that they have violated Russian spaces, will use the warning signals listed below:

SNG You have violated the state border of Russia. I demand that you leave Russian waters immediately.

SNO I demand that you leave the waters of Russia immediately. Unless you do so, a force of arms will be used against you.

SNP You are violating the regulations for navigating and remaining in Russian waters. I demand that you cease violations.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-48 UNCLASSIFIED SNR Despite warnings, you continue to violate the regulations for navigating and remaining in Russian waters. You are to leave them immediately.

During the day, these signals will be made by flags. During nighttime, these signals are made by Morse code using a signal lamp. Radiotelephone may also be used to transmit the signal, as well as voice using a megaphone or any other amplifying device.

14.21.3 Warning Signals to Submarines The signal of two series of explosions with three explosions in each series (where the interval between the explosions in a series is 1 minute and the interval between the series is 3 minutes) means “You are in Russian waters. I demand you surface immediately. Unless you comply with this order within 10 minutes, a force of arms will be used against you.”

An acoustic signal by sonar may be given simultaneously, with the same meaning as stated previously. The signal will consist of five dashes, each dash 3 seconds long, and the interval between dashes, 3 seconds.

14.22 INDEX The index is divided into two separate indexes:

Index 1 is the Signaling Instructions and General Signal Code and Index 2 is the Medical Signal Code.

14.22.1 Use and Construction of Groups The types of signals used are the following:

Single-letter signals— Indicate very urgent, important, or very common use.

Two-letter signals—The general code .

Three-letter signals—Begin with M and indicate the medical code The Code follows the basic principle that each signal should have a complete meaning. This principle is followed throughout the Code. In certain cases, complements are used when necessary to supplement the available group.

To find a certain group when encoding, always turn first to the signal index or medical index, as appropriate, and pick out the key word or phase.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-49 UNCLASSIFIED Examples:

Do you require a boat? KEY WORD: Boat Explosion has occurred in tank. KEY WORD: Explosion.

14.22.2 Complements Express The use of complements is explained in the following paragraphs. You as a Quartermaster must know how to use complements to effectively communicate with merchantmen.

Variations in the meaning of the basic signal:

CP—I am (or vessel indicated is) proceeding to your assistance.

CP 1—SAR aircraft is coming to your assistance.

Questions concerning the same basic subject or basic signal:

DY—Vessel (name or identity signal) has sunk in lat. . . long. . .

DY 4— What is the depth of water where vessel sank?

Answers to question or request made by the basic signal:

HX—Have you received any damage in collision?

HX 1—I have received serious damage above the waterline.

Supplementary, specific, or detailed information:

IN—I require a diver.

IN 1—I require a diver to clear propeller.

General signal complements appearing in the text are grouped into three tables. These tables should be used only as and when specified in the text of the signals. The tables of complements are as follows:

Table 1—Communication 1. Morse signaling by hand flags or arms 2. Loud hailer (megaphone) 3. Morse signaling lamp 4. Sound signals

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-50 UNCLASSIFIED Table 2—Logistics 0. Water 1. Provisions 2. Fuel 3. Pumping equipment 4. Fire-fighting appliances 5. Medical assistance 6. Towing 7. Survival craft 8. Vessel to stand by 9. Icebreaker

Table 3—Compass Directions 0. Direction unknown (or calm) 1. Northeast 2. East 3. Southeast 4. South 5. Southwest 6. West 7. Northwest 8. North 9. All directions (or confused or variable)

The medical signal complements are grouped into three separate tables. As for the general signal complements, the tables should be used only as and when specified in the text of the signals. The medical signal complement tables are as follows:

Table M-1—Regions of the body Table M-2—List of common diseases Table M-3—List of medicaments

14.23 CROSS-REFERENCES Cross-references should be used when you are dealing with signals of same subject. These references are found in the right column. Before making additional reference to the index, use extensive cross-references to facilitate coding.

Example: EL—See right column for cross -reference

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-51 UNCLASSIFIED 14.24 HONORS AND CEREMONIES From the days when the United States first came into being as an independent nation, tradition has played an important role in the ceremonial functions of our Navy. At first, most of the honors and ceremonies rendered by our Navy were carried over from the British Navy. Before many years, however, the U.S. Navy began changing them to conform to its own concepts. The U.S. Navy now has a very rigid set of rules that covers all phases of ceremonial functions.

Of all the ratings aboard ship, Quartermasters are most directly concerned with rules for rendering honors and ceremonies. When the occasions for rendering them arise, there is often insufficient time to search through the regulations for needed information. That is why Quartermasters must know, in advance, what, when, how, where, and by whom honors are rendered. This chapter attempts to answer some of those requirements. Additional information is contained in Flags, Pennants and Customs, NTP 13, and U.S. Navy Regulations, chapter 12.

14.24.1 Flag Displays A national flag is the flag flown to represent a national government. The ensign is a flag designated by a country to be flown by its men-of-war. In the United States, the designs of the two are identical. As used in this section, national flag and ensign are synonymous. Aboard ship, however, the national flag always is referred to the rectangular blue containing the stars as the ensign. The union jack is part of the United States flag.

14.24.2 National Flag There are numerous rules for displaying of the national flag, some of which are discussed in the following paragraphs. See NTP 13 for more instructions on the display of the national flag.

14.24.3 Group The national flag must be at the center and at the highest point of the group when a number of flags or pennants of states, localities, or societies are grouped and displayed from staffs.

14.24.4 Crossed Staff The national flag, when displayed with another flag against a wall from crossed staffs must be on the right—the flag ’s own right— and its staff must be in front of the staff of the other flag.

14.24.5 Church Services No other flag or pennant is to be placed above or, if on the same level, to the right of the national flag. The only exception to this rule is during church services conducted by naval chaplains at sea for personnel of the Navy. Then the church or Jewish worship pennant may be flown above the national flag. The term at sea is interpreted to mean on board a ship of the U.S. Navy.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-52 UNCLASSIFIED 14.24.6 Covering a Casket When the national flag is used to cover a casket, it must be so placed that the union is at the head over the left shoulder. The flag must not be lowered into the grave or allowed to touch the ground.

14.24.7 Behind a Speaker When used on a speaker’s platform, the national flag, if displayed flat, is displayed above and behind the speaker.

14.24.8 Half-Mast The national flag, if flown at half-mast, must first be hoisted to the peak. On the last note of the national anthem or “To the Colors,” it is then lowered smartly to that position. Before the flag is lowered from the half-mast position, it is hoisted smartly to the peak on the first note of the music and then ceremoniously lowered.

14.25 NATIONAL ENSIGN The following rules govern the display of the national ensign in port and under way.

14.25.1 In Port When not under way, commissioned ships display the ensign from the flagstaff at the stern and the union jack from the jackstaff at the bow from 0800 to sunset. In the case of a mastless ship, the ensign will be displayed from the loftiest hoist on board. After entering a foreign port during darkness, a Navy ship briefly displays the ensign from the gaff at first light to establish nationality. Other ships of war present customarily display their ensigns in return.

According to SECNAVINST 10520.4, the oldest ship in the Navy, as identified by the Chief of Naval Operations, is to display the first Navy jack, in lieu of the union jack, at the jackstaff.

14.25.2 Under Way When flown under way during peacetime, the ensign normally is displayed during daylight from the gaff (or triatic stay in the case of those ships with mast-mounted booms and stays, which would interfere with the hoisting, lowering, or flying of the national ensign) under the following situations unless otherwise directed by the senior officer present:

• Getting under way or mooring/anchoring • Falling in with other ships • Cruising near land • When engaged in battle

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-53 UNCLASSIFIED When cruising under wartime conditions, it is customary to fly the national ensign continuously at sea, since battle action may be regarded as always imminent.

The union jack is not flown under way except in the case to denote a general court- martial or court of inquiry is in session. In that case, it is flown from a signal yardarm.

14.25.3 Size of Ensign/Jack for Shipboard Use Table 14-1 shows the appropriate size of the ensign and jack to be used aboard your ship. Remember that the union jack must be the same size as the union portion of the ensign being flown from the flagstaff.

LENGTH HOLIDAY DAILY SHIP FLAG STAFF JACK STAFF SIZE ENSIGN DIMENSION JACK DIMENSION SIZE ENSIGN DIMENSION JACK DIMENSION Less 100' 10' Jackstaffs with anchor lights mounted thereon shall be of sufficient height so as to conform to Rules of the Road 8 3'6" × 6' 7 3/4" 1' 10 9/16" × 2' 7 5/16" 10 2' 4 7/16" × 4'6" (See Note 1) 100'- 150' 12' 8 3'6" × 6' 7 3/4" 1' 10 9/16" × 2' 7 5/16" 10 2' 4 7/16" × 4'6" (See Note 1) 151'- 200' 15' 7 5' 0" × 9' 6" 2' 8 l/4" × 3' 9 5/8" 8 3'6" × 6' 7 3/4" 1' 10 9/16" × 2' 7 15/16" 201'- 450' 17' 7 5' 0" × 9'6" 2' 8 l/4” × 3' 9 5/8" 8 3'6" × 6' 7 3/4" 1' 10 9/16" × 2' 7 15/16" 451'- UP 22' 5 8' 11 3/8" × 17' 0" 4' 9 13/16" × 6' 9 5/8" 7 5'0" × 9'6" 2' 8 l/4" × 3' 9 5/8" Table 14-1 Sizes of Ensigns and Jacks for Shipboard Use

14.25.4 Shore Display of the National Ensign The national ensign is displayed from 0800 until sunset at all U.S. naval activity headquarters. The following are additional rules that apply to the display of the national ensign:

• No other flag or pennant will be displayed above or, if on the same level, to the right of the ensign.

• When displayed with foreign ensigns, the U.S. ensign must be displayed to the extreme right and on the same level. International usage forbids displaying the flag of one nation over that of another nation in time of peace. The national ensign of other nations is displayed to the left of the U.S. ensign, beginning in alphabetical order. The only exception to this rule is when the U.S. naval activity is in a foreign country, in which case that country’s flag will be to the immediate left of the U.S. ensign without regard to alphabetical listing.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-54 UNCLASSIFIED • In a semicircular grouping, all flags other than the U.S. ensign are displayed in alphabetical order starting from left and reading clockwise. The U.S. ensign is displayed in the middle of the semicircle.

The display of the national ensign from various flagpoles is contained in NTP 13; as a general rule, the right side of a flagpole is determined by looking from the main entrance of a building towards the pole. Flagpoles at naval shore activities are topped with a brass ball of appropriate size.

14.25.5 Flag Size for Shore The following dimensions may be used in determining the size of the ensign to be flown. A larger size is flown on Sundays and holidays and a smaller size flown daily if such a choice is available.

Height of flagpole Recommended size Less than 35 feet #8 (3' 6" × 6' 7 3/4") 35 to 55 feet # 7 (5' × 9' 6") Greater than 55 feet #5 (8' 11 3/8" × 17')

14.25.6 Miscellaneous Information The union jack is not displayed ashore. The church or Jewish pennant is not displayed above the national ensign ashore, but separately if desired. The following sites have been authorized to fly the national ensign 24 hours a day:

• U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C. • White House, Washington, D.C. • Fort McHenry, Baltimore, Maryland • Home of Betsy Ross, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania • U.S. Marine Corps Iwo Jima Memorial, Arlington, Virginia • Battle Green, Lexington, Massachusetts • Washington Monument, Washington, D.C. • Customs Ports of Entry

14.25.7 Hoisting and Lowering The national ensign is never broken, but always hoisted briskly and smartly and lowered ceremoniously. The only exception to this practice is when the national ensign is hauled down briskly and smartly from the gaff as a ship shifts colors to the flagstaff when anchoring or mooring between the hours of 0800 and sunset. On board ships and crafts of the Navy, the union jack at the jackstaff is hoisted, lowered, and half-masted with the national ensign at the flagstaff.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-55 UNCLASSIFIED 14.25.8 Half-Masting the Ensign When half-masting the national ensign, it must, if not already hoisted, first be hoisted to the peak, then lowered to the half-mast position. Before lowering from half-mast, the flag must be hoisted to the peak and then lowered.

When the President directs that the national ensign be flown at half-mast at military installations and aboard ships, it must be flown at half-mast whether or not the ensign of another nation is flown close-up alongside the U.S. ensign.

When the national ensign is flown half-mast in ships or crafts of the Navy, the church or Jewish worship pennant, if flown, is hoisted just above the national ensign.

If holiday colors are to be displayed on days other than Sundays and holidays, or if colors are to be displayed at half-mast on days other than Memorial Day, the senior officer present, at 0745, hoists the appropriate signal. If such signal is hoisted after 0800, colors must be shifted or half-masted when the signal is hauled down. If half-masting is ordered during periods of dress or full-dress ship, only the national ensign at the flagstaff is half- masted.

NOTE On board ship or at a shore command, upon all occasions of hoisting, lowering, or half- masting of the national ensign, the motion of the senior officer present must be followed except as prescribed for answering a dip or firing a gun salute.

Table 14-2 shows the occasions when the flag is half-masted as a symbol of mourning. As you can see by table 14-2, there are occasions when ships under way do not half-mast the ensign although those not under way do so. The ensign is also half-masted on the following occasions:

• The United States honors its war dead on Memorial Day by half-masting the flag from 0800 until the last gun of a 21-minute gun salute that begins at noon or until 1220 if no gun salute is rendered.

• During burial at sea, the ensign is at half-mast from the beginning of the funeral service until the body is committed to the deep. A longer period for displaying the ensign at half-mast may be prescribed, according to circumstances, by the senior officer present. Boats participating in a funeral procession also fly the national ensign at half-mast.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-56 UNCLASSIFIED

Table 14-2 Occasions When the National Flag is Half-Masted as a Symbol of Mourning

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-57 UNCLASSIFIED 14.25.9 Dipping the National Ensign U.S. Navy Regulations stipulates that when any ship under United States registry or the registry of a nation formally recognized by the United States salutes a U.S. Navy ship by dipping its flag, the courtesy is to be returned, dip for dip. If a salute is rendered to a naval vessel when the ensign is not already displayed, such as before 0800 or after sunset (in port), the national ensign shall be hoisted for the purpose of answering the dip and, after a suitable interval, hauled down. If displayed at half-mast, the national ensign must first be hoisted to the peak before answering the dip, then returned to half-mast after a suitable interval.

No U.S. Navy ship shall dip the national ensign unless in return for such compliment. U.S. naval ships (USNS) of the Military Sealift Command do not dip the national ensign to Navy ships, since they are public ships of the United States.

Formal recognition does not necessarily mean that diplomatic relations must exist. Moreover, the fact that diplomatic relations have been severed does not mean that the United States no longer recognizes the existence of the state or the government concerned.

According to the State Department (Protocol) listing of 6/86, the following governments (fig. 14-14) were not formally recognized by the United States and, therefore, are not entitled to a salute:

• Albania • Angola • Cuba • Kampuchea • Iran • Libya • Mongolia • North Korea • South Yemen (Peoples Democratic Republic of) • Vietnam (Social Republic of)

Dips by yachts displaying a yacht ensign are also returned. The yacht ensign is similar in design to the U.S. ensign except that the blue field contains a white fouled anchor surrounded by 13 white stars.

Submarines, or such other ships of the line in which it would be considered hazardous for personnel to do so, are not required to dip the ensign.

Of the colors carried by a naval force on shore, only the U.S. Navy flag and the Battalion Colors are dipped in rendering or acknowledging a salute.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-58 UNCLASSIFIED

14.26 UNION JACK The union jack, when displayed from the jackstaff, is the same size as the union of the ensign displayed from the flagstaff.

When a naval ship is not under way, the union jack is flown from the jackstaff from 0800 to sunset. It is also hoisted at the yardarm to indicate that a general court-martial or a court of inquiry is in session. It is hoisted when the court meets and is hauled down when the court adjourn.

When displayed from the jackstaff, the union jack is half-masted when the ensign is half- masted. It is not dipped, however, when the ensign is dipped in return for such honor being rendered it.

The union jack is flown in boats as follows:

• When a diplomatic representative of the United States of or above the rank of charge d’affaires is embarked in a boat of the U.S. Navy and is within the waters of the country to which he/she is accredited

Figure 14-14 Flags of nations not formally recognized by the United States

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-59 UNCLASSIFIED • When a governor general or governor commissioned as such by the President is embarked in a boat in an official capacity and is within the area of jurisdiction (for example, the Governor of the Virgin Islands)

14.27 PERSONAL FLAGS AND COMMAND PENNANTS Figure 14-15 shows personal flags, personal command pennants, and several miscellaneous flags and pennants.

The distinctive mark of a ship or craft in commission in the Navy is either a commission pennant, a personal flag, or a command pennant of an officer of the Navy eligible for command at sea. The distinctive mark of a Navy hospital ship in commission is the Red Cross flag.

Only one distinctive mark is displayed by a ship or craft at one time. If a personal flag, including that of a civil official, or command pennant goes up, the commission pennant comes down. Except as prescribed in Navy Regulations for certain occasions of ceremony, the distinctive mark must remain at the after masthead day and night or, in a mastless ship, from the loftiest and most conspicuous hoist. Ceremonial occasions may require the shifting of the distinctive mark to another masthead or to the starboard yardarm. Figure 14-15 Personal flags and command pennants of officers eligible for command at sea

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-60 UNCLASSIFIED 14.27.1 Display of Personal Flags and Command Pennants A flag officer or unit commander afloat must display his/her personal flag or command pennant from his/her flagship. At no time must he/she display it from more than one ship. When a flag officer, eligible for command at sea, is embarked for passage in a ship of the Navy, his/her personal flag must be displayed from such ship unless there is already displayed a personal flag of an officer his/her senior.

There are any number of civil officials entitled to show personal flags that go with their offices. The flags of interest to a Quartermaster, however, are those belonging to civil officials whose personal flags are authorized for display during official visits. (Visits are discussed later in this chapter.) Personal flags of principal civil officials are shown in figure 14-16.

The commission pennant is hauled down when the personal flags of the following civil officials are displayed at the main truck during official visits and during the time they are officially embarked for passage in a Navy ship:

• President • Vice Resident • Secretary of State, when acting as a special foreign representative of the President • Secretary, Deputy Secretary, and Assistant • Secretaries of Defense • Secretary, Under Secretary, and Assistant • Secretaries of the Navy

When more than one civil official is aboard, only the flag of the senior is displayed.

14.27.2 Restrictions A ship under way must not display a personal flag or command pennant unless a flag officer or unit commander is aboard. Should a flagship get under way during the absence of the flag officer, the personal flag or command pennant is hauled down and replaced with a commission pennant. Should the flag officer or unit commander depart his/her ship at sea for a brief call to another ship, his/her personal flag or command pennant should remain hoisted.

A personal flag or command pennant may be hauled down during battle or at any time the officer concerned, or the senior officer present, considers the need to render the flagship less distinguishable. If hauled down, it will be replaced with a commission pennant.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-61 UNCLASSIFIED

Personal flags or command pennants of military officers other than U.S. naval officers eligible for command at sea are not displayed from ships or crafts of the U.S. Navy.

An officer of the Navy commanding a ship engaged otherwise than in the service of the United States must not display a personal flag, command pennant, or commission pennant from such ship or in the bow of a boat.

14.27.3 Broad and Burgee Command Pennants Personal command pennants of an officer of the Navy, not a flag officer, commanding a unit of ships or aircraft are of two types: broad and burgee. A broad command pennant indicates command of:

1. A force, flotilla, squadron, or group of ships of any type (PHIBGRU, DESRON), or 2. An aircraft wing.

Figure 14-16 Personal flags of civil officials of the United States

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-62 UNCLASSIFIED The burgee command pennant indicates command of a division of ships other than aircraft carriers or cruisers, or a major subdivision of an aircraft wing.

The broad and burgee command pennants are shown with numerals to indicate the organizational number of the command within a type, when numerals are assigned. When two commanders within a type are entitled to display the same command pennant and have the same organizational number, the senior of the two uses Roman numerals on the pennant. In all other cases, Arabic numerals are used. For more information concerning the use of the broad and burgee command pennants, refer to NTP 13, chapter 9.

14.27.4 Size of Personal Flags and Command Pennants A vessel under 600 feet in length shall display a size 6 command pennant or a size 7 personnel flag. A vessel 600 feet or greater in length shall display a size 4 command pennant or a size 6 personal flag.

14.27.5 Display of Two Personal Flags Simultaneously When the personal flag of a civil official is displayed aboard a ship or craft of the Navy, the personal flag or command pennant of the embarked commander must be displayed as follows:

• Aboard a single-masted ship, at the starboard yardarm • Aboard a two-masted ship, at the fore truck • Aboard a ship with more than two masts, at the after mast

When the personal flag of a civil official and the personal flag or command pennant of an officer of the Navy are displayed at the starboard yardarm, the flag of the civil official shall be displayed outboard.

14.27.6 Display of a Personal Flag and Pennant when National Ensign is at Masthead The President’s flag, if displayed at a masthead where the national ensign is required to be displayed during an official visit or during periods of dress or full-dress ship, must remain at that masthead to port of the United States ensign and to starboard of a foreign national ensign.

Except as just mentioned, a personal flag or command pennant must not be displayed at the same masthead with the ensign, but should be displayed as follows:

• During periods of dressing or full-dressing, if displayed from the fore truck or from the masthead of a single-masted ship, it should be shifted to the starboard yardarm; if displayed from the main truck, the personal flag or command pennant is shifted at the fore truck in lieu of the national ensign at that mast; and if displayed from the after truck of a ship with more than two masts, it remains at the after truck in lieu of the national ensign.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-63 UNCLASSIFIED • During gun salutes in which the ensign is hoisted at the main truck, however, the personal flag or pennant is simply lowered clear of the ensign.

• During an official visit, the personal flag or command pennant is shifted to the starboard yardarm in a single-masted ship and to the fore truck in a two-masted ship.

14.27.7 Ashore Display of Personal Flags and Command Pennants Personal flags and command pennants are flown day and night at a suitable and conspicuous place at naval shore installations. When the points for display of two or more personal flags ashore are in such close proximity as to make their separate display inappropriate, that of the senior officer is displayed. When two officials entitled to display personal flags are at the same command, only the senior officer displays his/her flag.

Official Visits During an official visit by a foreign president or sovereign, the national ensign of that nation is flown during the visit. A visit by any other foreign officials requires the display of the foreign national ensign or personal flag during the gun salute only, as follows:

• If the foreign visitor is a military official or officer, his/her personal flag, if provided, is flown during the salute and from automobiles. If no flag is provided, the foreign ensign of such nation is flown during the salute, and an equivalent personal flag of a U.S. naval officer may be flown from automobiles, and a comparable plate shown on a military plane transporting the dignitary.

• U.S. personal flags for specific positions (CNO, VCNO) are not used for foreign visitors. In these cases, either the military rank equivalent flag or foreign national ensign is used for colors.

• During all first official visits for foreign service chiefs, the rank of the visitor is equal to that of his/her U.S. counterpart. Therefore, a U.S. Navy line officer four- star flag is flown for foreign navy Chiefs (instead of the CNO personal flag), regardless of the foreign service chiefs’ rank.

Flagpole Configurations and Size of Flags Flown The following information is provided in selecting the proper halyard for displaying a personal flag or command pennant with the U.S. flag:

Polemast —Personal flag/command pennant not flown

Polemast with Crosstree —Outermost halyard, right -hand crosstree

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-64 UNCLASSIFIED Polemast with Gaff—Peak of pole

Polemast with Crosstree and Gaff—Peak of pole

Now that you know the proper halyards for the display of the personal flag and command pennant, you now must know what size to use. The following information indicates the appropriate size of personal flag or command pennant to be flown at shore activities from flagstaffs of various height.

Flagstaff Height Personal Flag Broad/Burgee Less than 35 feet #7 1'10" by 2'8" #8 1'2" by 1' 6" Greater than 35 feet #6 3'7" by 5' 1 1/2" #6 2' by 2' 7"

14.27.8 Personal Flags on Vehicles An officer entitled to display a personal flag or command pennant may, when riding in a government vehicle on official occasions, display such flag or pennant forward on the vehicle. The staff used for vehicle flags is topped by an acorn, regardless of the rank of the official or officer in the vehicle.

All flag officers are authorized to show stars of their rank on their assigned vehicle. The method of showing such stars should be plates resembling civilian license plates in shape and size. Coloring will correspond to that of the personal flag. Personal flags must not be painted on the vehicle.

14.27.9 Personal Flags on Aircraft Civil and military official aircraft plates are facsimiles, less fringe, of individual personal flags of the official concerned, reduced in scale and reproduced on a metal plate, 11 by 14 inches. Normally, the civil or military official’s aide will be responsible for ensuring that the individual’s aircraft plate is available for display.

Personal flags may also be printed on aircraft assigned to flag officers acting in flag billets. Sheet metal replicas inserted in metal slots are also authorized. The flag should be located on each side of the forward fuselage and must conform in size.

NTP 13 contains a list of personnel authorized to display a personal flag from an aircraft.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-65 UNCLASSIFIED 14.27.10 Commission Pennant With exceptions already noted, the commission pennant is the distinctive mark of a Navy ship in commission that has no flag officer or other unit commander embarked. The pennant is flown at the after truck or, on a mastless ship, at the highest and most conspicuous point of hoist.

Although the commission pennant is not a personal pennant, it is sometimes regarded as the personal symbol of the commanding officer. Along with the ensign and union jack, it is half-masted upon the death of the commanding officer. It remains at half-mast until sunset of the day of the funeral or until the body is removed from the ship.

14.28 DRESSING AND FULL-DRESSING SHIP When dressing or full-dressing ship, the largest national ensign with which the ship is furnished is displayed from the flagstaff and, except as prescribed for a ship displaying a personal flag or command pennant, a national ensign is displayed from each masthead. The national ensigns displayed at the mastheads should be of uniform size but smaller than the one at the flagstaff. If there is a substantial difference in heights of mastheads, however, a difference in the size of the national ensigns is appropriate.

When the ship is full-dressed, mastheads are dressed as described in the preceding paragraph, In addition, a rainbow of signal flags is displayed, reaching from the foot of the jackstaff to the mastheads, then to the foot of the flagstaff. Peculiarly masted or mastless ships make a display as little modified from the rainbow effect as possible. The rainbow is displayed in the order prescribed in NTP 13.

Ships not under way are dressed or full-dressed from 0800 until sunset. Ships under way are not dressed or full-dressed. Ships operated by the Military Sealift Command (MSC) are not required to be full-dressed, but will dress ship when full-dress is specified and on all occasions of dress ship.

Ships are full-dressed on the third Monday of February (President's Day) and the Fourth of July (Independence Day). When the Fourth of July falls on a Sunday, ceremonies are conducted the following day. Ships are dressed on the remaining national holidays. Ships may be full-dressed or dressed at such other times as may be prescribed.

When dressing or full-dressing ship in honor of a foreign nation, the national ensign of that nation replaces the United States national ensign at the main, or the masthead in a single-masted ship.

Should the occasion arise whereby the ensign is to be half-masted or dipped during dress or full-dress ship, only the national ensign at the flagstaff is half-masted or dipped.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-66 UNCLASSIFIED When full-dressing is prescribed, the senior officer present may direct that dressing be substituted if the state of the weather makes such action advisable. The senior officer present may also exempt ships undergoing shipyard and/or repairs from dress or full- dress ship.

Only clean flags should be used in full-dressing ship. On large ships, more than one set of flags may be needed to fill all the dressing lines. Flags should be stopped to the dressing lines the day before the ship is to be full-dressed, otherwise something unforeseen might develop and the dressing lines would not be ready for hoisting at 0800.

The ensigns, jack, and rainbow of flags should be hoisted smartly at 0800. At evening colors, all ensigns and the jack should be lowered ceremoniously. The rainbow of flags should be lowered quickly.

14.29 COLORS The ceremonial hoisting and lowering of the national flag at 0800 and sunset at commands ashore and aboard ships of the Navy not under way is known as morning and evening colors. The guard of the day and the band, if available, are in the vicinity of the point of hoist.

Aboard Navy ships or naval shore activities on all occasions of hoisting and lowering or half-masting the national ensign, the motions of the senior officer present are to be followed. Five minutes before morning and evening colors, at first call, the PREPARATIVE pennant is hoisted. Ceremonies for colors begin when the pennant is hauled to the dip.

If a band is available for colors ceremonies, “Attention” is sounded, followed by the band playing the national anthem. In the morning, the ensign is started up at the beginning of the music and hoisted smartly to the peak or truck. At evening colors, the ensign is started down at the beginning of the music; lowering is so regulated as to be completed at the last note of the music. The national flag always is hoisted smartly and lowered ceremoniously. “Carry on” is sounded at the completion of the music.

If no band is aboard, “To the Colors” is played on the bugle at morning colors, and “Retreat” at evening colors. For ships having neither a band nor a bugler, whistle signals are used to call attention to colors; a single blast indicates “Attention,” and those not in rank render the hand salute. At the conclusion of colors, three short blasts mean “Carry on.”

Voice commands are used only as a last resort. The words attention to colors and carry on are passed on the ship’s 1MC. The hand salute is rendered as described for whistle signals.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-67 UNCLASSIFIED When the music from another ship can be heard during colors and there is no band or bugler aboard your ship, the command to “Carry on” should not be given until the music being overheard is completed.

After morning colors, if foreign warships are present, the national anthem of each nation so represented should be played in the order in which a gun salute would be fired to, or exchanged with, the senior official or officer present of each nation. When in a foreign port, however, the national anthem of the port should be played immediately after morning colors, followed by the national anthems of the other foreign nations represented. A schedule of the English alphabetical order of the members of the United Nations is listed in Annex B of NTP 13.

For sunrise procedure, the PREPARATIVE pennant is hoisted close up 5 minutes before sunrise and hauled down at sunrise. At this time all deck lights are also turned off and appropriate flags hoisted.

14.30 FLAG DISPLAYS IN BOATS The ensign is displayed at the stern of waterborne boats of the naval service as follows:

• When under way during daylight in a foreign port • When ships are required to be dressed or full-dressed • When going alongside a foreign vessel • When an officer or official is embarked on an official occasion • When a flag or general officer, a unit commander, a commanding officer, or a chief of staff, in uniform, is embarked in a boat of the command or in one assigned for personal use • At other times when prescribed by the senior officer present

14.30.1 Personal Flags and Pennants When an officer in command (or chief of staff) entitled to a personal flag or command pennant is embarked in a boat on an official occasion, the appropriate flag or pennant is flown at its bow. If the officer is not entitled to a personal flag or pennant, a commission pennant is displayed. On other than official occasions, a miniature personal flag or pennant is displayed near the coxswain’s station.

Bow Marking Boats also carry bow markings indicating to whom the boat is assigned. A boat having an arrow at the bow is assigned for use by a commanding officer or a chief of staff who is not a flag officer. A miniature of the command pennant is on the bow of a boat assigned to a unit commander. A boat assigned for the personal use of a flag or general officer has on each bow the number of stars corresponding to the officer’s rank.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-68 UNCLASSIFIED Union Jack In the waters of the nations to which he/she is accredited, a diplomatic representative of or above the rank of charge d’affaires and a governor or governor general commissioned by the President are entitled to display the union jack within his/her area of jurisdiction.

14.31 BOAT HAILS Boat hails are used during hours when honors are rendered (sunrise to sunset). The OOD should challenge an approaching boat as soon as possible by raising a clinched fist in the direction of the boat. He/she should also train a long glass or binoculars on the coxswain. The coxswain replies to this challenge by holding up the number of fingers corresponding to the number of side boys required to honor the senior official or officer on board.

Boats approaching a Navy ship between the hours of sunset and sunrise should be hailed as soon as within hearing distance with “Boat ahoy.” The coxswain then replies with the appropriate word or phrase to indicate the highest official or officer on board.

14.32 FLAGSTAFF TOPPING ORNAMENTS A staff ornament must top the flagstaff upon which the national ensign is displayed in boats of the naval service when an officer or civil official is embarked on an official occasion or when a flag officer, unit commander, commanding officer, chief of staff, or chief staff officer, in uniform, is embarked in a boat of his/her command or one assigned for his/her personal use. An additional staff ornament of the same type must top the flagstaff in the bow upon which the personal flag, command pennant, or commission pennant is displayed.

Figure 14-17 shows sketches of the different ornaments used today by the Navy. The topping ornament must have a highly polished brass finish. See NTP 13, chapter 11, for rules governing the display of flagstaff topping ornaments.

Figure 14-17 Flagstaff topping ornaments

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-69 UNCLASSIFIED 14.33 HONORS In this section, we explain the different procedures used for conducting the different types of honors.

14.33.1 Passing Honors In some cases, the distinctive mark flown from a ship indicates the grade of the senior line officer on board and, thus, is a means of determining who should initiate passing honors. The commanders of the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets periodically issue a list of ships and subdivisions of the fleet with the name and lineal number of each commanding officer and commander. The list helps determine who should initiate honors, but because unit commanders occasionally ride other ships, Quartermasters must be alert to distinctive marks being flown.

Passing honors are those honors other than gun salutes that are rendered on occasion between Navy and/or Coast Guard ships or embarked officials or officers that pass, or are passed, close aboard. Close aboard means passing within 600 yards for ships and 400 yards for boats, but both frequently are extended to ensure that appropriate honors are rendered.

14.33.2 Sequence for Rendering Passing Honors Most frequently, passing honors consist of saluting the ship or official passing. When the bow of a ship passes the bow or stern of another commissioned ship or boat, attention to the appropriate side is called by sounding one or two whistles over the 1 MC. All hands in view on that side and not in ranks face outboard. “Hand salute” is sounded. When the other ship or the official returns the salute, “Two” and then “Carry on” are sounded. Bugle, whistle, and passing the word are used for passing honors, with bugle being the preferred method. Bugle or whistle signals are as follows:

One blast— Attention to starboard Two blasts—Attention to port One blast— Render salute Two blasts—Terminate salute, remain at attention Three blasts-Carry on

In addition, the honors prescribed in table 14-3 are rendered by a ship of the Navy passing close aboard a ship or naval station displaying the flag of the official indicated and by a naval station, when practicable, when a ship displaying such a flag passes close aboard. These honors, and all honors between ships, are acknowledged by rendering the same honors in return.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-70 UNCLASSIFIED The honors prescribed in table 14-4 are rendered by a ship of the Navy passing or being passed close aboard by a boat displaying the flag of a civil official indicated. Honors to Armed Forces officers displaying a personal flag or command pennant from the bow of a boat are the same as those for passing Navy ships.

Table 14-3 Passing Honors Between Ships

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-71 UNCLASSIFIED

When a ship of the Navy is passing the USS Arizona Memorial, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, between sunrise and sunset, passing honors consisting of sounding “Attention” and rendering the hand salute by all persons in view on deck and not in ranks must be executed by that ship.

Honors to officers or officials embarked in boats are acknowledged by the officer or official through a hand salute or other mark of respect.

When a boat bearing a senior passes, passing honors are rendered. If a junior but a commanding officer, unit commander, or flag officer on an official occasion passes, personnel on the quarterdeck only will salute. This is a mark of respect to a person who holds command at sea.

Table 14-4 Passing Honors Between Boats

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-72 UNCLASSIFIED 14.33.3 Dispensing with Passing Honors Passing honors are not rendered after sunset or before 0800 except when international courtesy requires such action. They are not exchanged between ships of the Navy engaged in tactical evolutions outside port.

The senior officer present may direct that passing honors be omitted in whole or in part.

Passing honors are not rendered by or required of ships with small bridge areas, such as submarines, particularly when in restricted waters.

14.33.4 Passing Honors to Foreign Dignitaries and Warships Honors prescribed for the President of the United States are rendered by a ship of the Navy being passed close aboard by a ship or boat displaying the flag or standard of a foreign president, sovereign, or member of a reigning family except that the foreign national anthem is played instead of the national anthem of the United States.

14.33.5 Side Honors Side honors are rendered to foreign officers, civil officials, and all U.S. officers boarding and departing the ship, when directed by the senior officer present; the side is piped and the appropriate number of side boys paraded. Officers appropriate to the occasion attend the side on the arrival and departure of officials and officers.

Side honors are not rendered between sunset and 0800, during meal hours, or on Sundays. Side boys are not paraded on Sundays; on other days between sunset and 0800; or during meal hours of the crew, general drills and evolutions, and periods of regular overhaul except in honor of civil officials or foreign officers, when they may be paraded at anytime during daylight. Side boys are paraded only on scheduled visits.

Except for official visits and other formal occasions, side boys are not paraded in honor of officers of the armed services of the United States unless otherwise directed by the senior officer present.

Side boys are not paraded in honor of an officer of the armed services in civilian clothes unless such officer is acting in an official civil capacity.

The side shall be piped when side boys are paraded, but not at other times.

Side honors also may be rendered as a part of naval courtesy to officers and officials on occasion other than official visit. Once the honors are rendered, it becomes an official visit, modified by the senior officer present.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-73 UNCLASSIFIED 14.34 HONORS FOR OFFICIAL VISITS Articles in U.S. Navy Regulations detail honors for official visits by military and civil officials arriving and departing.

14.34.1 Arriving Honors prescribed for an official visit are rendered on arrival as follows:

1. When the rail is manned, men/women shall be uniformly spaced at the rail on each weather deck, facing outboard. 2. “Attention” is sounded as the visitor’s boat or vehicle approaches the ship. 3. If an arrival gun salute is prescribed, it is fired as the visitor approaches and still is clear of the side. The proper flag or pennant is broken on the first gun, and hauled down on the last gun except when it is to be flown for the duration of the visit. Other ships firing a concurrent salute, on the last gun should haul down the flag or pennant displayed in the honor of the visitor. If the ship visited is moored in such a position that it is not practicable to render the gun salute before the visitor arrives on board, the salute is rendered (provided local regulations do not forbid gun salutes) after the official and party have arrived on board and are in a position well clear of the saluting battery. 4. The boat or vehicle is piped as it comes alongside. 5. The visitor is piped over the side; all persons on the quarterdeck salute and the guard presents arms until termination of the call, ruffles and flourishes, music, or gun salute, depending on which is the last rendered. If a gun salute is not prescribed on arrival but a flag or pennant is to be displayed during the visit, it is broken at the start of the call. 6. Piping of the side, ruffles and flourishes, and music are rendered in that order. In the absence of a band, “To the Colors” is sounded on the bugle in lieu of the national anthem, when required. 7. The visitor, if entitled to 11 guns or more, is invited to inspect the guard upon completion of honors.

14.34.2 Departing Departure honors for an official visit are as follows:

1. The rail is manned, if required. 2. “Attention” is sounded as the visitor arrives on the quarterdeck. 3. When the visitor is ready to leave the ship, the guard presents arms; all persons on the quarterdeck salute; and ruffles and flourishes, followed by music, are rendered. The visitor is then piped over the side. The salute and present arms terminate with the last note of the call. If no salute is to be fired, the flag or pennant displayed in honor of the visitor is hauled down.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-74 UNCLASSIFIED 4. The boat or vehicle is piped away from the side. 5. If a gun salute is prescribed on departure, it is fired when the visitor is clear of the side. If a flag or pennant is displayed in honor of the visitor, it is hauled down with the last gun of the salute.

The same honor and ceremonies as for an official visit to a ship of the Navy is rendered, insofar as practicable and appropriate, on the occasion of an official visit to a naval station, except that manning the rail, piping the side, and parading side boys are not considered appropriate. When, in the opinion of the senior officer present, such honors will serve a definite purpose, they may be rendered.

14.35 HONORS ON RELIEF OF COMMAND When a flag officer or a unit commander relieves a command or departs after being relieved, the same honors are rendered as for an official visit, subject to regulations pertaining to gun salutes.

When assuming a command, an officer reads his/her orders to the assembled officers and crew. Immediately after reading the orders, the officer’s personal flag or command pennant is broken, and a gun salute, if required, is fired.

If the flag officer or unit commander is relieving another officer in command, the officer being relieved reads his/her orders to the assembled officers and crew. On completion thereof, or after the gun salute, if fired, the commission pennant is hoisted and the personal flag or pennant immediately lowered. The officer succeeding to command then reads his/her orders, and on completion thereof, the flag or command pennant is broken and the ship’s commission pennant is hauled down.

An important point of the relieving ceremony as it pertains to a Quartermaster is that the ship’s distinctive mark always be in the air. There are occasions, for example, when commanding officers (below flag rank) being relieved are presented with the ship’s commission pennant. When such a presentation is to be made, a new commission pennant must be closed up before the one to be presented is hauled down.

14.36 HONORS FOR OFFICIAL INSPECTION When a flag officer or unit commander boards a ship of the Navy to make an official inspection, honors are rendered as for an official visit. The flag or pennant is broken upon arrival and is hauled down on departure. When the flag of a flag officer or unit commander is flying on board the vessel being inspected, his/her personal flag is hauled down on board the flagship unless the latter is the vessel being inspected.

The same provisions apply, insofar as practical and appropriate, when a flag officer in command ashore makes an official inspection of a unit of his/her command.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-75 UNCLASSIFIED 14.37 HONORS FOR FOREIGN MILITARY OFFICERS AND CIVIL OFFICIALS Honors rendered to foreign military officers and civil officials are essentially the same as those for United States officers and civil officials of the same rank. A foreign naval officer’s flag is not, however, displayed from a US. Navy ship. Flags pictured in figure 14-18 are shown for the purpose of recognition and as an aid in determining relative seniority for rendering passing honors and the like.

The national ensign of the foreign country is flown from a U.S. Navy ship when visited by a foreign officer or civil official. If the official is entitled to a 21-gun salute, the foreign ensign is flown from the main masthead. If entitled to fewer than 21 guns, it is flown from the foremast. The personal flag or command pennant normally displayed at the main would be moved to another location, as mentioned earlier for U.S. civil officials.

Figure 14-18 Personal flags of major naval powers

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-76 UNCLASSIFIED 14.38 U.S. NAVY FLAG On 24 April 1959, the President, on the recommendation of the Secretary of the Navy, established an official flag (fig. 14-19) for the United States Navy. That was done to fulfill a need for an official flag to represent the Navy on a variety of ceremonial, parade, and display occasions.

The U.S. Navy flag represents the Navy as follows:

• At Official ceremonies • In parades • During official Navy display occasions • At public gatherings when the Navy is an official participant • On other occasions as may be authorized by the Secretary of the Navy

When used for these purposes, the Navy flag accompanies and takes the place of honor after the national flag. However, when other branches of the Armed Forces are participating, the flags take precedence in order of seniority of the services represented.

Figure 14-19 United States Navy flag

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-77 UNCLASSIFIED 14.39 UNITED NATIONS FLAG The flag of the United Nations consists of the official emblem of the United Nations in white centered on a “United Nations blue” field (fig. 14-20).

The flag is flown from all buildings, offices, and other property occupied by the United Nations. The manner and circumstances of display conform, as far as appropriate, to the laws and customs applicable to the display of the national flag of the country in which the display is made.

The United Nations flag is displayed at installations of the Armed Forces of the United States only upon occasions of visits of high dignitaries of the United Nations while in performance of their duties with the United Nations. When so displayed, it is displayed with the U.S. flag; both flags should be of approximately the same size and on the same level, with the flag of the United States in the position of honor on the right, the observer’s left.

When United Nations dignitaries are to be honored, U.S. Navy vessels display the United Nations flag in the same manner as they present a foreign ensign during visits of a foreign president or sovereign.

The President of the United States may authorize the display of the United Nations flag for national occasions other than those named.

Flags, Pennants and Customs, NTP 13, contains instructions for the display of, restrictions, and prohibitions for the United Nations flag. The following list contains a few of the regulations:

Figure 14-20 United Nations Flag

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-78 UNCLASSIFIED The United Nations flag may be displayed alone or with other national flags to demonstrate support of the United Nations and to further its principles and purpose.

• When it is displayed with one or more other flags, all flags displayed are flown on the same level and should be of approximately equal size. • It may be displayed on either side of any other flag without being in a subordinate position to such flag. On no account may any flag displayed with the United Nations flag be on a higher level than the United Nations flag, and on no account may any flag displayed with the United Nations flag be larger than the United Nations flag. • The flag ordinarily is displayed from sunrise to sunset, but it may also be displayed at night upon special occasions. • The United Nations flag should never be used as a drapery of any sort, nor festooned, drawn back, up, or in folds, but always allowed to fall free.

In a closed circle, a cluster, or a linear or semicircular grouping of flags of the United Nations, flags other than the United Nations flag are displayed in the English alphabetical order of the countries represented, starting from the left and reading clockwise. The United Nations flag may be displayed on a flagpole in the center of a circle of flags or in the center of a line cluster or semicircular display.

14.40 HOMEWARD BOUND PENNANT The homeward-bound pennant is flown by ships returning from extended overseas tours. The pennant is authorized for display by a ship that has been on duty outside the limits of the United States continuously for at least 9 months. It is hoisted on getting under way for the United States and may be flown until sunset on the day of arrival in a port of destination. The pennant is similar to the commission pennant, but instead of the usual seven stars, there is one star for the first 9 months of overseas duty and one star for each additional 6 months. Total length of the pennant customarily is 1 foot for each officer and enlisted crewmember who served overseas for a period in excess of 9 months. When the number of personnel produces an unwieldy pennant, the length of the pennant is restricted to the length of the ship.

Upon arrival in a port of the United States, the blue portion containing the stars is presented to the commanding officer. The remainder of the pennant is divided equally among the officers and enlisted crew.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-79 UNCLASSIFIED 14.41 RED CROSS FLAG The Red Cross (Geneva Convention) flag is the distinctive mark flown from the after truck of a hospital ship of the Navy in commission.

In general, the Red Cross flag is regarded as an international guarantee of amnesty from attack. It is displayed ashore at the sanitary branch (dispensary or infirmary) of an activity of the Navy, in company with the national flag, to indicate that the area immediately surrounding it is entitled to protection under the rules of the Geneva Convention. None of the military services, however, flies it on the same halyard as the national flag. Boats engaged in sanitary service and landing party hospital boats display the Red Cross flag from a staff in the bow.

Some nations in the Middle East regard the cross as a symbol contrary to their religious beliefs. Instead of a red cross on the flag, they use designs such as a red crescent on a white field or a red lion and sun on a white field as an indication of a mission of mercy or amnesty from attack.

14.42 CHURCH AND JEWISH WORSHIP PENNANTS With the sole exception of flag displays at United Nations headquarters, where special rules apply, only the church or Jewish pennant may be flown above the national ensign. The church services must be conducted by a Navy chaplain or visiting church dignitaries aboard ship.

Many ships are fitted with two halyards to the same point of hoist at both the staff and gaff to permit display of the church pennant and ensign simultaneously.

In displaying the church pennant, it is hoisted to the peak or truck, the ensign then being dipped just clear of it. If services are being conducted at the time of morning colors, the ensign is hoisted to the truck at the prescribed time. The church pennant is then hoisted and the ensign dipped just clear of the pennant. If the ensign is displayed at half-mast, the church pennant is hoisted just above the ensign. In lowering the church pennant, the ensign is closed up before the pennant is lowered.

Although the church pennant may not be flown above the national flag ashore, it may be displayed separately.

The Jewish worship pennant is displayed during Jewish religious services afloat and ashore. The same rules governing the display of the church pennant apply to the display of the Jewish worship pennant.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14-80 UNCLASSIFIED 14.43 POW/MIA FLAG All activities authorized to fly the national ensign are encourage to fly the POW/MIA flag on occasions such as Memorial Day, Veterans Day, and National POW/MIA Day.

Ships are to display the flag from the inboard port signal halyard. Ashore display should be beneath the national ensign. The POW/MIA flag can also be used for indoor display to enhance ceremonies.

14.44 AWARD FLAGS AND PENNANTS When not under way, ships should fly award pennants at the foremast from sunrise to sunset, on the same halyard, one below the other, in order of seniority. When ashore, award pennants may be displayed in the order of seniority from the port yardarm at U.S. naval activities. For commands without an appropriate flagpole, a replica of the award flag or pennant may be displayed in or near the vicinity of the command’s quarterdeck. When an award flag or pennant is awarded to a department or division within a command, a replica may be displayed in or near the main entrance to that department or division.

14.45 ABSENTEE PENNANTS When a ship is not under way, the absence of an embarked officer, unit commander, chief of staff, chief staff officer, or commanding officer is indicated from sunrise to sunset by an absentee pennant displayed from the signal yardarm as prescribed in the following table. In the case of the absence of the commanding officer who is also a unit commander or acting as a temporary unit commander, both absentee pennants will be displayed.

Signal Meaning FIRST SUB— starboard outboard Absence of a flag officer or unit commander whose personal flag or command pennant is flying on this ship. SECOND SUB— port inboard Absence of chief of staff or chief staff officer of the commander whose personal flag is flying on this ship. THIRD SUB— port outboard Absence of commanding officer (its use immediately shifts to the executive officer when the commanding officer departs for a period of absence of 72 hours or more). FOURTH SUB— starboard inboard Absence of civil or military official whose flag is flying on this ship.

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14-81 UNCLASSIFIED 14.46 FLAGS OF PRINCIPAL MARITIME NATIONS Unlike the practice in the United States, a number of countries have ensigns different from their national flags. Although color patterns generally remain constant.

Figure 14-21 Flags of some leading maritime nations

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14-82 UNCLASSIFIED 14.47 SUMMARY In this chapter you were informed of some of the many tasks that compile Visual Communications. These tasks ranged from sending and receiving messages by semaphore, flashing light, flaghoist, and radio, and lookout duties, to obtaining and updating publications. You were reminded that your ability to perform your duties affects the operation of your ship, as well as other ships with whom you communicate.

You also learned how to communicate with merchantmen using flaghoist, flashing light, Morse signaling by hand flag or arms, sound, and radiotelephony. You were taught the international distress signals and about the use of the U.S./Russia supplementary signals.

Additionally you have learned about the basic honors and ceremonies. You have learned of the different rules that govern the display of ensigns and how to determine the appropriate size of ensigns for your ship. You have learned how to challenge small boats at night and the meaning of flagstaff ornaments. You have learned the procedures for returning a dip and which countries are not entitled to a dip. You have learned the rule for the display of personal flags and pennants, the commission pennant, the U.S. Navy flag, the United Nations flag, plus much more.

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15-1 UNCLASSIFIED 15 CELESTIAL NA VIGATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Determine gyrocompass error by azimuth of the Sun and Polaris, and amplitude of the Sun. 2. Reduce sights taken on the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets using H.O. 229, Sight Reduction Tables for Marine Navigation, and the Nautical Almanac. 3. Reduce sights taken on the stars using H.O. 249, Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation and the Air Almanac. 4. Determining latitude by local apparent noon. 5. Plot celestial LOPs based on assumed positions.

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15-2 UNCLASSIFIED 15.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter you will learn the methods that are necessary to complete a day’s work in navigation. These include several ways of finding gyrocompass error, reducing sunlines and moonlines, finding latitude by LAN or Polaris, and reducing sights of stars and planets.

You may want to occasionally refer back to that material to have a clearer understanding of this material. We will discuss the procedure aspect of performing and reducing celestial observations only. As you become more familiar with this subject, you are advised to increase your knowledge by studying references such as Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting and Bowditch Pub No. 9.

15.2 METHODS FOR FINDING GYROCOMPASS ERROR There are three celestial methods used by QMs for finding gyrocompass error. They are:

• Azimuth of the Sun • Azimuth of Polaris • Amplitude of the Sun

In each case, you are required to gather data for use in computation. This data may be in the form of sights from the sextant, time in GMT, DR Lat. and Long., and so forth. For each celestial method, we will begin with gathering the necessary data and then working the solutions.

15.2.1 Azimuth of the Sun You must know the following values to determine gyrocompass error by azimuth:

• Time of the actual observation • Date of the observation • DR position at the time of observation Azimuth (gyro bearing of the Sun)

Rule: Due to the elevation of the Sun, azimuths should be taken in mid-morning or mid- afternoon.

Use the following table to gather the data to work the azimuth solution. You must have a recorder present to mark and record the exact time of the observation.

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15-3 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 1. Obtain a time tick from WRN-6 or chronometer with a stopwatch. 2. Break out and place the azimuth circle on the gyro repeater closest to the Sun. 3. Align the Sun in the reflecting mirror in a manner so that the rays reflect back through the prism housing and onto the compass card. 4. When each spirit level is leveled, mark the time and record the reflected gyro bearing from the compass card to the nearest 0.1°. Note: This is a difficult procedure in heavy seas; however, if the azimuth circle is not level, errors will occur. 5. Repeat steps 4 and 5 a minimum of three times.

15.2.2 Gathering Data Now that we have three good observations, we need only to find the DR position for each observation to have the data we need to find the azimuth of the Sun. We will work an example problem using OPNAV strip form AZIMUTH BY PUB 229. For brevity, we’ll work on one observation only. In actual practice, it’s faster to work out all three at the same time by placing the strip form on the left and working the three observations in the next three columns. The purpose of taking at least three observations is to allow us to find errors when taking observations and averaging gyro error. This process normally provides the best results in determining total gyro error.

Besides the data from the observation, you’ll need the Nautical Almanac and Pub 229 to solve the problem.

From the strip form and publication we will find out exactly what the gyro bearing should read, and then we will compare that value to the actual gyro bearing from the observation. The result will be our gyro error.

15.2.3 Example Problem For our example problem, we will assume that we have gathered the following data:

Date: 19 Nov 84 DR Lat.: 33° 37' N DR Long.: 112° 39' E ZT: 15h 42m 22s Gyro Brg: 231.6°

On the following pages, you will find the page laid out with the blank strip form on the left, the action steps in the middle, and the result on the right.

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15-4 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3130/ Azimuth by 229 ACTION Completed Strip Form Date: Enter the date. 19 NOV 84 DR Posit Enter the DR position. 33°37'N - 112°39'E Body Enter the name of the body observed. Sun GMT Enter the time GMT. 07h42m22s GHA(h) Enter the GHA hour value from the Nautical Almanac (fig. 15-1). 288° 38.9' Increment (m/s) Enter the minutes and seconds value from the Nautical Almanac (fig. 15-2). 10° 35.5' Total GHA Add GHA(h) and increments (m/s). 299° 14.4' DR Long +E, -W (+ - 360° if needed) Enter the DR Longitude, add east or subtract west. 112° 39.0'E LHA LHA= Total GHA +E or -W DR Long. 51° 53.4' Tab Dec Enter the tabulated declination for 07 hours on the Sun column from the Nautical Almanac. S 19° 31.2' d# / D Corrn The d# is found at the bottom of the Sun Dec column, in this case it is +0.6. It is assigned a + because Dec is increasing (0700= 19°31.2 0800= 19°31.8). You MUST assign a + or - to the d#. The D corr is found on the Increments and Corrections page for 42m 22s. Look under the v or d column for the d# (0.6) and record the Corrn value (0.4). The D Corrn assumes the same sign as the d#. +0.6 / +0.4 True Dec Apply the D Corrn to Tab Dec S 19° 31.6 DR Lat same or contrary Enter the whole degree of latitude and determine if it is named (N or S) as True Dec In this case, Lat. is N and Dec is S. so it is contrary. N 33° contrary

Up to this point, we have worked the strip form to obtain three values, LHA, True Dec., and DR Latitude. We now have everything we need to enter Pub 229. Pub 229 is entered using whole degrees of Lat., LHA, and Dec. only. We will also interpolate the leftover values using Pub 229.

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15-5 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 15-1 Nautical Almanac right-hand daily pages

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15-6 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 15-2 Nautical Almanac Increments and Corrections page

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15-7 UNCLASSIFIED Look at the left-hand column of the strip form below. Notice that you’ll find values for Dec. Inc/Z Diff, Lat Inc/Z Diff, and LHA Inc/Z Diff. This is where we enter the leftover values from our whole degrees of DR Lat, Declination, and LHA. To do this, we must convert our leftover values into tenths of degrees by dividing each by 60 and rounding to the closest tenth of a degree. Finding Z Diff is a matter of inspecting Pub 229 (see figs. 15-3 and 15-4) in the following manner:

For Dec Inc/Z Diff note the values for the whole degree of dec that you entered the table with and the next high dec, then find the difference. Here are the values for our example problem: Dec 19° Z = 129.1 Dec 20° Z = 129.8. The difference between the values is 0.7. Since the value is increasing between 19° and 20°, we assign it a positive value (+).

Repeat the same procedure for finding Z Diff for Latitude and LHA. In other words, compare lat. 33° and lat 34°. Then compare LHA 51° and 52°.

OPNAV 3130/ Azimuth by 229 ACTION Completed Strip Form Tab Z Enter Pub 229 with entering arguments of Lat 33°, LHA 51°, and Dee 19°. Make sure that you enter on the portion of the page that indicates LATITUDE CONTRARY TO DECLINATION. Follow 19° of Dee across the page to where it falls under the 33° Latitude column and record the value for Tab Z. 129.1 Dec Inc/Z Diff Dec. Inc (left) = 31.6' + 60 which = .53 rounded to 0.5. Compares Z’s for Z Diff. 0.5 / + 0.7 Dec Corr Multiply Dee Inc by Z Diff. + 0.35 Lat Inc/Z Diff Lat Inc (left) = 37.0' + 60 which = .62 rounded to 0.6. Compares Z’s for Z Diff. 0.6 / + 0.3 Lat Corr Multiply Lat Inc by Z Diff. + 0.18 LHA Inc/Z Diff LHA Inc (left) = 53.4' + 60 which = .89 rounded to 0.9. Compares Z’s for Z Diff. 0.9 / - 0.7 LHA Corr Multiply LHA Inc by 2 Diff. - 0.63 Dec Corr Drop the Dec Corr Down. + 0.35 Lat Corr Drop the Lat Corr Down. + 0.18 Total corr Add the LHA, Dec, and Lat Corr. - 0.10

We have now accounted for our leftover values and now can find the Exact Z.

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15-8 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 15-3 Pub 229 sample page

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15-9 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 15-4 Pub 229 next higher LHA to find Z Diff

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15-10 UNCLASSIFIED Tab Z Drop the value from Tab Z. 129.1 Exact Z (-360) Apply the Total Corr to Tab Z (- 0.10). 129.0 Exact Zn On each page of Pub 229 are small notes that state: In N. Lat. if LHA is Greater than 180 then Zn= Z if LHA is Less than 180 then Zn= 360-Z In S. Lat. if LHA is Greater than 180 then Zn= 180-Z if LHA is Less than 180 then Zn= 180+Z Our Lat is N. and LHA is less than 180, therefore Zn=360 - 129 or 231°. 231.0 Gyro Bearing Enter the gyro bearing from the observation. 231.6 Gyro Error Find the difference between Exact Zn and the gyro bearing and name the error. If the gyro bearing is less than the Exact Zn, the error is easterly, if more than Exact Zn, it’s westerly. Use this memory aid: Gyro least - error east, Gyro best - error west. 0.6 West

We have now used the Sun to find the error on our gyrocompass. As stated before, a greater degree of accuracy can be obtained by making several observations and then working the solutions and averaging the results. This may seem a bit tedious; however, you may work all observations at once. This is easily accomplished by entering data in the strip form in stages.

Try this method. First enter GMT DR Lat, DR Long, GHA, Dec, and d#. Next find Increments (m/s), LHA, and True Dec. Now find your leftover values for Dee Inc, Lat Inc, and LHA Inc and enter Pub 229.

Once you have completed the solutions for all observations, you can average the results. Here’s an example:

Error 1 = .6 W Error 2 = .5 W Error 3 = .7 W for a total of 1.8 ÷ 3 = .6 W

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15-11 UNCLASSIFIED 15.3 AZIMUTH BY POLARIS Polaris (the North Star) is always within about 2° of true north. The true azimuth of Polaris is tabulated in the Nautical Almanac in the Polaris Tables for northern latitudes up to 65°.

Gathering Information: The entering arguments for the Polaris Tables are the LHA of Aries (GHA of Aries plus east longitude or minus west longitude) and latitude (at intervals of 5°, 10° or 20°). An extract from the Nautical Almanac Polaris azimuth table, which appears at the foot of the Polaris Tables, is shown in figure 15-5. As you can see, the interpolation can be done by visual inspection of the appropriate LHA and latitude.

The normal use of Polaris for obtaining compass error is when your ship is in the lower northern latitudes. This allows you to take a bearing on Polaris using the telescopic alidade. Since the computation and interpolation of azimuth by Polaris are relatively simple, we will not go into step-by-step procedures in this text.

Figure 15-5 Extract from the Nautical Almanac Polaris Tables

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15-12 UNCLASSIFIED 15.4 AMPLITUDE OF THE SUN An amplitude of the Sun or other celestial body can be used to determine gyro error. An amplitude (A) is the arc of the horizon between the prime vertical circle (the vertical circle through the east end west points of the horizon) and the observed body. The prime vertical circle may be true or magnetic depending upon which east or west points are involved. If the body is observed when its center is on the celestial horizon, the amplitude can be taken directly from table 27 of Bowditch, Volume II.

15.4.1 Horizons The celestial horizon differs from the one you see (the visible horizon) because it runs through the center of Earth. There are a lot of computations that must be done to determine the celestial horizon of a body, but for now we will just say that it is the horizon that a navigator uses for all celestial computations.

When the center of the Sun is on the celestial horizon, its lower limb (lower edge) is about two-thirds of the diameter of the Sun above the visible horizon. When the center of the Moon is on the celestial horizon, its upper limb (upper edge) is on the visible horizon.

Figure 15-6 shows the relationship of the visible horizon to the celestial horizon. When planets and stars are on the celestial horizon, they are a little more than one Sun diameter above the visible horizon.

Figure 15-6 The visible and celestial horizons

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15-13 UNCLASSIFIED 15.4.2 Labeling the Amplitude The amplitude of a body is given the prefix E (east) if the body is rising and the prefix W (west) if the body is setting. Additionally, the amplitude of a body is given the suffix N (north) if the body has northerly declination and the suffix S (south) if it has southerly declination.

15.4.3 Finding Amplitude of the Sun Using the Celestial Horizon As discussed above, the amplitude of a body can be taken directly from table 27 of Bowditch, Volume II, if the body is observed when its center is on the celestial horizon. Since the Sun is most commonly used for amplitudes, it will be the topic of our discussion.

Gathering Information: To observe the Sun when it is on the celestial horizon, its lower limb must be about two-thirds of the diameter above the visible horizon. You must know the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) of your observation to determine the Sun’s declination from the right-hand daily pages of the Nautical Almanac, your DR Lat. at the time of observation, and the true bearing of the Sun as observed using a telescopic alidade.

15.4.4 Example Problem The DR latitude of your ship is 51°04.6’N. The declination of the setting Sun was 19°00.4’N. Your true bearing (as observed by a telescopic alidade) to the Sun was 300°.

From this known information, we can use table 27 of Bowditch to determine the amplitude.

Figure 15-7 shows an excerpt from table 27. By inspection of figure 15-7, you can see that you must enter the left-hand column with your ship’s DR latitude. You can also see that the Sun’s declination is listed across the top of the table. Since latitude 51° and declination 19° are closest to our entering values, we determine that the amplitude of the Sun when it is on the celestial horizon is 31.2°. Now that we have the amplitude, what do we do with it? First of all, there are some basic rules that must be applied that relate to our previous discussion of the assigned prefix and suffix of an amplitude. Our amplitude was taken when the Sun was setting, and its declination name is north. Using the rules for labeling the amplitude, we label the amplitude as follows: W 31.2° N. We use W because the Sun is setting and N because the Sun’s declination is N.

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15-14 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 15-7 Excerpt from table 27

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15-15 UNCLASSIFIED With the amplitude properly labeled, we can now follow another set of rules to determine the azimuth.

Rules: 1. Rising Sun with north declination, subtract the amplitude from 090° 2. Rising Sun with south declination, add the amplitude to 090° 3. Setting Sun with north declination, add the amplitude to 270° 4. Setting Sun with south declination, subtract the amplitude from 270°

By following the rules above, our amplitude can now be converted to an azimuth as follows:

W31.2°N + 270° = 301.2°

Our true bearing to the Sun was 300°. Gyro error can be determined as follows:

301.2° (azimuth) 300.0° (gyro bearing) 1.2 °E (gyro error)

We find the name of the error by using our memory aid

Gyro least - error EAST, Gyro best - error WEST.

15.4.5 Finding Amplitude Using the Visible Horizon If the body is observed when its center is on the visible horizon, a correction from table 28 of Bowditch, Volume II, is applied to the value taken from Bowditch’s table 27. Refer to table 28 for step-by-step instructions.

15.5 THE CELESTIAL LOP You have seen how lines of position, obtained through bearings on terrestrial objects, are used to fix a ship’s position in piloting. You know that a line of position (LOP) is a locus of possible positions of the ship. In other words, the ship’s position must be somewhere along that line. A fix, by definition, is a relatively accurate determination of latitude and longitude. In practice, this position is the intersection of two or more lines of position; but often it is not the ship’s exact position because you can always assume some errors in observation, plotting, and the like.

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15-16 UNCLASSIFIED The celestial navigator must establish lines of position by applying the results of observations of heavenly bodies. A line of position obtained at one time may be used at a later time. All you need to do is move the line parallel to itself, a distance equal to the run of the ship in the interim, and in the same direction as the run. Such a line of position cannot be as accurate as a new line because the amount and direction of its movement can be determined only by the usual DR methods. If two new lines cannot be obtained, however, an old line, advanced and intersected with a new one, may be the only possible way of establishing a fix. Naturally, the distance an old line may be advanced without a substantial loss of accuracy depends on how closely the run can be reckoned.

In celestial navigation, as in piloting, you essentially are trying to establish the intersection of two or more lines of position. A single observation and the resulting LOP is insufficient to obtain a fix.

The most accurate method of obtaining a celestial fix is to take sights on many bodies in a short time. For example, it is quite common to take sights on six or more stars in a period of 15 minutes or less. Taking sights on many bodies allows the observer to identify and throw out LOPS with obvious errors.

15.5.1 Determining the LOP You might be entitled to complain that much has been said concerning what an LOP tells you, but very little has been told about how you determine it in the first place. We are coming to that part now.

The first item is to take on a heavenly body or bodies and then reduce the sights. Reducing the sights taken gives you the information you need to plot the LOP. The LOPS then gives you the resulting fix.

Figure 15-8 illustrates the method used in establishing a single LOP by observing a star. An assumed position (AP) is selected according to certain requirements of convenience in calculating (described later). Observation of a star provides sextant altitude (hs). Sextant altitude is then corrected to obtain observed altitude (Ho). The star’s altitude from the assumed position, called the computed altitude (Hc), and its azimuth angle are determined from tables by a procedure you will soon learn. The azimuth angle is then converted to azimuth. After selecting an AP, draw the azimuth through the AP. Along the azimuth, measure off the altitude intercept (difference between the observed altitude and the computed altitude). At the end of this measurement, draw a perpendicular line, which is the LOP. You must know whether altitude intercept (a) should be measured from AP toward the body or from AP measured away from the body. It is helpful to remember the initials Ho MO To, if Ho is more toward. This means that if Ho is greater than Hc measure altitude intercept (a) from AP toward the body. If Hc is greater than Ho measure altitude intercept (b) from AP away from the body.

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15-17 UNCLASSIFIED

15.6 USING THE SEXTANT The sextant is the instrument of chief importance in celestial navigation. It is used to measure the altitude of a heavenly body above the visible horizon. Sextant altitude is corrected for various factors to determine the body’s true (or corrected) altitude above the celestial horizon.

15.6.1 Techniques Here are some techniques commonly used to take sights with the marine sextant. It will always be necessary to find any index error prior to taking sights.

Use the following step action table for the general steps to take sights on the Sun. The steps for stars and planets are basically the same, except you would omit steps 2 and 4.

Figure 15-8 Determining a LOP

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15-18 UNCLASSIFIED Step Action 1. Hold the sextant level with the horizon and determine index error. 2. CAUTION: Set shade filters in place now, or eye burns may result. 3. Aim the sextant to a point on the horizon directly below the Sun. 4. IF... THEN... the Sun is rising Move the index arm slowly outward from the 0° position until the Sun’s lower limb is just below the horizon. the Sun is setting Move the index arm slowly outward from the 0° position until the Sun’s lower limb is just above the horizon. 5. Swing the arc. This means to gently move your hand grasping the sextant handle in a small upward arcing motion. Up to the left, then back to the right. You will see the reflected image of the Sun arc back and forth. 6. Give the recorder a standby to mark (marking the exact time of the sight). Continue swinging the arc while turning the micrometer drum slightly until the lower limb of the Sun touches the horizon. At that exact moment, mark the time of the sight and record the sextant altitude.

15.7 ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS Of the following five altitude corrections, the first three apply to observations of all celestial bodies. The last two corrections are applicable only when the observed body belongs to the solar system. Figure 15-9 illustrates the correction problem. To obtain the true altitude, you must correct the sextant altitude of any celestial body for:

1. Index error, which is the constant instrument error caused by a lack of perfect parallelism between the index mirror and horizon glass when the sextant is set at 0°.

2. Refraction, which is the deviation of rays of light from a straight line caused by Earth’s atmosphere.

3. Dip of the horizon, which is the difference in direction between the visible and celestial horizons caused by the observer’s height above the surface.

If the observed body belongs to the solar system, corrections must also be made for:

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15-19 UNCLASSIFIED 4. Parallax, which is caused by the proximity of bodies of the solar system to Earth, resulting in a difference in altitudes measured from the surface of Earth and from the center of Earth. Such an occurrence is not true of other heavenly bodies whose distance from Earth is considered infinite.

5. Semidiameter, which results from the nearness of bodies of the solar system, which makes it necessary to consider the observed bodies as appreciable size instead of as mere points of light; for example, stars. The sextant altitude of such a body is obtained by bringing its disk tangent to the horizon. Semidiameter correction must be applied to find the altitude of the center.

Figure 15-9 Sextant altitude corrections

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15-20 UNCLASSIFIED 15.7.1 Corrections Defined We will explore each altitude correction in detail. Applying altitude corrections is the starting point for reducing sights for any observation.

Name Description Index Error The amount of instrument error in the sextant. Refraction Earth is wrapped in a blanket of atmosphere more than 50 miles deep. Density of the atmosphere, like that of the ocean, increases with depth and is greatest at the bottom, next to Earth’s surface. Light rays do not follow a straight line when passing through atmosphere of different densities, but are slightly bent into a gentle arc. This phenomenon is called refraction. Refraction is defined as the deviation of light rays from a straight line caused by their passage obliquely through mediums of different density. The measure of refraction is the angular difference between the apparent rays of light from an observed celestial body and its true direction.

The effect of refraction is always to make the observed altitude greater than the true altitude. Consequently, refraction correction is always subtracted from the sextant altitude. Since refraction is caused by the oblique passage of rays through the atmosphere, rays from a body in the observer’s zenith, intersecting the atmosphere at right angles, are not refracted. Maximum refraction occurs when a body is on the horizon, amounting then to between 34 and 39 minutes of arc. The amount of refractions depends on atmospheric conditions. Density of the atmosphere varies with barometric pressure and temperature. Refraction varies with density and also with the body’s altitude. Because refraction varies with atmospheric conditions, and the effect of atmospheric conditions at low altitudes cannot be estimated with complete accuracy, observations of bodies below 10° should be regarded with suspicion. Refraction has no effect on the azimuth of a celestial body because it takes place entirely in the vertical plane of passage of the light rays. Dip The higher an observer’s position is above the surface of the Earth, the more he/she must lower (or dip) the line of vision to see the horizon. Logically, then, all altitude observations must be corrected for the height of eye. Refer again to figure 15-9, and you will see why a dip correction is always subtracted.

Failure to correct for dip from a height of 10 feet will result in an error of 3 miles in a line of position. From the bridge of the average destroyer, the resulting error would be approximately 10 miles.

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15-21 UNCLASSIFIED Name Description Parallax Parallax is the difference between the altitude of a body, as measured from Earth’s center, and its altitude (corrected for refraction and dip) as measured from Earth’s surface. Altitude from the center of Earth is bound to be greater than from the surface. Consequently parallax is always a plus correction.

Parallax increases from 0° for a body directly overhead to a maximum for a body on the horizon. In the latter instance, it is called horizontal parallax (HP). Parallax of the Moon is both extreme and varied because of its changing distance from Earth in its passage through its orbit. Parallax of the Sun is small; parallax of the planets is even smaller. For the stars, parallax is so tiny it is negligible. Semidiameter The true altitude of a body is measured to the center of that body. Because the Sun and Moon are of appreciable size, the usual practice is to observe the lower limb. Therefore, semidiameter correction must be added. It follows, then, that if the upper limb of either body is observed, the semidiameter correction is subtractive. Semidiameter correction amounts to about 16 minutes of arc for either the Sun or Moon. Stars are considered as points, and they require no semidiameter correction. When observing a planet, the center of the planet is visually estimated by the observer, so there is never a semidiameter correction.

15.7.2 Remarks In concluding the subject of altitude corrections, remember that some tables for altitude corrections (the Nautical Almanac, for example) combine two or more of the corrections for refraction, parallax, and semidiameter.

The correction for height of eye (dip) appears in a separate table for use with all bodies. Index error, which is impossible to include in such tables, should always be determined, recorded, marked plus or minus, and applied before any of the tabulated corrections.

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15-22 UNCLASSIFIED 15.7.3 Strip Forms The OPNAV Strip Form 3530/30; H.0 229; Nautical Almanac are used to reduce sights for stars, planets, the Sun, and the Moon. The altitude corrections for each are the same except an additional correction is required for the Moon and planets. Reducing sights using this strip form is a process that can be broken down into the following stages:

Stage Description 1. Applying altitude corrections to find Ho (height observed). 2. Using GMT to find LHA to enter Pub 229 with. 3. Finding True Dee to enter Pub 229 with. 4. Entering Pub 229 to find total corrections to apply to Ho to find Hc (height computed) Intercept, and Zn.

15.7.4 Steps to Follow to Find Ho Use the following table to find Ho for any celestial body. Since we will be working several example problems, refer back to this table to find Ho.

Strip Form Pub 229 Naut Alm Example problem to find Ho

Action Complete Strip Form Pub 229 Naut Alm Body Enter the symbol of the body. SUN GMT Enter the GMT of the actual sight. 09 15 38 IC Enter the value of the index correction. - 1.0 D Enter the dip correction (height of eye) from the inside cover of the Nautical Almanac. - 6.9 Sum Total the IC and D correction. - 7.9 hs Enter the uncorrected sextant altitude from the sight. 25° 46.9' ha Apply the sum to hs. 25° 39.0' Alt Corr Use ha to enter the altitude correction tables of the Nautical Almanac. + 14.3’ Add'l Corr Moon Hp/corr Add any additional corrections for the Moon or planets. N/A Ho Apply altitude and add'l corr to ha. 25° 53.3'

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15-23 UNCLASSIFIED 15.8 HOW TO REDUCE A SUNLINE USING PUB 229 As with any celestial observation, you must gather data to reduce to an LOP. With a sextant and recorder you will need the following:

date/GMT of sight, DR position, sextant altitude (hs), height of eye of the observer, and IC correction.

15.8.1 Procedure For our example we will use the following:

Date: 31 March 1984 Lat: 36° 32.8'N hs: 25° 46.9’ Hgt of Eye: 50 ft GMT: 09 15 38 Long: 018° 10.0' W IC: - 1.0

After applying altitude corrections we have determined Ho = 25° 53.3’.

We can now use the Pub 229 strip form to complete the process of reducing; at this point we have completed stage 1. We can move on to the next stage of finding LHA.

Notice that to find LHA, we follow the same steps as we did for our azimuth of the Sun problem only slightly different. Here’s the key difference. We want to arrive at an even number LHA. To do this, we will use an assumed longitude. This step will help us in interpolation later in this problem. There is a catch though; the following rule must be adhered to when finding an assumed longitude.

Rule: The assumed longitude used as an assumed position must be within 30’ of the original DR longitude.

Trick of the trade: When finding your assumed longitude, simply drop the minutes of total GHA down, and then add the whole degree of longitude that is within 30’ of the DR longitude. Look at our example problem where we dropped the 52.2’ down from the total GHA. If we were to use the 18° from the original DR long. of 18° 10.0, which would be 18° 52.2’ it would be more than 30’, so we changed the 18° to 17° and all’s well.

Let’s begin working our problem on the next page.

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15-24 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3130/30 Pub 229 Naut Alm ACTION Completed Strip Form Ho Apply altitude corrections to find. 25° 53.3' GHA(h) Enter the GHA hour value from the Nautical Almanac. 313° 57.7' Increment (m/s) Enter the minutes and seconds value from the Nautical Almanac. 3° 54.5' Total GHA Add GHA(h) and Increments (m/s). 317° 52.2' v/v corr SHA ENTER SHA for stars or planets only. STARS and PLANETS ONLY a Long (+E, -W) (+ - 360° if needed) Enter the assumed DR longitude to arrive at an even degree of LHA, add east and subtract west. 17° 52.2'W LHA LHA= Total GHA + (v/v or SHA for star and planets) +E or -W DR Long. 300° 00.0' Tab Dee Enter the tabulated declination for 07 hours on the Sun column from Nautical Almanac. N 4° 17.3' d# / D Corrn The d# is found at the bottom of the Sun Dee column; in this case it is +1.0. It is assigned a + because dec is increasing.

The D corr is found on the Increments and Corrections page for 15m38s. Look under the v or d column for the d# (1.0) and record the Corr n value (0.4). The D Corrn assumes the same sign as the d#. +0.6 / +0.3' True Dec Apply the D Corrn to Tab Dec N 4° 17.6' DR Lat same or contrary Enter the whole degree of latitude and determine if it is named (N or S) as True Dec. In this case lat. is N and Dee is N, so it is same. N 37° same

We have finished stages 2 and 3 and can move on to our final stage.

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15-25 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3130/30 Pub 229 Naut Alm ACTION Completed Strip Form Dec Inc /d Dec Inc = True Dec min. only / d = d from Pub 229 entered with whole degrees of LHA, Dec, and Lat. (See fig. 15-10.) 17.6 / +38.1 Tens / DSD Enter from the Pub 229 interpolation tables located on the inside of the front and back cover. (See fig. 15-11.) + 8.8 Units / DSD corr Same as above. + 2.4 Total Corr Total of tens and units. + 11.2 Hc (Tab) Enter from Pub 229. 26° 07.5' Hc (Comp) Apply Total Corr to Hc (Tab). 26° 18.7' Ho Drop Ho down from the top of the form. 25° 53.3’ a Subtract the higher value of either Hc(Comp) or Ho from the other. In this case, Ho is subtracted from Hc(Comp).

The A means away. We will fully explain Towards and Away when we plot the LOP. A 25.4 Z Enter from Pub 229. Apply the rules for 2 just as with our azimuth problem. 105.8 Zn LHA is greater than 180 so Zn = Z. 105.8

We have now completed the sight reduction solution for a sunline. The goal was to obtain an LOP. Where is the LOP you ask? Everything we need is right here. We will use the Zn (true bearing), a (intercept), and assumed position to plot our LOP. Let’s move on to that task right now.

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Figure 15-10 Excerpt from Pub 229 Figure 15-11 Interpolation table from the inside cover of Pub 229

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15-27 UNCLASSIFIED 15.9 PLOTTING ONE OR MORE LOPS Follow the steps in the table and refer to the figures 15-12 and 15-13 to plot LOPs.

Step Action 1. Plot the AP (assumed position). This is the whole degree of latitude and the assumed longitude. In our example problem this would be Lat 37° 00.0' N Long 017° 52.2' W. 2. Lay off the azimuth line (Zn) from the AP toward or away from the body, depending on whether the observed altitude (Ho) is greater or less than the computed altitude (Hc). 3. Measure in the proper direction, along the azimuth line, the difference between the observed and the computed altitude in miles and tenths of miles. This is the value of a or intercept. 4. Draw a line at the extremity of a, perpendicular (add 90° to Zn) to the azimuth line. At the time of observation, this perpendicular line is the LOP. 5. Label the LOP with the time of observation and the name of the observed body.

Figure 15-12 Plot the LOP

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15-28 UNCLASSIFIED 15.10 ADVANCING LOPS Several methods may be used to advance a LOP. The most common method consists simply of advancing the AP in the direction of and for the distance of the run, as shown in figure 15-13, and drawing the new LOP.

Figure 15-13 illustrates a situation where the AP was advanced parallel to the course line for the distance run, and a new LOP was plotted from its new position. The new LOP was necessary because the same AP would have produced an LOP that would have intersected the course line beyond the limits of the chart. In this illustrative case, it is unnecessary to draw the first dashed construction on the chart.

The manner of advancing LOP from sights of the Moon, Venus, and Sirius (previously illustrated) to obtain an 1815 fix is seen in figure 15-14.

Figure 15-13 Plot the LOP

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15-29 UNCLASSIFIED

Three lines of position by observation, like those obtained in piloting, do not always intersect exactly. Quite often a triangle is formed. If one or more of the LOPs must be advanced, the triangle is likely to be larger. Frequently, the center of the triangle is assumed to be the fix.

If, however, one or more lines have been advanced, more weight may be given to a line that has not been advanced, or to a line that the navigator has more confidence in; for example, favoring a first magnitude star over a third magnitude star. In figure 15-14, note that the plots are made from three separate APs, using the same assumed latitude but different assumed longitudes.

Figure 15-14 A fix from several LOPs

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15-30 UNCLASSIFIED 15.11 REDUCING STARS, PLANETS, AND THE MOON USING PUB 229

15.11.1 Procedure for Stars and Planets The steps to follow to reduce stars and planets are nearly the same steps that we used to reduce our sunline. The only differences are that in both cases when finding LHA, we must add the value of sidereal hour angle (SHA) to the total GHA to find LHA. Also, in the altitude correction tables for stars and planets there is an additional correction listed for some planets that must be added.

15.11.2 Procedure for the Moon Once again the steps for the Moon are the same as our sunline except that the v and HP corrections must be added. These are additional altitude corrections. The v correction is always +. The HP correction for the nearest whole hour of GMT is selected. The v correction is found on the appropriate increments minutes and seconds page in the same manner as the d correction. If the upper limb of the Moon is observed, an additional correction (Add’l Corr) of -30’ is made. If lower limb of the moon is observed, it would appear as seen in figure 15-15.

Figure 15-15 Sextant view of lower limb of moon

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15-31 UNCLASSIFIED 15.12 REDUCING SIGHTS USING PUB 249 HO Pub 249, Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation and the Air Almanac, can also be used to reduce sights. This method of sight reduction is used by some navigators; however, the degree of accuracy is slightly less than sight reduction by Pub 229.

15.12.1 Procedure Once again, you would have to gather information to reduce; that is, GMT, sextant altitude, and so on.

For our example problem, we will use the following data:

Date: 30 March 1985 Lat: 36° 40.1'N hs: 40° 33.6' Hgt of Eye: 50 ft GMT: 06 26 21 Long: 017° 31.6' W IC: + 0.8

OPNAV 3130/32 H.O.249 Air Alm ACTION Completed Strip Form Body Enter the name of the body. REGULUS GMT Enter time of sight. 06h 26m 21s IC Enter the index correction. + 0.8 D Enter the dip correction (hgt of eye 50ft) using the altitude correction table from the Air Almanac. (See fig. 15-16.) - 7.0 R o This is the refraction correction from the Air Almanac. (See fig. 15-17.) - 1.0 SD ha Total Corr (sum) Total of IC, D, and R o. - 7.2 hs Enter the sextant altitude. 40° 33.6' Ho Apply altitude corrections to find. 40° 26.4'

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Figure 15-16 Marine sextant altitude correction from the Air Almanac Figure 15-17 Excerpt from refraction correction tables of the Air Almanac

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Figure 15-18 Excerpt from the daily pages of the Air Almanac

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Figure 15-19 Excerpt from Pub 249, Volume I

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15-35 UNCLASSIFIED OPNAV 3130/32 H.O.249 Air Alm ACTION Completed Strip Form GHA(h) Enter the GHA hour value of Aries from the Air Almanac to the nearest 10 minutes. (See fig. 15-18). 282° 35.1' Increment (m/s) Enter the minutes and seconds value from the interpolation tables of the Air Almanac. 1° 35.5' Total GHA Add GHA(h) and Increments (m/s). 284° 10.6' + - 360 (if needed) a Long (+E, -W) Enter the assumed DR longitude to arrive an even degree of LHA, add east and subtract west. 17° 10.6'W LHA LHA= Total GHA + (v/v or SHA for stars and planets) +E or -W DR Long. 267° 00.0' a LAT Enter the assumed latitude. 37°N Hc Enter Pub 249 volume I, with the whole degree of LHA for REGULUS, record Hc and Zn (last block). (See fig. 15-19.) 40° 23.0' Ho Drop down Ho from above. 40° 26.4' a Find the difference between Hc and Ho (remember to use Ho MO To). In this example, Ho is more than Hc, so it’s named T for towards. T 3.4' Zn Enter the Zn (true bearing). 264°

As you can see, using Pub 249 to determine a celestial LOP is a quick process compared to using Pub 229. Keep in mind that some amount of accuracy is lost.

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15-36 UNCLASSIFIED 15.13 LATITUDE BY LOCAL APPARENT NOON (LAN)

15.13.1 Time of Meridian Passage The purpose of knowing ahead of time the exact time of meridian passage (the Sun directly overhead) of the Sun is to allow the observer and recorder to arrive on the bridge a few minutes early. A latitude line from LAN is very useful. It is often used along with two morning sunlines to establish a noon celestial running fix. We will again be using a strip form to complete our sight reduction. First, we will find the time of meridian passage, and then we will work the LAN solution. For our example problem, we will use the following data: Date: 30 March 84, DR Lat: 36°36.1’N, DR Long: 19° 22.3’W.

OPNAV 3130/35 LAN ACTION Completed Strip Form DR Long Enter the DR longitude. 19° 22.3'W STD Meridian Enter the standard meridian. 15 d long (arc) Find the difference between STD Mer and DR Long. 4° 22.3' d long (time) Convert arc to time using the arc to time page in the Nautical Almanac. + 17 Min LMT Mer Pass From the daily pages in the Nautical Almanac for the given date, enter the time of meridian passage (bottom right of page). 1204 ZT LAN (1st est.) IF... THEN... 1221 west of the standard meridian Add d long (time) to LMT Mer Pass. east of the standard meridian Subtract d long (time) from LMT Mer Pass. Rev.DR Long Enter revised DR. 19° 22.3'W STD Meridian Enter the standard meridian. 15 d long (arc) Find the difference between STD Mer and DR Long. 4° 40.0' d long (time) Convert arc to time. +19 LMT Mer Pass Enter LMT for Mer Pass. 1204 ZT LAN (2nd est) Add time to LMT Mer Pass. 1223

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15-37 UNCLASSIFIED 15.13.2 Taking Sights to Observe LAN Up to this point we have learned how to find the time that the Sun should be directly overhead. Now we need to know how to observe LAN. We will discuss two methods. The first is called following to maximum altitude; the second is called numerous sights.

15.13.3 Following to Maximum Altitude The oldest method of determining meridian altitude of the Sun, and the one used most commonly, is known as following to maximum altitude. It is recommended because of its adaptability to various conditions, and because its use develops an insight into how the altitude varies near the time of apparent noon.

At approximately 10 minutes before watch time of LAN, the observer contacts the Sun’s lower limb with the horizon in the sextant. He/she then swings the sextant from side to side, and adjusts it until the Sun, seen moving in an arc, just touches the horizon at the lowest part of the arc. This procedure is known as swinging the arc, which was described earlier in this chapter.

As the Sun continues rising, a widening space appears between its lower limb and the horizon. By turning the micrometer drum, the observer keeps this space closed and maintains the Sun in contact with the horizon. The change in altitude becomes slower and slower, until the Sun “hangs”. While it is hanging, the observer swings the sextant to make certain of accurate contact with the horizon. He/she continues the observations until the Sun dips, which is a signal that the Sun is beginning to lose altitude. The sextant then shows the maximum altitude attained.

15.13.4 Numerous Sights The method of taking numerous sights is a modification of the maximum altitude method. It is useful under conditions where heavy seas, clouds, and the like may make steady observation impossible. Well before watch time of LAN, the observer begins taking a series of altitudes. Their number depends on the difficulties of the situation and the possible error in computed time of transit. He/she reads off the altitudes to a recording assistant, turning the tangent screw slightly after each observation to make sure that the next altitude is an independent sight. Observations are discontinued when the altitude definitely shows signs of decreasing.

Under favorable conditions, even a series of skillfully taken observations may show an occasional erratic deviation from the normal gradual rise and fall. After sights showing a radical difference from the preceding or succeeding series are discarded, however, the hang should become evident, and it should be possible to judge the maximum altitude. The figure selected will probably be less than the altitude shown in one observation and more than that below it. The result should give latitude with an error no more than 1’. This reading is considerably more accurate than could be obtained by a single sight under the conditions described.

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15-38 UNCLASSIFIED 15.13.5 Finding Latitude As you now know, you must first obtain a sight of the Sun when it’s at maximum altitude and the time of observation. With this and a DR position, we can reduce the sight to find latitude; now we can work the second part of our strip form.

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15.14 SUMMARY Celestial navigation requires skill gained through experience. This chapter has given you the basic knowledge required to meet the minimum requirements of the Quartermaster occupational standards. This is just the tip of the iceberg; you should strive to perfect your celestial skills. In the event of a large scale war, you may find that all electronic means of obtaining a fix have been knocked out. It’s important that electronic fixes are compared to celestial fixes whenever possible. Remember, the prudent navigator uses all available means to accurately fix the ship’s position along the intended track.

Quartermasters should study sources other than this RTM to gain additional knowledge on celestial navigation. Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting is an excellent reference on this material.

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16-1 UNCLASSIFIED 16 RULES OF THE ROAD

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 2. State the purpose of the rules of the road. 3. Describe all steering and sailing rules. 4. Identify and distinguish between international and inland rules of the road.

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16-2 UNCLASSIFIED 16.1 INTRODUCTION As a Quartermaster, you are required to know how to operate your ship’s sound signaling equipment. You must also be able to interpret whistle and bell signals as they apply to the rules of the road. The rules of the road are published by the Coast Guard in a booklet entitled Navigation Rules (COMDINST Ml6672.2 Series).

International Rules are specific rules for all vessels on the high seas and in connecting waters navigable by seagoing vessels. The Inland Rules apply to all vessels upon the inland waters of the United States and to vessels of the United States on the Canadian waters of the Great Lakes to the extent that there is no conflict with Canadian law.

The International Rules were formalized at the convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972. These rules are commonly called 72 COLREGS. The Inland Rules discussed in this chapter replace the old Inland Rules, Western River Rules, Great Lakes Rules, their respective pilot rules, and parts of the Motorboat Act of 1940. Many of the old navigation rules were originally enacted in the last century. Occasionally, provisions were added to cope with the increasing complexities of water transportation. Eventually, the navigation rules for the United States inland waterways became such a confusing patchwork of requirements that in the 1960s several unsuccessful attempts were made to revise and simplify them.

Following the signing of the 72 COLREGS, a new effort was made to unify and update the various Inland Rules. This effort was also aimed at making the Inland Rules as similar as possible to the 72 COLREGS.

The Inland Navigation Rules of 1980, now in effect, are the result. The International/Inland Rules contain 38 rules that comprise the main body of the Rules and five annexes which are the regulations. The International/Inland Rules are broken down in parts as follows:

A-General B-Steering and Sailing Rules C-Lights and Shapes D-Sound and Light Signals E-Exemptions

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16-3 UNCLASSIFIED 16.2 STEERING AND SAILING RULES In this portion of the chapter a short discussion of the steering and sailing rules will be presented, but the majority of our discussion will be about part D, which contains the requirements for sound signals.

You must understand the steering and sailing rules and be able to apply them to various traffic situations. Although all rules of the road are important, the steering and sailing rules are the most essential to know to avoid collision. The risk of collision can be considered to exist if the bearing of an approaching vessel does not change appreciably.

NOTE: When you are approaching a very large vessel, or when you are in close quarters, a bearing change alone does not necessarily mean that a collision cannot happen.

Figures 16-1, 16-2, and 16-3 illustrate the three situations in which the danger of collision might exist: head-on, crossing, and overtaking. The illustrations and the following summary will help you learn the rules and the appropriate actions to take.

Figure 16-1 Ships in a head on situation

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Figure 16-2 Two ships in a crossing situation Figure 16-3 Two ships in all overtaking situation

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16-5 UNCLASSIFIED 16.2.1 Head On When two ships meet head on, or nearly so (fig. 16-1), each ship must change course to starboard and pass port-to-port. In international waters, a whistle signal is sounded only when a course change is actually made. If the meeting ships are already far enough off each other to pass clear on their present courses, no signal is sounded.

When two power-driven vessels are crossing and involve risk of collision (fig. 16-2), the vessel having the other to starboard must keep out of the way and will avoid usually by turning to starboard and passing astern of the other vessel or, if circumstances permit, speeding up and crossing ahead of the other vessel.

A sailing vessel has the right-of-way over power-driven vessels except when the sailing vessel is overtaking, or when the power-driven vessel is engaged in fishing, is not under command, or is restricted in its ability to maneuver.

16.2.2 Overtaking Any vessel overtaking another must keep clear of the overtaken vessel. An overtaking vessel is one that is approaching another vessel from any direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft its beam (fig. 16-3). When in doubt, assume you are overtaking and act accordingly.

16.3 SIGNALS BETWEEN VESSELS Before we get into the requirements for signals, you must first understand the terms we will use. A list of signals begins on the next page.

16.3.1 Responsibility Where collision is so imminent that it cannot be avoided by the give-way vessel alone, it immediately becomes not only the right but the expressed duty of the stand-on vessel to take whatever action will best help to avert collision. Each vessel must do all in its power to avert the collision no matter which one may have the right-of-way.

The responsibility rule (International and Inland rule 2) makes it impossible for a stand- on vessel to escape responsibility after standing into danger simply because its skipper decided not to haul off when he or she had the right-of-way. Rule 2(b) is as follows:

“In construing and complying with these Rules due regard shall be had to all dangers of navigation and collision and to any special circumstances including the limitations of the vessels involved, which may make a departure from these Rules necessary to avoid immediate danger.”

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16-6 UNCLASSIFIED Term Definition Vessel The word "vessel" includes every description of watercraft including nondisplacement and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a means of transportation. Power-Driven Vessel Any vessel propelled by machinery. Sailing Vessel Any vessel under sail provided that propelling machinery is not being used. Engaged in Fishing Any vessel fishing with nets, lines, trawls, or other apparatus that restrict maneuverability, does not include a vessel fishing with trolling or other fishing apparatus that do not restrict maneuverability. Not Under Command Any vessel that, through some exceptional circumstances, is unable to maneuver as required by rules and is therefore unable to keep out of way of another vessel (i.e. broke down). Restricted in Its Ability to Maneuver Any vessel that, from the nature of its work, is restricted in its ability to maneuver as required by these rules and is therefore unable keep out of the way of another vessel. Constrained by Draft A power-driven vessel that, because of draft in relation to the available depth of water, is severely restricted in its ability to deviate from the course it is following (International Rules). Under Way Any vessel not at anchor, made fast to the shore, pier, wharf, or aground. Length and Breadth A vessel’s length overall and greatest beam or width. In Sight of One Another Only when one can be seen from the other. Seaplane Any aircraft that maneuvers on the water. Restricted Visibility Any condition in which visibility is restricted by fog, mist, falling snow, heavy rainstorms, sandstorm, or any other similar causes. Inland Waters The navigable waters of the United States shoreward of the navigational demarcation lines dividing the high seas from harbors, rivers, and other such bodies of waters of the United States, and the waters of the Great Lakes of the United States side of the International Boundary. Demarcation Lines Lines delineating those waters upon which mariners must comply with the 72 COLREGS and those waters on which mariners must comply with the Inland Navigation Rules. (The boundaries for the demarcation lines are listed in the back of the Coast Guard publication Navigation Rules.)

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16-7 UNCLASSIFIED Term Definition Whistle Any sound signaling appliance capable of producing the prescribed blast and which complies with the specifications in Annex III of the International and Inland Rules. (When your ship was built and the whistle was installed, all of the specifications listed in Annex III were considered.)

The term "short blast" means a blast of about l-second duration.

The term "prolonged blast" means a blast of from 4- to 6-second duration.

16.4 MANEUVERING AND WARNING SIGNALS

16.4.1 Rules Regulating Sound and Light Signaling Equipment Required on Vessels A vessel of 12 meters or more in length must be provided with a whistle and a bell. Vessels that are 100 meters or more in length must also have a gong. The tone of the gong cannot be confused with the tone of the bell. The bell and the gong must comply with the specifications listed in Annex III. As with the whistle, these specifications were taken into account when the ship was outfitted. A light may be used at night for signaling. The light must be, if fitted, an all-round white light, visible at a minimum range of 5 miles, and must comply with the provisions of Annex I to the International Rules.

A vessel of less than 12 meters in length will not be required to carry the signaling equipment described above, but must carry some efficient means of sound signaling.

16.4.2 Supplemental Light Signals When vessels are in sight of one another, that is, a power-driven vessel under way, maneuvering as authorized or required by these Rules, they must indicate that they are maneuvering by the following signals on the whistle. Any vessel may supplement the whistle signals prescribed by light signals, repeated as appropriate while the maneuver is being carried out.

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16-8 UNCLASSIFIED Situation Supplemental Light Inland: I intend to leave you on my port side.

Int’l: Altering course to starboard. one flash Inland: I intend to leave you on my starboard side.

Int’l: Altering course to port. two flashes Inland and Int’l: Operating astern propulsion. three flashes

16.4.3 Understanding the Intentions of another Vessel Vessels in sight of one another are approaching each other and either vessel fails to understand the intentions or actions of the other, or is in doubt whether sufficient action is being taken by the other vessel to avoid collision, the vessel in doubt must immediately indicate such doubt by giving at least five short, rapid blasts on the whistle. Such signal may be supplemented by a light signal of at least five short, rapid flashes.

Vessels nearing a bend or an area of a channel or fairway where other vessels may be obscured by an intervening obstruction must sound one prolonged blast. Such signal must be answered with a prolonged blast by any approaching vessel that may be within hearing around the bend or behind the intervening obstruction.

16.4.4 Signals Required by Rule 34 of Navigation Rules The following table lists the required sound signals required between vessels as stated in rule 34 of the Navigation Rules. The signals are made with the ship’s whistle or the VHF radio. When using the VHF radio to exchange signals, use the words 1 whistle equals 1 short blast and the words 2 whistles equal 2 short blasts.

The International Rules do not require a reply from the receiving vessel except when being overtaken by another vessel, where if in agreement the overtaken vessel will sound 1 prolonged, 1 short, 1 prolonged, and 1 short blast in that order. The Inland Rules require the receiving vessel, if in agreement with the sending vessel, to sound the same signal in return. If, for any cause, the receiving vessel is in doubt of the proposed maneuver, the receiving vessel will sound 5 short blasts.

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16-9 UNCLASSIFIED Signal Condition Meaning 1 short blast Within l/2 mile of another vessel. Inland: I intend to leave you on my port side. When in sight of each other. Int’l: I am altering my course to starboard. 2 short blasts Within l/2 mile of another vessel. Inland: I intend to leave you on my starboard side. When in sight of each other. Int’l: I am altering my course to port. 3 short blasts Within l/2 mile of another vessel. Inland and Int’l: I am operating astern propulsion. 2 prolonged blasts followed by 1 short blast Overtaking in narrow channel or fairway. Int’l: I intend to overtake you on your starboard side. 2 prolonged blasts followed by 2 short blasts Overtaking in narrow channel or fairway. Int’l: I intend to overtake you on your port side. 1 short blast Overtaking. Inland: I intend to overtake you on your starboard side. 2 short blasts Overtaking. Inland: I intend to overtake you on your port side. 1 prolonged blast Leaving a dock or berth. Inland only: I am getting under way from a dock or berth.

16.4.5 Signals Required by Rule 35 of Navigation Rules Rule 35 of the Navigation Rules gives the signals required by vessels during periods of restricted visibility. The VHF radio cannot be used to send signals as prescribed by rule 35. The following table lists the required sound signals required between vessels as stated in rule 35 of the Navigation Rules. These signals are the same for both the Inland and International Rules.

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16-10 UNCLASSIFIED Signal Condition Interval 1 prolonged blast Power-driven vessel making way. Not more than every 2 minutes. 2 prolonged blasts; 2 seconds apart Power-driven vessel under way but stopped and making no way. Not more than every 2 minutes. 1 prolonged blast followed by 2 short blasts Not under command; a vessel restricted in its ability to maneuver, under way, or at anchor; a vessel engaged in fishing whether under way or at anchor; a vessel engaged in towing or pushing a vessel. Not more than every 2 minutes. Rapid ringing bell for 5 seconds followed by 1 short, 1 prolonged, and 1 short blast. At anchor. Note: In vessels over 100 meters in length, the bell will be sounded near the bow followed by a 5-second gong signal from the stem. Not more than every 1 minute.

Note: Rule 35 also covers signals for towing and special circumstances. Refer to the Navigation Rules for complete details.

16.5 SIGNALS USED TO ATTRACT ATTENTION

16.5.1 Distress Signals International Rules and Inland Rules on signals to attract attention are almost identical. If it becomes necessary to attract the attention of another vessel, any vessel may make light or sound signals that cannot be mistaken for any signal authorized elsewhere in these rules, or may direct the beam of its searchlight in the direction of the danger in such a way as not to embarrass any vessel.

The following paragraph from the International Rules is not included in the Inland Rules.

Any light to attract the attention of another vessel will be such that it cannot be mistaken for any aid to navigation. For the purpose of this rule, the use of high-intensity intermittent or revolving lights, such as strobe lights, must be avoided.

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16-11 UNCLASSIFIED There is no basis in the rules of the road for the popular notion that the national ensign, hoisted upside down, is a recognized signal of distress. No man-of-war would ever subject the colors to this indignity. But if you should see a private craft with the ensign hoisted upside down, it is probably in distress. Signals covered by the International Rules and Inland Rules are as follows (fig. 16-4):

Figure 16-4 Distress signals

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16-12 UNCLASSIFIED 16.5.2 Special Submarine Signals The following signals, although not part of the rules of the road, are prescribed for submerged submarines in emergency situations involving rising to periscope depth or surfacing:

1. A white or yellow smoke flare fired into the air from a submarine indicates the submarine is coming to periscope depth to carry out surfacing procedures. Ships should clear the immediate vicinity but should not stop propellers.

2. A red smoke flare fired into the air from a submarine is a signal that the submarine is in serious trouble and will surface immediately if possible. Smoke flares of any color, fired into the air at short intervals, mean that the submarine requires assistance. All ships in the area should clear the immediate vicinity but stand by to give aid.

16.6 SUMMARY As a Quartermaster, you are required to know how to operate your ship’s sound signaling equipment. You must also be able to interpret whistle and bell signals as they apply to the rules of the road. The rules of the road are published by the Coast Guard in a booklet entitled Navigation Rules (COMDINST Ml6672.2 Series).

International Rules are specific rules for all vessels on the high seas and in connecting waters navigable by seagoing vessels. The Inland Rules apply to all vessels upon the inland waters of the United States and to vessels of the United States on the Canadian waters of the Great Lakes to the extent that there is no conflict with Canadian law.

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17-1 UNCLASSIFIED 17 MANEUVERING BOARDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Define the basic terminology associated with and explain the layout of the maneuvering board. 2. Solve basic relative motion problems, stationing problems, avoiding course problems, and wind problems.

17.1 INTRODUCTION On the Bridge, Quartermasters use a variety of devices— radar, radar repeaters, TDS consoles, APS, surface plot, and maneuvering board—to obtain information (course, speed, closest point of approach (CPA), etc.) on all surface contacts within range.

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17-2 UNCLASSIFIED The maneuvering board is used to determine the relative motion between own ship and a contact. Since relative motion is important to the safety of own ship, Quartermasters must be able to solve every type of maneuvering board problem related to every type of evolution. This chapter deals with a variety of maneuvering board problems, beginning with the very basic information and moving up to more advanced problems.

17.2 RELATIVE MOTION The solution to any maneuvering board problem is fairly simple if you understand the fundamentals of relative motion.

Motion is change of position. All motion is considered relative to some frame of reference. There are two types of references: fixed and moving. A common fixed frame of reference is the Earth. A change of position in relation to the Earth is called geographical or true motion. An automobile traveling from Baltimore to Philadelphia and a ship steaming from San Francisco to San Diego both exhibit true motion. In both examples the vehicle is moving from one point on the surface of the Earth to another.

The motion of one object with respect to another object is called relative motion. In relative motion, only the motion (both direction and speed) between the two objects is considered. This means that one of the objects is considered to be at rest within their frame of reference. For example, consider two vehicles traveling in the same direction on a highway. Vehicle A has a speed of 65 miles per hour. Vehicle B has a speed of 75 miles per hour. A police officer standing at the side of the highway and checking the speeds of the vehicles with radar would record 65 miles per hour for vehicle A and 75 miles per hour for vehicle B—relative to the Earth. These are the vehicles’ true speeds. Now assume that you are driving vehicle A. As vehicle B passes you, since it is travelling 10 miles per hour faster than your vehicle, it moves away at a relative speed of 10 miles per hour. You have the same sensation of speed between your vehicle and vehicle B that you would have if your vehicle were parked and vehicle B passed you at a true speed of 10 miles per hour. When you deal with relative motion, remember that only the motion between the two vehicles matters.

As an Quartermaster, you must be able to visualize relative motion, because the sweep origin of a PPI scope (own ship’s position) is fixed. Thus, the motion you see on the PPI scope when own ship is in motion is relative motion. (You will see true motion on a PPI only when own ship is stationary or when the presentation has an input from the dead- reckoning analyzer.)

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17-3 UNCLASSIFIED A simple problem that emphasizes relative motion is one having two ships on the same course, as shown in figure 17-1. Ship A is on course 270° and making 25 knots. Ship B is 1,000 yards astern making 10 knots and also steering 270°. It is obvious that the range between these two ships will increase as ship A moves away from ship B. The opening speed is 15 knots, the difference in the speeds of the two ships. Ship A is, then, traveling at a speed of 15 knots, with relation to ship B. Relative motion, then, is not concerned with ship A alone or ship B alone, but with the relationship of ship A to ship B.

An observer aboard one ship must judge movement by relating it to that ship. In this example, think about relative motion from the point of view of an observer on ship B. Concentrate on what is happening to the relationship between the two ships—that is, what is happening to the bearing and range of ship A from ship B.

As observed on the PPI scope, A’s bearing is always the same (270°), but range is opening constantly at a rate of 15 knots or 500 yards per minute. Stated more precisely, the direction of relative motion is 270° and speed of relative motion (SRM) is 15 knots. Although ship A has a true speed of 25 knots, it is making only 15 knots in relation to ship B. Figure 17-1 Relative motion of ship A in relation to ship B. Ship A speed 25 knots. Ship B speed 10 kts

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17-4 UNCLASSIFIED Now let’s consider a situation with two ships on different courses and speeds. Two ships get underway from the same anchorage at the same time (fig. 17-2); ship C is on course 180°, speed 15 knots; and ship D is on course 090°, speed 20 knots.

If you were the surface search radar operator aboard ship C, you would observe ship D moving out from the center of the scope, in a northeasterly direction. See figure 17-3. After an hour, with the ships maintaining their original courses and speeds, ship D would be located at 053°, 25 nautical miles from ship C.

The speed of relative motion (SRM) between these two ships then must be 25 knots; and the direction of relative motion (DRM), in relation to ship C, is 053°.

You can figure the solutions to these simple problems in your head. However, most relative motion problems are more complicated and require you to use a maneuvering board.

Figure 17-2 Relative motion between two ships

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17.3 THE MANEUVERING BOARD The maneuvering board is a polar-coordinate plotting sheet devised to solve relative motion problems. See figure 17-4. It contains ten equally spaced circles and thirty-six radial bearing lines, one every 10°, originating at the center. At the bottom is a nomogram, which is used to compute speed, distance, and time. On each side of the sheet are two vertical scales, known as speed/distance scales.

To work maneuvering board problems, you need two additional pieces of equipment:

1. Dividers, for accurate measurements of time, distance, and speed

2. Parallel rulers, to accurately parallel lines of motion

Before you begin working maneuvering board problems, you must understand vectors and the vector diagram as they are used in maneuvering board problems.

Figure 17-3 PPI presentation observed on ship C

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Figure 17-4 Maneuvering board

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17-7 UNCLASSIFIED 17.3.1 Vectors We often use the terms speed and velocity interchangeably, and sometimes we are justified in doing so. However, speed is not always the same thing as velocity. Strictly speaking, speed measures the rate of travel, while velocity involves not only speed but also direction. Velocity then, is the time rate of motion in a specified direction.

Velocity can be expressed in the form of a vector. A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction and is represented graphically by an arrow. In maneuvering board problems, the direction of the vector arrow is used to indicate a ship’s course. The length of this same arrow is used to represent the ship’s speed. As you plot two or more vectors during a maneuvering board problem, you will be performing a process called “vector addition and subtraction”. This process can become somewhat involved, so rather than explain the concept of vector addition and subtraction in detail, we will simply teach you how to plot the vectors and interpret the results. The important point for you to remember is to plot your vectors very carefully, so your results will be accurate.

17.3.2 Relative Plot In solving any relative movement problem on a maneuvering board, you must assume one of the moving ships to remain at the center of the relative plot. Therefore, your first consideration is which of the moving ships to place in the center. This ship can be either own ship or another ship upon which ranges and bearings are being taken.

There are advantages to plotting own ship in the center. For example, placing own ship in the center shows the same picture as the one shown on a PPI scope, and any errors in the solution are readily apparent on the scope.

In certain types of problems, such as change-of-station problems, you may find it more convenient to place the formation guide in the center of the maneuvering board.

Regardless of the method you use, refer to the ship you place in the center of the maneuvering board as the reference ship and label it R. Refer to the ship whose movements are being considered in relation to the reference ship as the maneuvering ship and label it M. At the start of a maneuver label the position of M as “M 1” Label its plotted position at the end of the maneuver as “M2”. When you need to plot more than two positions of the maneuvering ship to solve a problem, label them M1, M2, M3, etc., in consecutive order.

The direction of the line joining the plots from M 1 to M2 represents the direction in which the maneuvering ship (M) is moving with respect to the reference ship (R). See figure 17-5. This direction is called the Direction of Relative Motion (DRM) and is expressed as a true bearing. Remember, this is not a true movement, but rather the relative movement, which is the result of combining the reference ship’s course and speed and the maneuvering ship’s course and speed, making the maneuvering ship travel down the DRM line.

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The distance between the positions M 1 and M2, measured to the same scale used to plot M1 and M2, is the distance M traveled with respect to R. This is called relative distance. Again, remember that this is not a true distance; it is the relative distance, which is the result of the reference ship’s course and speed and the maneuvering ship’s course and speed. Relative distance, then, is the measurement of the distance between M1 and M2. Be sure to use the same scale for this measurement as you used to plot M1 M2. After you determine the distance between M1 and M2 and the time between the plots, you can determine M’s relative speed. Relative speed is the speed at which the maneuvering ship is moving in relation to the reference ship. Figure 17-5 Relative motion of M with respect to R

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17-9 UNCLASSIFIED You can solve for relative speed by using the nomogram at the bottom of the maneuvering board. In fact, if you know any two of time, distance, and speed, you can quickly determine the third by using either the nomogram or the logarithmic scale. We will explain how to use the nomogram and the logarithmic scale later in this chapter.

Now, consider the following definitions. You will use them whenever you solve a maneuvering board problem:

1. Direction of relative motion (DRM) — This is the direction the maneuvering ship (M) moves in relation to the reference ship (R).

2. Relative distance (RD) — This is the distance the maneuvering ship moves with respect to the reference ship in a given period of time.

3. Speed of relative motion (SRM) — This is the speed at which the maneuvering ship moves in relation to the reference ship.

4. Line of relative motion (LRM)—This is the line that starts at M 1 and extends through M2, M3, and so forth.

17.3.3 Vector Diagram The true course and speed of each ship is represented on the maneuvering board by a vector drawn outward from the center. The direction of each line corresponds to the course of the ship it represents, while the length of each line corresponds to the ships speed, plotted on some convenient scale. Standard labels for vectors are used in all maneuvering board problems. Figure 17-5 shows the basic vectors and their labels. The vector er represents the true course and speed of the reference ship. The vector em represents the course and speed of the maneuvering ship. The vector rm represents the relative course and speed of M with respect to R.

Relative vectors, such as the rm vector, originate outside the center of the maneuvering board. Thus, in maneuvering board problems, true vectors always originate at the center, and relative vectors always originate outside the center.

Note that since the M 1M2 vector and the rm vector both indicate direction of relative motion, M1 M2 and rm must be parallel and, in every case, drawn in the same direction.

NOTE: To complete the following maneuvering board problems, you must have a few maneuvering board sheets, a set of dividers, parallel rulers, and a pencil. We will explain the mechanics as we proceed through the problems.

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17-10 UNCLASSIFIED 17.4 HOW TO USE THE MANEUVERING BOARD SCALES The maneuvering board contains three types of scales: bearing scales, speed/distance scales, and the nomogram. The bearing scale consists of two sets of numbers printed along the maneuvering board’s outer circle. The large, outer numbers are true bearings; the small, inner numbers are reciprocal bearings. For example, the reciprocal of 030° is 210°.

The speed/distance scales are provided for you to use when you need to expand the scale of the maneuvering board. The basic circular area of the maneuvering board is based on a 1:1 scale, with the outer circle representing a distance of 10,000 yards. If you need to plot a distance greater than 10,000 yards, use the appropriate time/distance scale to take your distance measurements and expand the distance to the outer ring according to the speed/distance scale you use. For example, if you use the 2:1 scale, convert the outer circle to 20,000 yards (10,000 multiplied by 2). If you use the 5:1 scale, convert the outer circle to 50,000 yards. By expanding the overall scale, you can have the distance between circles on the maneuvering board represent 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, or 5,000 yards.

You can also use the speed/distance scales to measure speeds in the vector diagram. On the basic plot, the outer circle represents 10 knots, with each circle representing 1 knot. When you use speed/distance scales, the outer circle represents 20, 30, 40, or 50 knots; with each circle representing 2, 3, 4, or 5 knots (depending on which scale you chose).

The surface search radar will often detect more than one contact at any given time. You can’t expect all of these targets to be the same distance from your ship or to have the same speed. To plot this variety of targets, you might be tempted to use a different maneuvering board for each contact. An acceptable alternate to using several maneuvering boards is to do all contact solutions on the same board, using a 5:1 scale for both distance and speed. This scale is compatible with the maximum speed of most ships and with the range scale used by the surface search operator. During tactical maneuvers and other times when greater accuracy is needed, you may select the scale that fits the specific problem.

You may also find it convenient to choose one scale for the relative plot (distances) and another for the vector diagram (speeds).We will discuss how to do this later in the chapter.

At the bottom of the maneuvering board is a nomogram (a set of three interrelated scales). The nomogram provides you a quick way to convert time and speed to distance, time and distance to speed, and speed and distance to time.

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17-11 UNCLASSIFIED Figure 17-6 illustrates time-speed-distance scales. All three scales are logarithmic scales. The top line is a time line, in minutes. The middle line is the distance scale (numbers on top of the distance scale give distance in yards; those below, distance in miles). The bottom line is the speed scale, in knots.

In our discussions concerning the speed and distance scales, we use the words relative and actual. We do this only to inform you that you may solve both relative and actual problems. When you solve a problem, be sure to use the same type of speed and distance. For example, if you use relative distance, be sure to use relative speed.

Time-speed-distance scales are based on the formula “Distance = Speed x Time”. They are so arranged that by marking off any two known values and laying a straightedge through the two points, you can determine the correct value of the third quantity, which is the point of intersection on the third scale.

Suppose a ship travels 1500 yards in 5 minutes. What is the speed? Figure 17-6 shows the graphic solution to the problem. Time is marked at 5 minutes on the time scale. Distance is marked at 1500 yards on the distance scale. A straight line drawn through these two points and extended across the speed scale intersects the speed scale at 9 knots, answering the problem. If the distance in figure 17-6 is relative, then speed (9 knots) obtained is also relative.

17.4.1 Logarithmic Scale You actually need only one of the three nomogram scales to solve for time, speed, or distance if you know any two of the three values. But since the upper scale is larger, it will provide greater accuracy.

If you use a single logarithmic scale to solve the basic equation with speed in knots and distance in miles or thousands of yards, you must incorporate either 60 (for miles) or 30 (for yards) into the basic equation for the result to have the proper units. We explain this procedure below. Figure 17-6 Maneuvering board nomogram

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17-12 UNCLASSIFIED Figure 17-7 shows how to use the upper scale for finding the speed, in knots, when you know the time in minutes and the distance in miles. In this problem, the time is 10 minutes and the distance is 2 miles. Set one point of a pair of dividers at “10” (the time in minutes) and the second point at “2” (the distance in miles). Without changing the spread of the dividers or the right-left relationship, set the first point at “60”. The second point will indicate the speed in knots (12). If you know the speed and time, place one point at 60 and the second point at the speed in knots (12). Without changing the spread of the dividers or the right-left relationship, place the first point at the time in minutes (10). The second point then will indicate the distance in miles (2).

If the distance you use is in thousands of yards, set a divider point at “30” rather than at “60”. If the speed is less than 30 knots, the distance in thousands of yards will always be less than the time in minutes. If the speed is in excess of 30 knots, the distance in thousands of yards will always be greater than the time in minutes.

17.5 CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH PROBLEMS When range, bearing, and composition of a radar contact are relayed to the bridge, the OOD expects amplifying information shortly afterward about the contact’s course, speed, and closest point of approach.

The closest point of approach (CPA) is the position of a contact when it reaches its minimum range to own ship. This point is at the intersection of a line from own ship to the contact’s line of relative movement, perpendicular to the line of relative movement. It is expressed in true bearing and range from own ship and the time the contact should reach that point. Figure 17-7 Logarithmic scale

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17-13 UNCLASSIFIED You can find the point and time of a contact’s CPA on a maneuvering board or the surface summary plot before you solve a vector diagram for the contact’s course and speed.

Normally, four plots are needed to get an accurate CPA and time of CPA solution. Check the solution approximately every 3 minutes to see if the solution still is correct. Any change in course or speed of either own ship or the other ship will result in a change in the CPA.

NOTE: Unless indicated otherwise, all courses and bearings are true (T). Also, for the problems in this chapter, you may notice slight discrepancies between the plots in the figures and the numerical solutions stated in the text. These discrepancies are within tolerances allowed (±3°, ±3 knots, ±3 minutes, and ± 500 yards) for maneuvering board problems.

Problem #1

Situation: Own ship is on course 300°, speed 15 knots. See figure 17-8. At 0530 the surface-search radar operator reports a surface contact on bearing 236° at 18,000 yards, closing. The radar operator continues to report ranges and bearings. At 0533 the contact has closed to 15,600 yards on bearing 232°. (Note: Although we stated earlier that you need four plots to get an accurate CPA solution; we will use only two points in this problem to simplify the process.)

You must determine the following information:

1. The direction of relative motion (DRM) of the contact with respect to own ship

2. The true bearing of the contact when it reaches minimum range

3. The minimum range at which the contact will pass own ship

4. The speed of relative motion of the contact with respect to own ship

5. The time at which the contact will reach CPA

Solution: As with any maneuvering board problem, your first consideration is the choice of scale.

Since the contact’s initial range is less than 20,000 yards but greater than 10,000 yards, the 2:1 scale is the most suitable one to fit the board and present the largest picture, enabling you to get the most accurate solution.

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17-14 UNCLASSIFIED 17.5.1 Determining Closest Point of Approach First, construct a track of the contact to establish its M1M2, line of relative movement. Extend this line across the maneuvering board. Label the first plot M1 and the second M2.

Next, determine the contact’s DRM. To obtain the direction of relative movement, align one side of the parallel ruler along theM1M2 line, then walk the rulers until the other side is positioned over the center of the maneuvering board. Mark the bearing circle at the point where the ruler on the center point crosses it. In this problem (fig. 17-8), a line drawn through the board’s center and parallel to the relative movement line will cross the bearing circle at bearing 081°, so DRM is 081°.

Figure 17-8 Course, speed and CPA problem

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17-15 UNCLASSIFIED Sometimes when you attempt to draw a contact’s line of relative movement, you will find that the plot points (M1, M2, M3, etc.) are not in a straight line. This may have been caused by someone’s error in reporting or plotting bearing or range. If the plot is erratic, imagine a line that runs through the average or mean of the plots. Lay one edge of the parallel ruler on this line, and then walk the ruler to the center of the board to find the DRM.

From the center of the board, construct a line that is perpendicular to the extended M1M2 line. You can make a perpendicular-to-the-relative-movement line by adding 90° to, or subtracting 90° from, the DRM, depending on the general direction from own ship to the contact. In this case, we need to add 90° to the DRM. Thus, the true bearing of the contact when it reaches its minimum range from own ship is 171° (081° + 090° = 171°). (When the answer exceeds 360°, subtract 360 from the total to obtain the CPA bearing.)

The point where the bearing line crosses the extended M 1M2 line is the range of CPA. Measure this range from the center of the board by applying the same scale (2:1) you used to plot the positions of the contact. In the example, the range is approximately 7700 yards. This means that 7700 yards is the closest point the contact will pass to own ship, provided that neither ship changes course or speed.

So far, we know the range and true bearing at which the contact will be closest to own ship. Now we need to know the time of CPA.

17.5.2 Determining Time of CPA To calculate the time at which the contact will be at CPA, you must first determine the relative distance from point M 2 to the point of CPA and the contact’s relative speed.

To obtain the relative speed, first measure the distance the contact moved during the 3- minute interval between 0530 and 0533. The relative distance from M1 to M2 is 2700 yards. Since you know a distance and its associated time, you can use the nomogram to determine the related speed. Locate 3 minutes on the time scale, then 2700 yards on the distance scale (see figure 17-8). Next, draw a straight line between the two points and extend the line through the speed scale.

The point where the line cuts across the speed scale indicates the relative speed of the contact, in this problem, 27 knots.

Determine the relative distance to CPA by measuring the distance from M 2 to CPA (13,750 yards).

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17-16 UNCLASSIFIED You can now determine the time of CPA by applying the relative speed (27 knots) and the relative distance (13,750 yards) to the nomogram. By laying a straightedge through these two points, you will obtain a time of 15 minutes. This means that the contact will be at CPA 15 minutes from the time of M2, or at time 0548.

CPA problems are common types that you will solve many times while standing watch On the Bridge. Many times, you will work them on the surface summary plot. Inasmuch as the surface plot does not have a nomogram on it, you will have to use a nautical slide rule. See figure 17-9. You will use the nautical slide rule in the same manner as the nomogram, but in many instances you will find the slide rule easier to use. If you have any doubt about using it, be sure to ask a senior Quartermaster.

Figure 17-9 Nautical slide rule

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17-17 UNCLASSIFIED 17.5.3 3-Minute Rule The 3-minute thumb rule is another method of solving for relative speed. You can use it instead of the nomogram or a nautical slide rule to determine relative speed, thus saving considerable time. The 3-minute rule can be summarized in three short steps, as follows:

1. Compute the distance, in yards, traveled in 3 minutes of time.

2. Point off two places from the right.

3. The result is speed in knots.

Thus, a ship that travels 2700 yards in 3 minutes has a speed of 27 knots.

17.6 COURSE AND SPEED PROBLEMS To illustrate the procedures used to obtain the course and speed of a contact, let’s use the situation in the previous problem.

Own ship’s course and speed are 300°, 15 knots. In figure 17-8 these are plotted as vector er. In this case, the outer ring represents 20 knots to make the er vector as long as possible to give the most accurate results (If the outer ring were set at 10 knots, vector er wouldn’t fit on the board. If the outer ring were set at 30 knots, vector er would be shorter than it is in the figure).Since vector er, originates in the center of the maneuvering board, it is a true vector.

You can use much of the information you obtained in the CPA problem to also determine the contact’s true course and speed. To do this, you must first draw vector rm, which represents the contact’s DRM and relative speed.

To draw vector rm, first draw, through the end of vector er, a line of some length representing DRM. We mentioned earlier that line M 1M2 (which represents DRM) and the vector rm are always parallel, and that the direction M1 to M2 is always the same as the direction r to m. To draw the rm line, place one side of your parallel rulers on line M1M2. Now, use the rulers to draw a line parallel to M1M2 through the end of vector er. This line represents the direction of vector rm. To establish the length of vector rm, set your dividers to 27 knots on the 2:1 speed scale. You must use the 2:1 scale because we earlier set the outer ring of the maneuvering board equal to 20 knots. Now, place one of the dividers’ points at point r and the other point on the line in the direction of DRM. Label the second point m. You have drawn vector rm.

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17-18 UNCLASSIFIED To determine the true course and speed of the contact, simply complete the vector diagram by drawing a line from the center of the maneuvering board to the end of the rm vector. This line is the em vector. Its direction indicates the target’s true course; its length indicates the target’s true speed. In this example, the contact is on course 050°, speed 18 knots.

17.7 IMPORTANCE OF LABELING To avoid confusion, be sure to label each line or vector of the relative plot and vector diagram correctly. In addition, also mark the scales you are using. Notice in figure 17-8 that the 2:1 scale is marked with D and S. This means that the 2:1 scale is being used for both distance (D) and speed (S). These scale markings are particularly important when one scale is being used for distance and a different scale is being used for speed.

17.8 PRACTICE PROBLEMS By now, you should have a basic understanding of how to use the maneuvering board. To help you develop skills in working various types of problems, we will now present and solve several problems associated with typical situations.

17.8.1 Course, Speed, and CPA Problems

Problem #1 1. Own ship’s course is 090°, speed 10 knots. 2. At time 1100, Skunk A is bearing 060°, range 10,000 yards. 3. At 1101, Skunk A bears 059.5°, range 9400 yards. 4. At 1102, Skunk A bears 059°, range 8600 yards. 5. At time 1103, Skunk A bears 058°, range 8,000 yards.

Find the following: 1. CPA 2. Time of CPA 3. Course and speed of Skunk A

This problem is laid out for you in figure 17-10. Study it carefully and make sure you understand every vector and solution before proceeding any further. The answers are as follows:

1. CPA: 338°, 1300 yards 2. Time of CPA: 1115 3. Course and speed of Skunk A: 228°, 11.5 knots

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Figure 17-10 Course, speed and CPA problem #1

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17-20 UNCLASSIFIED Problem #2 1. Own ship’s course 270°, speed 27 knots. 2. At time 1200, Skunk B is reported at 284°, range 18,000 yards. 3. At time 1202, Skunk B bears 286.5°, range 15,200 yards. 4. At time 1204, Skunk B bears 288.5°, range 12,500 yards. 5. At time 1205, Skunk B bears 291°, range 11,100 yards.

Find the following: 1. CPA 2. Time of CPA 3. Course and speed of Skunk B

This problem is shown in figure 17-11. Did you get the correct solutions? The answers are as follows:

1. CPA: 003°, 3450 yards 2. Time of CPA: 1212 3. Course and speed of Skunk B: 097°, 16 knots

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Figure 17-11 Course, speed and CPA problem #2

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17-22 UNCLASSIFIED 17.8.2 Change-of-Station Problems To determine the required course or speed of the maneuvering ship to go from one station to another, use basically the procedures as you used for the course and speed problems.

Problem #1 The formation is on course 020°, speed 12 knots. You are on board the flagship. Cruiser A is 18,000 yards ahead of you and is ordered to take station on the port beam of the flagship, distance 14,000 yards. Find the following:

1. The direction of relative movement of cruiser A with respect to your ship 2. Cruiser A’s course at 18 knots 3. Cruiser A’s course at 12 knots 4. Cruiser A’s speed if she steers 295° 5. Cruiser A’s speed if she steers 350°

Solution : (Recommend the use of a scale of 2:1 for distance and speed.)

1. Draw vector er to represent the true course and speed of your ship.

2. Locate M1 and M2 and draw the line of relative motion. To locate these points, determine the true bearing of the maneuvering ship from the reference ship at the beginning and end of the maneuver. Thus, if cruiser A is ahead of you at the start of the maneuver and you are on course 020°, her true bearing from you is 020°; the distance is 18,000 yards, as given. M2 is on your port beam, or at a relative bearing of 270° (290°T), and the distance is 14,000 yards. Place an arrowhead on the relative movement line to indicate that the direction is from M1 to M2. You can determine the direction of this line by transferring it parallel to itself to the center of the diagram.

3. Draw vector rm, parallel to M1 M2. Begin this line at r, and continue it until it intersects the 18-knot speed circle (circle 9 at 2:1 scale). Label this point m1.

4. Complete the speed triangle by drawing vector em1 from the center of the diagram to m1. The direction of this line represents the course required to produce the desired DRM at a speed of 18 knots.

5. Draw vector em2 from the center of the diagram to the intersection of the rm vector with the 12-knot circle.

6. Draw vector em3 in the direction 295° from the center to its intersection with the rm vector. The length of this line represents the true speed at 295°.

7. Draw vector em4 vector in the direction 350°, determining the speed as in step 6.

Any of these combinations of course and speed of cruiser A will produce the desired relative movement.

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17-23 UNCLASSIFIED Check your plot against figure 17-12. The answers are as follows:

1. DRM: 238° 2. Course: 262° 3. Course: 276° 4. Speed: 8.8 knots 5. Speed: 8 knots

Figure 17-12 Change-of-station problem#1

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17-24 UNCLASSIFIED Which of the four courses and speeds would take the greatest amount of time? Why?

Answer: Course 350°, speed 8 knots would take the greatest time, because relative speed is slowest on that course (rm4).

If cruiser A desires to get to its new station as fast as possible, it should take the course and speed that has the highest relative speed: course 262°, speed 18 knots.

If cruiser A takes course 350° at 8 knots to go to its new station, its relative speed will be 6.4 knots. The maneuver will require 1 hour and 47 minutes to complete. However, if the cruiser takes course 262° at 18 knots, its relative speed will be 25.9 knots. It will arrive at its new station in 26 minutes. Thus, cruiser A’s best course to station is 262° at 18 knots.

Problem #2 A formation is on course 090° at 15 knots. Destroyer B is located broad on your starboard bow at 20,000 yards. Destroyer B is ordered to take station 4,000 yards on your port beam, using a speed of 12 knots.

Find the following: 1. Destroyer B’s best course to station at 12 knots 2. Destroyer B’s time to station 3. Destroyer B’s CPA to own ship

Solution : 1. Draw vector er: 090°, 15 knots. 2. LocateM1 andM2 (M1 is at 135°, 20,000 yards; M2 is at 000°, 4,000 yards), and draw the DRM line. 3. Parallel the DRM line to the end of the er vector. This establishes the direction of the rm vector. 4. Complete the vector triangle by drawing vector em from the center to the point where the rm line crosses the 12-knot circle with the highest relative speed (the rm line crosses the circle at two points). 5. Determine relative speed by measuring the length of the rm vector. 6. Determine the relative distance destroyer B has to go to station by measuring the distance from M1 to M2. 7. Apply the relative speed and the relative distance to the nomogram to determine the time required to complete the maneuver. 8. Determine DRM and add 90° to obtain the CPA bearing (322° + 90° - 360° = 052°). 9. Draw a line from the center out along the CPA bearing to the point where it intersects the M1M2 vector. 10. Measure the distance from the center to the CPA.

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17-25 UNCLASSIFIED Check your plot against figure 17-13. The answers are as follows:

1. Course: 043° 2. Time to station: 61 minutes 3. CPA: 052°, 2500 yards

Figure 17-13 Change-of-station problem #2

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17-26 UNCLASSIFIED Problem #3 Own ship is steaming independently on course 180°, speed 15 knots. You are in communications with destroyer C located at 140°, 36,000 yards at time 2000. He states that he will be passing through your area on course 270° at 20 knots.

Find the following: 1. Destroyer C’s CPA 2. Time to CPA.

Solution: 1. Draw the er vector: 180°, 15 knots. 2. Draw the em vector: 270°, 20 knots. 3. Complete the vector diagram by drawing the rm vector. 4. Plot the M1 position: 140°, 36,000 yards. 5. Determine DRM by paralleling the rm vector to the center. Direction is always from r to m; therefore, DRM is 307°. 6. Parallel to theM1 position and draw a line from M1 across the maneuvering board. 7. Subtract 90° from the DRM to determine the CPA bearing (307° - 90° = 217°). 8. Determine CPA range by drawing a line from the center out along the CPA bearing to the point where it intersects the extended DRM line. 9. Determine relative speed by measuring the length of the rm vector. 10. Determine the relative distance by measuring the distance from M1 to CPA. 11. Determine time to CPA by applying relative speed and relative distance to the nomogram.

Check your plot against figure 17-14. The answers are as follows: 1. CPA: 217°; 8,100 yards 2. Time to CPA: 42.5 minutes

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17-27 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 17-14 Change-of-station problem #3

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17-28 UNCLASSIFIED 17.8.3 Avoiding Course Problem To solve for avoiding a collision, use the same basic change-of-station procedures. The primary difference is in how you document the situation.

Problem: Your ship is steaming independently on course 320°, speed 15 knots. You track a contact for a reasonable amount of time and determine that its course and speed are 197°, 20 knots and that it is on a collision course with your ship. The contact bears 353°, range 16,000 yards at time 0250. When the contact reaches 10,000 yards, your ship is to take action to avoid the contact by 3,000 yards, while not crossing its bow. You will also be required to maintain your present speed throughout the maneuver.

Find the following: 1. Course to steer to avoid the contact 2. Time to turn

Solution : 1. Draw the er1 vector: 320°, 15 knots. 2. Draw the em vector: 197°, 20 knots. 3. Complete the vector diagram. Draw r1m. 4. Plot the M1 position: 353°, range 16,000 yards. 5. Plot the M2 position: 353°, range 10,000 yards. 6. Draw a line from M2 tangent to the 3,000-yard circle. To avoid crossing the contact’s bow, own ship will have to turn right. Therefore, the line will be drawn to the west of own ship. Parallel this line to the em vector and draw the r2m 15-knot circle. Complete the vector diagram by drawing er2. 7. To determine the time to turn, measure theM1 M2 distance and relative speed of r1m. Apply these components to the nomogram and add the results to the time designated for the M1 position.

Check your solution against figure 17-15. The answers are as follows: 1. 003° 2. 0256

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17-29 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 17-15 Avoiding course problem

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17-30 UNCLASSIFIED 17.8.4 Wind Problems Relative wind is the direction and speed from which the wind appears to be blowing. Relative wind seldom coincides with true wind, because the direction and speed of the relative wind are affected by own ship’s movement. For example, if your ship is heading north at 10 knots and the true wind is blowing from the south at 10 knots, there appears to be no wind at all. In another situation, your ship may be heading north with the wind appearing to blow in on the port bow, but the true wind is actually coming from the port quarter. In both of these cases, the ship’s movement is affecting the relative wind.

You can figure wind problems on a maneuvering board by using basically the same procedures as for course and speed problems. There are, however, a few new terms:

1. True wind (TW) is the velocity and direction from which the true wind is blowing. 2. Relative wind (RW) is the velocity and relative direction from which the wind is blowing in relation to ship’s head (SH). 3. Apparent wind (AW) is the velocity and true direction from which the relative wind is blowing. For example, if your ship is heading 090° and a 15-knot relative wind is blowing in on your starboard bow (045°), the apparent wind is from 135°T at 15 knots. The formula for apparent wind is AW = RW +SH. 4. An anemometer is an instrument for measuring the velocity of the wind. Some shipboard anemometers indicate relative wind, while others indicate apparent wind.

When determining true wind, you must be careful to note whether relative or apparent wind is given.

Wind direction is always the direction from, NOT to which the wind is blowing. In the vector diagram for a wind problem, the vectors are labeled as follows:

1. er—own ship’s course and speed 2. et—true wind 3. ra—relative wind

Remember, wind is always expressed in terms of the direction it is coming from, and the et and ea vectors are the direction and speed of the true and relative wind.

NOTE: You will not draw the ea vector on the maneuvering board, but you must visualize it.

Figure 17-16 shows the vector diagram for a typical wind problem. In this case, own ship’s course is 180°, speed 15 knots. Draw this as vector er. The relative wind is from 060°R at 20 knots. Plot this point and label it as a. You can also express relative wind as apparent wind. In this case the apparent wind is 240°T, 20 knots. Plot the relative, apparent, and true wind with the arrows pointing toward the center of the maneuvering board.

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17-31 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 17-16 Vector diagram for a wind problem

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17-32 UNCLASSIFIED Lay the parallel ruler on points r and a (ra vector) and draw a line between the two points. Now draw a line slightly longer than and parallel to the ra vector through the center of the maneuvering board. This will be the direction the true wind is coming from (et). Now, lay the parallel ruler on the er vector (ship’s course and speed). Parallel over to the relative wind (a) and draw a line until it crosses the et vector line that you drew from the center of the maneuvering board. The point where the two lines cross will represent the TRUE wind (direction and speed). When you have worked the problem correctly, you will have drawn a parallelogram with all the points connected (e to r, r to a, e to t, and a to t).

NOTE: The relative wind will always fall between the ship’s head and the true wind.

Problem #1 Own ship is on course 030° at 12 knots. The relative wind is from 310°R at 19 knots. Find the following:

1. Apparent wind direction 2. True wind velocity and direction

Solution : 1. Relative wind from 310°R at 19 knots converts to an apparent wind from 340°T at 19 knots. 2. Draw vector er. 3. Plot point a. 4. Parallel the ra vector to the center of the maneuvering board and draw a line slightly longer than the ra vector. 5. Complete the et vector by paralleling the er vector to a and drawing a line until it crosses the et line.

Check your solution against figure 17-17. The answers are as follows:

1. The apparent wind is from 340T. 2. The true wind is from 301 at 14.6 knots.

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17-33 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 17-17 Wind problem #1

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17-34 UNCLASSIFIED Problem #2 Own ship’s course 250°, speed 20 knots. The apparent wind is from 230°T at 27 knots. Find the following:

1. Relative wind direction 2. True wind velocity and direction

Solution: 1. The apparent wind from 230°T at 27 knots converts to a relative wind of 340°R at 27 knots. 2. Parallel the ra vector to the center of the maneuvering board and draw a line in the direction of a. 3. Complete the et vector by paralleling the er vector to a and drawing a line until it crosses the et line.

Check your plot against figure 17-18. The answers are as follows:

1. The relative wind is from 340°R. 2. The true wind is from 190° at 11 knots.

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17-35 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 17-18 Wind Problem #2

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17-36 UNCLASSIFIED 17.8.4.1 Desired Wind Problems Practically every ship in the fleet conducts flight operations. Flight operations always involve a desired relative wind. Carriers must adjust their course to get the relative wind required to launch or recover aircraft. Even the smallest ships have to make course adjustments to get the relative wind needed for helicopter operations (transfer of mail, personnel, cargo, etc.). In these types of situations, Quartermasters must solve desired wind problems to determine, from a known true wind, the course and speed the ship must use to obtain the required relative wind.

You must become proficient in computing desired wind problems, since these solutions are almost always provided by CIC, you should provide a checks and balances system. Although there are several methods that you can use to work desired wind problems, the dot method, described in the following paragraphs, is generally considered to be the best.

Problem #1 Assume that true wind is from 180° at 15 knots, and your ship needs a relative wind 30° to port at 20 knots. Follow the steps below on figure 17-19.

1. Draw the true wind course and speed vector from the center of the board toward 000° at 15 knots. (Use the 3:1 scale.) Imagine a ship pointing down the true-wind course line. 2. Plot dot number 1 on the 20-knot circle 30° from the true wind course line, on the port side of the imaginary ship. Before going any farther, be sure you understand this point. As you are looking out from the center, dot 1 is plotted 30° on the port side of the imaginary ship, on the 20-knot circle. 3. Determine the position of dot number 2 by measuring the true wind speed (15 knots in this problem) and swinging an arc from the dot-1 position across the true-wind course line, as shown in figure 17-19. Label the point or points where this arc crosses the true- wind course line dot number 2. In most desired wind problems there will be two dot-2 positions, giving you a choice of two different course and speed combinations to obtain the desired wind. 4. Determine the required ship’s courses by paralleling the dot 1-dot 2 lines to the center of the maneuvering board. In figure 17-19 the two possible courses are 318° and 222°. 5. Determine the required speed for each course by measuring from the center of the maneuvering board to the associated dot-2 position. If your ship takes course 318°, its speed must be 28.4 knots to obtain a relative wind 30° to port at 20 knots. If it takes course 222°, its speed must be 6.2 knots. 6. Complete the two er vectors by laying each speed onto its course line. The ship’s characteristics and the tactical situation will usually dictate which of the two courses and speeds are best.

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17-37 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 17-19 Desired wind problem #1

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17-38 UNCLASSIFIED Problem #2 The true wind is from 320° at 20 knots. Determine the ship’s course and speed necessary to create a relative wind of 020°R (20° starboard) at 30 knots.

1. (See figure 17-20) Plot the true wind 2. Looking out from the center, plot dot 1 20° to starboard of the imaginary ship, on the 30-knot circle. (Use the 5:1 scale.) 3. From dot 1, swing a 20-knot arc (true-wind speed) across the true-wind course line. 4. Plot dot 2 at the point where the arc crosses the true-wind course line. 5. Parallel the dot 1-dot 2 line to the center to determine ship’s required course. 6. Measure from the center of the board to dot 2 to determine ship’s speed. 7. Complete the vector diagram.

In this problem, the two solutions are 289 at 11 knots and 171 at 45.5 knots. Since a speed of 45.5 knots is not practical, we will consider only the first solution.

Check your plot against figure 17-20. Course 289° and a speed of 11 knots are required to obtain a relative wind of 020°R at 30 knots. If you check the rw vector direction and length, you will see that the apparent wind is from 309°T (020°R) at 30 knots.

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17-39 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 17-20 Desired wind problem #2

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17-40 UNCLASSIFIED 17.8.4.2 Desired Wind (Alternate Method)

Problem An aircraft carrier is proceeding on course 240° at 18 knots. The true wind is from 315° at 10 knots. Determine a launch course and speed that will produce a relative wind across the flight deck of 30 knots from 350° relative (10° port). Refer to figure 17-21.

Solution Set a pair of dividers for 30 knots using any convenient scale. Place one end of the dividers at the origin (e) of the maneuvering board and the other on the 350° line. Mark this point a. Set the dividers for the true-wind speed of 10 knots and place one end on point a, the other on the 000° line (centerline of the ship). Mark this point on the centerline b. Draw a dashed line from origin e parallel to ab. This produces the angular relationship between the direction from which the true wind is blowing and the launch course. In this problem the true wind should be from 32° off the port bow (328° relative) when the ship is on launch course and speed.

The required course is 347 (315° + 32°); the required speed is 21 knots.

NOTE: On a moving ship, the direction of true wind is always on the same side and aft of the direction of the apparent wind. The difference in directions increases as the ship’s speed increases. That is, the faster a ship moves, the more the apparent wind draws ahead of the true wind.

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17-41 UNCLASSIFIED

17.9 SUMMARY In this chapter, we have tried to show you how to solve basic maneuvering board problems. Now we offer a few hints on how you can avoid making mistakes as you work those problems.

1. Be sure to read the problem carefully; be certain you understand it before you proceed with the solution. Check all of the numbers carefully.

2. Avoid using reciprocals. When a bearing is given, be sure you understand to which ship the bearing applies or from which ship it is taken (“bearing to” or “bearing from”).

3. Be particularly careful of the scale of the nomogram at the bottom of the form. Figure 17-21 Desired wind (alternate method)

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17-42 UNCLASSIFIED 4. Measure carefully. It is easy to select the wrong circle or to make an error of 10° in direction. Read your plotted answers carefully.

5. Plot only true bearings. If a relative bearing or compass direction is given, convert it to a true direction before plotting it.

6. Label all points, and put arrowheads on vectors as soon as you draw them.

7. Remember that DRM and relative speed are the direction and length of the rm vector. The direction is always from r to m.

8. Remember that true vectors always originate in the center of the maneuvering board and that relative vectors originate outside the center.

9. Remember that vectors indicate direction of motion as well as speed. Thus, motion along the relative movement line is associated with relative speed, not actual speed. You can determine relative speed when you know relative distance and time. To obtain actual speed, you must know actual distance and time.

10. Remember that the maneuvering board moves with the reference ship.

11. Do not attach undue significance to the center of the maneuvering board. This point is used both as the origin of actual speed vectors and as the position of the reference ship merely for the sake of convenience.

12. Work a problem one step at a time. An entire problem may seem complicated, but each step is simple, and often suggests the next step. Remember that all problems are based on a few simple principles.

13. Remember to use the same scale for all speeds and to draw all distances to a common scale.

We suggest that you refer to this list periodically, because almost every maneuvering board mistake is based either in violating one of these rules or on making simple arithmetic errors.

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18-1 UNCLASSIFIED 18 PROTECTIVE MEASURES ASSESSMENT PROTOCAL (PMAP) AND MARINE MAMMMAL AWARENESS

18.1 PMAP REQUIREMENT The Navy has a requirement to operate in accordance with the Compliance with Environmental Requirements in the Conduct of Naval Exercises or Training At Sea (herein after referred to as the “At-Sea Policy”), as directed by the Chief of Naval Operations and Commander Fleet Forces Command (CFFC) to develop and implement protective measures for routine, unit level training and exercises.

The Secretary of the Navy’s “at sea” policy, signed in December 2000, promotes sequential planning and Navy wide consistency for training activities conducted at sea. The policy also directed the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) to develop a set of precautionary protective measures to minimize potential impacts on marine resources. Under the “at sea” policy:

• Unit Commanding Officers are responsible for complying with environmental requirements for routine unit-level training activities.

The Protective Measures Assessment Protocol (PMAP) has been developed to fulfill these requirements. At Initial Operating Capability (IOC), PMAP will provide compliance consistency fleet-wide for unit level routine training and exercises for the protection of marine natural resources.

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18-2 UNCLASSIFIED The Protective Measures Assessment Protocol (PMAP) program is designed to help minimize potential impacts to marine species and the ocean environment during routine training activities, testing and maintenance events including the use of mid-frequency active sonar. The protective measures contained in PMAP include many actions that are already common practice, including the posting of trained lookouts and critical habitat awareness. Using the PMAP program and implementing its event-specific protective measures will help you conduct training and maintenance events consistent with Navy environmental policy and doctrine.

U.S. Fleet Forces Command, under CNO’s delegated authority, developed PMAP as a set of precautionary standard operating protective measures, policies, and planning tools for routine training activities at sea. PMAP is one piece of the programmatic environmental package for training activities at sea, envisioned in the Fleet Forces Command environmental compliance strategy.

• PMAP is an IT-21 certified tool that provides commanding officers with environmental situational awareness and protective measures.

• PMAP measures are to be implemented during routine Unit-Level Training (ULT) and exercises that do not require, and therefore do not have, exercise-specific environmental measures.

• PMAP standardized operating protective measures are dependent on the geographic location and type of training or exercise being performed.

PMAP is designed to cover 21 specific routine training activities in order to maximize Navy’s protection and conservation of important marine resources. PMAP applies to:

1. GUNEX (surface-to-surface) 2. GUNEX (surface-to-air) 3. GUNEX (air-to-surface) 4. TORPEX (Does not include events utilizing live warheads) involving use of MF sonar 5. Small Arms Training 6. MISSILEX (surface-to-air) 7. MISSILEX (air-to-air) 8. MISSILEX (air-to-surface) 9. Practice Bombing (explosive) 10. Practice Bombing (nonexplosive) 11. Mine Countermeasures (mechanical mine avoidance/mine sweeping) 12. Mine Countermeasures (acoustic mine avoidance/mine sweeping using active sonar) 13. Underwater Detonations (including Mine Countermeasures (explosive)) 14. Anchor Operations 15. Ship and Submarine Active Sonar Usage 16. AEER/IEER Training Operations 17. Helo Dipping Sonar-Training Operations

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18-3 UNCLASSIFIED 18. FIREX using IMPASS 19. Mine Shape Deployment 20. Anti-Swimmer Grenade Training 21. Sinking Exercise (SINKEX)

PMAP measures apply to routine training events at sea that are either:

• Within ranges and OPAREAs where Navy does not otherwise have specific environmental requirements, or

• Outside of ranges and OPAREAs, or

• Within a foreign nation Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the protective measures contained in PMAP shall form the minimum requirements absent definitive guidance from the applicable sofa (or other bilateral agreement(s)), U.S. Fleet Commander, or U.S. Operational Commander. In the event of conflict between the protective measures contained in PMAP and those provided by the applicable Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) (or other bilateral agreement(s)), U.S. Fleet Commander, or U.S. Operational Commander, the more stringent protective measures shall apply. For areas where no foreign EEZ has been delineated, e.g. parts of the Mediterranean Sea, the waters beyond the territorial sea (normally 12 nm) are considered "at sea".

Generally, standard protective measures emphasize the use of trained lookouts and visual survey capabilities. When possible, plan to conduct environmentally sensitive training during daylight hours. In the event exercises will be conducted at night, maximize use of passive acoustic monitoring, radar, and/or night vision equipment to survey for protected species, coral reefs, and to clear the target or other relevant area.

In addition to the standard operating protective measures for sonar in the specific training exercises, consistent with essential training requirements, Navy units will avoid training with active sonar in areas where they will encounter conditions that, in combination, could contribute to a marine mammal stranding event. These conditions include a strong surface duct, significant bathymetry (steep or complex bathymetric features such as the continental shelf break, seamounts and canyons), multiple sonar use over extended periods of time, and constricted channels or limited egress for marine mammals. If a situation arises in which units must conduct sonar training or exercises where all these conditions are present, prior approval shall be received by contacting their appropriate numbered fleet staff.

PMAP training events reports are required to be printed, signed and retained for a period of two continuous years and filed In Accordance With (IAW) the appropriate Type Commander or Numbered Fleet Instructions.

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18-4 UNCLASSIFIED In the event of a marine mammal strike, or sighting of a stranded, injured or dead marine mammal, unit commanders shall follow OPNAVINST 3100.6H, Special Incident Reporting (OPREP 3, Navy Blue and Unit SITREP) Procedures. . Also, continue to report whale strikes in accordance with OPNAVINST 5090.1C, Chapter 22-12.3.3.1.

Reporting requirements will be covered later in this chapter.

18.1.1 PMAP Glossary of Terms

Areas of Interest There are two types of Areas of Interest: • Special Areas – These are areas such as natural marine sanctuaries where legal or regulatory requirements already exist. • FDAI – These are areas where policy drive special protective measures, such as callback requirement, apply.

Critical Habitats Critical habitat is a term used within the Endangered Species Act (ESA). It is defined as an area occupied by a species listed as threatened or endangered within which are found physical or geographical features essential to the conservation of the species, or an area not currently occupied by the species, which is itself essential to the conservation of the species. As defined in the ESA, “conservation” means any and all methods and procedures, and the use of those, needed to bring a species to recovery – the point at which the protections of the ESA are no longer needed.

Fall of Shot The Target Buffer Zone or impact area.

Fleet Designated Area of Interest An area designated by the CFFC that has potential environmental impact, but carries no legal or regulatory restrictions to the operations of Naval ships.

Gun Bearing Line The line on which the PMAP Target Buffer Zone is located.

Gun Lay For purposes of this manual, the Gun Target Line is the same as the Gun Bearing Line.

Gun Target Line For purposes of this manual, the Gun Target Line is the same as the Gun Bearing Line.

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18-5 UNCLASSIFIED Habitat Controls A Habitat is defined as the area that could be affected by the exercise being posed to the environment (for example, species of mammals, etc.). Habitat controls are the protective measures or controls that must be adhered to during the proposed exercise to protect the critical habitat area that could be affected by the proposed exercise.

High Seas The high seas include all parts of the ocean seaward of the exclusive economic zone. When a coastal nation has not proclaimed an exclusive economic zone, the high seas begin at the seaward edge of the territorial area.

Hot Box The center of the 20 x 20 nm box where the exercise is intended to be performed when performing a “No Target” exercise. PMAP uses the unit’s intended exercise position (entered on Screen 1 of 7) to create a 20 x 20 nm box (which is the intended ordnance drop zone), where the unit’s latitude and longitude is the center of the box.

Marine Sanctuaries A marine area that is protected under the auspices of the U.S. government.

Protective Measures Any action taken to permanently eliminate or reduce the long-term risk to human life, property, environment, and function from hazards.

No Target A target type that uses the unit’s intended exercise position (entered on Screen 1 of 7) to create a 20 x 20 nm box (which is the intended ordnance drop zone), where the unit’s latitude and longitude is the center of the box. (The center of the 20 x 20 nm box, where the exercise is intended to be performed, is referred to as the “Hot box”.) The exact target latitude and longitude is not known, but will fall somewhere within this Hot box.

The box dimensions of 20 x 20 nm were determined by the ‘worst case scenario’ of a surface ship’s need to fire its 5” gun in any direction to avoid a fouled gun-target line. When running PMAP for planning a No Target event, the operator should input the center of the Hot Box as both the unit and target location, regardless if the ordnance to be expended (that is, gun round, bomb, etc.) will land. On the day of execution, the actual fall-of-shot may then occur in any portion of the box. This authorized latitude allows users to fulfill their environmental protective measure responsibilities while being provided sufficient flexibility to account for the possibilities that can occur between planning and actual event execution.

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18-6 UNCLASSIFIED Target A physical object such as a towed target, sleeve, floating balloon, etc., with a known latitude, longitude, and projected date.

Training Area Controls Training area controls are the general protective measures that must be adhered to within all areas during the proposed exercise. These controls are listed on Screen 7 of 7, and should be used when evaluating the natural resource considerations associated with performing the exercise in the proposed location.

18.1.2 PMAP Features PMAP is a decision support tool and situational awareness tool. PMAP uses various layers of geographic data that is fixed to coordinates on the earth’s surface. This information provides a visual display of the exercise area, unit’s position in relation to the target area, and environmental data (such as marine mammal sanctuaries and critical habitats).

• PMAP is provided by downloading directly from the PMAP website or mailed to users on a Compact Disk (CD). The application starts up automatically after initial installation and an installation key entered.

• Cartographic material, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) data, (formerly National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA)) and other vector data are incorporated into PMAP.

• A total of seven screens comprise PMAP. The screens are designed using Wizard functionality; familiar buttons such as Next, Back, and Cancel are used on each screen. • Multiple exercises are supported by PMAP. PMAP will loop through each of the exercises and generate a final report for each exercise.

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18-7 UNCLASSIFIED

PMAP is to be used before a routine; unit level training exercise is conducted. A planner is required to run PMAP and provide the printed report to the Commanding Officer through the chain of command. PMAP provides valuable data to units performing independent training activities.

18.1.3 PMAP Tutorials Two types of tutorials, in the form of a slide show and audio/video presentation, may be accessed using the Quick Tutorial button provided on the PMAP Main Menu screen. The short, slide tutorial visually leads the user through the process of starting PMAP, selecting an operational scenario, and generating the final reports. The audio/video presentation expands on the Quick Tutorial; the process of selecting operational and sonar maintenance scenarios are verbally described and visually illustrated to the user using simple step-by-step instructions and graphical representations of the PMAP screens.

Perform the following steps to access the Slide Show Quick Tutorial. Figure 18-1 PMAP main screen

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18-8 UNCLASSIFIED 1. From the PMAP Main Menu shown in Figure 18-1, select the Quick Tutorial button. The Quick Tutorial Choices screen, shown in Figure 18-2, is displayed.

2. Select the Slide Show button. The first page of the slide show tutorial is displayed on the Quick Help window, as shown in Figure 18-3.

Figure 18-2 Quick Tutorial Choices Screen Figure 18-3 Maximized Quick Help Window

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18-9 UNCLASSIFIED 18.1.4 PMAP Overview The following paragraphs provide an overview of the data entry, confirmation, and decision-making processes that must be performed when using PMAP.

Process 1: Data Entry Upon accessing PMAP, two data entry screens are provided for the entry of the following information. This information is used to identify the location of the unit, target area, and the exercise area.

The operator is given the ability to enter multiple exercises at this time. Note that target- related information will not need to be supplied if performing sonar maintenance.

Figure 18-4 Step 1

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18-10 UNCLASSIFIED Process 2: Situational Awareness Once the above data entry is completed for each exercise, three situational awareness screens provide the operator with the opportunity to:

• Visually verify the location of the proposed exercise area with reference to the nearest landmass.

• View the environmental information to the extent of the National Geospatial- Intelligence Agency (NGA) map input.

• View the affected area.

In all three views, available environmental data and natural resources are displayed, if present. If the proposed exercise area shown on the screens does not correspond to the actual exercise and unit locations, the operator is given the opportunity to return to the data entry screens to correct the location information.

Process 3: Natural Resource Considerations and Evaluation Once the exercise location and environmental situation has been confirmed, two natural resource evaluation/decision aid screens are displayed.

• The first of these screens reviews environmental information, which includes natural resources present, natural resource considerations, and causes of the natural considerations associated with the proposed exercise.

• The second of the decision aid screens provides the operator with a listing of protective measures and controls associated with the natural considerations.

Process 4: Final Report Generation Once the natural considerations, causes, and protective measures are evaluated, a final report is generated in the form of a Microsoft Word document and displayed on the screen. This final report constitutes the document that shows the Commanding Officer is compliant with Navy policy and has taken positive actions to reduce the potential for adverse affects on the environment while conducting required operational training. This report may be saved and/or printed.

CAUTION The final report contained in the Word file can be edited. Note, however, that any edits performed to the final report invalidate the PMAP results.

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18-11 UNCLASSIFIED The final report consists of:

• A Situational Awareness page summarizing exercise information, such as the exercise name and date, unit and exercise locations, report classification and signature areas, natural resource considerations, and training area and habitat controls.

• Situational maps identifying the unit’s location, exercise area, target area, and any natural resource considerations.

• Applicable Fleet statements pertaining to specific protective measures within the area.

The final report should be forwarded up the chain of command by following the procedures set forth within the unit for planning training exercises.

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18-12 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 18-5 PMAP Report page 1

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18.1.5 Marine Mammal Log In addition to planning and utilizing PMAP as well as your skilled lookout capabilities, the following Marine Mammal Log will need to be utilized.

This log can also help for compiling data that will need to be reported should an incident occur.

Reporting procedures will be covered next.

Figure 18-6 PMAP Report page 2

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18-14 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 18-7 Marine Mammal Log page 1

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18-15 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 18-8 Marine Mammal Log page 2

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18-16 UNCLASSIFIED 18.2 MARINE MAMMAL INCIDENT REPORTS The OPREP-3 NAVY BLUE will be used to report any marine mammal incident.

This guidance applies to all Navy commands, including any ship or aircraft under contract to, or conducting research and development or test and evaluation activities for the Navy. CNO (N45) is the clearinghouse for all Navy information related to marine mammal strike or stranding occurrences worldwide. CNO (N3/N5) will support CNO (N45) directly in coordinating these marine mammal incident reports.

In the event of a marine mammal strike or stranding, CNO (N45) is the sole point of contact for liaison activities with the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA Fisheries) Headquarters. Coordination with CNO (N45) is required prior to engaging regional NOAA Fisheries offices with regard to a stranding or strike incident.

The CNO Battle Watch Captain in the NOC, Washington DC is responsible for collecting/disseminating operational and ashore information to CNO leadership. The NOC must receive all voice and message reports related to marine mammal incidents so that it can notify appropriate OPNAV action officers and leadership. Marine mammal incidents by their very nature require coordination of information across commands, both afloat and ashore. Fleet Commanders have the lead for information coordination and will support the NOC. Regional Commanders shall support the Fleet Commanders by coordinating shore command marine mammal incident information.

18.2.1 Report Content a. Initial Report. The initial voice and record message report is intended to inform the chain of command expeditiously of the existence of a marine mammal event within the timeframe specified.

b. Follow-up Reporting. Not all reportable marine mammal events require follow-up reporting. Based on the initial report and the attendant facts and circumstances surrounding the event, CNO (N45) will coordinate with the NOC to determine whether follow-up reporting is required. Factors such as proximity of naval forces, physical condition of the animal, Congressional interest, other agency interest, media interest, and other pertinent information will be considered in making the determination.

(1) If required, follow-up reports will be made via naval message to CNO (N3/N45/N5) and the NOC within 48 hours following the initial report. Negative reports are required.

(2) Contents of Follow-up Reports. Follow-up reports shall only contain information not included in the initial report. The report shall be submitted within 48 hours following the initial report even if not all information is available. Additional follow-up reports must be submitted every 48 hours thereafter until all information has been forwarded to CNO (N3/N5/N45).

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18-17 UNCLASSIFIED (3) Under certain circumstances, more comprehensive reporting may be appropriate. In such instances, especially if litigation is anticipated. Close coordination between the cognizant Fleet Commander and CNO (N45) will be essential in these situations.

18.2.2 Navy Requirements for Reporting Interaction with Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles

1. Strikes - All confirmed or unconfirmed ship strikes of marine mammals must be reported up the chain of command. See the OPNAV instruction 3100.6H for amplifying guidance and reporting requirements.

2. Dead or injured animals - Certain sightings of dead or injured marine mammals must also be reported up the chain of command. OPNAV instruction 3100.6H Appendix C lists more details on what types if incidents must be reported and how to report these incidents.

For example, any Navy unit that becomes aware of the following types of events must submit a report:

a) Any stranding that involves a Northern Right Whale or Beaked Whale. b) Any other stranding that is reported by a Navy ship or aircraft in which the unit knows that naval operations, exercises or training involving active sonar or weapons impact have occurred within 50 nautical miles of the stranding and within three days prior to the sighting. c) Stranding for which a request for information on naval operations has been received from Congress, National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), or the media. d) Stranding for which naval operations have been implicated, or are likely to be implicated, as causing the event. e) Claims of unusual marine mammal behavior reported in the media, or by National Marine Fisheries Service, a private party or non-governmental entity in which naval operations, exercises or training have been implicated.

3. Other interactions - Navy vessels and aircraft are also encouraged to report other direct interactions with whales and sea turtles, such as instances where naval units assist animals entangled in nets.

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18-18 UNCLASSIFIED 18.3 MARINE SPECIES AWARENESS The Department of the Navy (DoN) is required by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and Presidential Executive Order 12114 “Environmental Effects Abroad of Major Federal Actions” to consider the potential environmental impacts of major federal actions on the environment. Therefore, the Department of the Navy reviews possible environmental impacts from conducting at-sea training. The Executive Order furthers the purpose of the National Environmental Policy Act consistent with the foreign policy and national security policy of the United States. The Executive Order also directs that all federal agencies are responsible for their impacts on global environmental resources and must take measures to avoid damaging these resources. The Navy is also bound to adhere to the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), which are federal laws that protect species that are federally listed as endangered or threatened and all marine mammals, respectively.

The Navy conducts many events that can affect the environment, including live weapon firing at sea. These events are part of a training plan to ensure the U.S. Military is the best trained, prepared, and equipped military force in the world. Sailors participating in these at-sea events must be ever vigilant for sea life or signs of sea life that may be encountered during the operation, and report the presence of such to responsible command personnel in order to avoid any negative consequences of interaction.

The Lookout Training Handbook will prepare watchstanders to be observant of the at-sea environment, be aware of the serious nature of the Lookout’s duties, and the direct relationship to the Commanding Officer’s responsibility to operate the ship in accordance with federal regulations.

NOTICE: A video training tool entitled “Marine Species Awareness Training” is posted on Navy Knowledge Online. You can locate it on the Boatswain’s Mate (BM) Communities of Practice page within the Center for Surface Combat Systems Learning Center homepage. The viewing of this training is mandatory for all Navigation and CS/CIC Watch Team members.

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18-19 UNCLASSIFIED 18.3.1 Marine Species Terminology

1. Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) - The MMPA established a moratorium, with certain exceptions, on the taking of marine mammals in U.S. waters and by U.S. citizens on the high seas, and on the importing of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the United States. The MMPA defines taking as “harassing, hunting, capturing, killing, or attempting to harass, hunt, capture, or kill any marine mammal” (16 U.S.C. 1312[13]). The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA) was most recently reauthorized in 1994. In passing the MMPA in 1972, Congress found that: Certain species and population stocks of marine mammals are, or may be, in danger of extinction or depletion as a result of man's activities; such species and population stocks should not be permitted to diminish beyond the point at which they cease to be a significant functioning element in the ecosystem of which they are a part, and, consistent with this major objective, they should not be permitted to diminish below their optimum sustainable population level; measures should be taken immediately to replenish any species or population stock which has diminished below its optimum sustainable level; there is inadequate knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics of such marine mammals and of the factors which bear upon their ability to reproduce themselves successfully; and marine mammals have proven themselves to be resources of great international significance, aesthetic and recreational as well as economic.

2. Endangered Species Act (ESA) - The ESA provides for the conservation of species which are in danger of extinction throughout all, or a significant portion of, their range and the conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend. "Species" is defined by the Act to mean a species, a subspecies, or, for vertebrates only, a distinct population. Section 7 of the ESA requires all Federal agencies to use their authorities to conduct conservation programs and to consult with National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) or Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) concerning the potential effects of their actions on any species listed under the ESA. Critical habitats necessary for the continued survival of species are designated.

3. Coral Reefs - Executive Order 13089. All Federal agencies whose actions may affect U.S. coral reef ecosystems shall:

a. identify their actions that may affect U.S. coral reef ecosystems; b. utilize their programs and authorities to protect and enhance the conditions of such ecosystems c. to the extent permitted by law, ensure that any actions they authorize, fund, or carry out will not degrade the conditions of such ecosystems.

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18-20 UNCLASSIFIED 4. Zone of influence - The zone of influence (ZOI) refers to the distance from a sound source within which a marine mammal or sea turtle may experience harassment. For example, the ZOI for a single 5-inch round is about 641 yards.

5. Protective measures - Marine resource protective measures have been developed to ensure operational capability and flexibility while maximizing navy’s protection of, and avoidance of potential effects to, important marine resources. Protective measures articulated by the Protective Measures Assessment Protocol (PMAP) shall form the minimum standard protective measures suitable for use for activities that do not have specific environmental protective measures in place.

6. Avoidance – While whales are highly maneuverable and generally detectable (in daylight) at long range by onboard watch-standers, collisions do occur. This seems to be more common in species with surface feeding or “logging” behavior (floating nearly motionless at the surface). While sea turtles may be migrating through an OPAREA seasonally, they often attempt to avoid oncoming boats by diving, turning, or swimming away. Ships are expected to operate at safe speeds during exercises and have posted lookouts. If whales or sea turtles are detected in the vicinity of the exercise, Navy vessels will increase vigilance and take reasonable and practicable actions to avoid collisions and activities that might result in close interaction between Navy assets and protected cetaceans and sea turtles. Actions may include changing speed and/or direction as safety and environmental factors permit. Naval vessels would avoid approaching any whale head on, and would maneuver to keep at least 1,500 ft away from any observed whale.

18.3.2 Tools to Help in Species Recognition Identification of marine mammal and sea turtle species at sea is sometimes very difficult even for professional whale scientists. The Navy has developed the “Whale Identification Wheel.” The Whale Wheel is intended to be an aid for whale identification as well as a tool to improve overall marine mammal awareness. It includes descriptors for identification of some of the more common whale species as well as beaked whales, which may be particularly sensitive to noise from Navy operations. The Whale Identification Wheel is Navy publication number OPNAV P-45-118-8-01. Having a good field guide, a whale wheel, a camera, and a pad and paper in hand to take notes and make sketches will be very useful as you try to identify the different marine animals at sea.

18.3.3 Marine Animals and Habitats The following is a list of animals that deserve special attention by species and typical habitats where they can be found.

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18-21 UNCLASSIFIED Sea Turtles - All sea turtles are listed as threatened or endangered under the ESA. Sea turtles are not restricted to tropical or warm-temperate waters and can be found as far north as Newfoundland on the east coast and Alaska on the west coast. Immature turtles are often found in sagassum rafts and kelp mats. Most sea turtle feeding and nesting areas are found in tropical waters, though they also nest on sandy beaches along the coasts of the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Texas, and California. They will migrate long distances from their feeding grounds to their nesting beaches. The hatchlings usually hatch at night and make their journey to the sea. Juvenile sea turtles of most species migrate to bays, estuaries, and shallow coastal waters but can be found in deeper offshore waters. Adults are often found on rocky ledges and reefs in shallow coastal waters, but they are also found in deeper offshore waters (Figure 18-9).

Cetaceans – Whales, dolphins, and porpoises all belong to the same taxonomic order called cetacea. All cetaceans are protected under the MMPA, and most large whale species are listed as endangered under the ESA. Cetaceans can be found virtually in every ocean of the world. Depending on the species, certain habitats are better than others for marine animals. Coastal areas, estuary openings, areas with high bottom relief such as underwater canyons or seamounts, edges of the continental shelf, and regions with marked dynamics such as temperature gradients, regions of high primary productivity or upwelling, and areas of strong tidal runs can all be good habitat for marine species. Extra vigilance should be exercised in these areas.

Figure 18-9 Species of Sea Turtles

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18-22 UNCLASSIFIED Whales are divided into two suborders: Baleen (Mysticete), and Toothed (Odontocete) (Figure 18-10 and 18-11).

Figure 18-10 Species of Whales

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18-23 UNCLASSIFIED

Figure 18-11 Species of Whales

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18-24 UNCLASSIFIED 1. Baleen - Baleen whales have baleen plates instead of teeth, which they use to filter small particles of food. Baleen is a sieve-like device made of keratin (the same substance that fingernails and hair are made of). Baleen is a series of stiff, flexible material that hang from the upper jaw. The inside of the baleen is edged with hairy plates that filter krill (tiny crustaceans), plankton (small animals and plants that float with ocean currents), and small fish. They are larger than the toothed whales and have two blowholes.

a. Right Whales - North Atlantic right whales receive special attention because they are critically endangered, with only around 300 left in existence. They seem to be particularly susceptible to vessel collisions – probably because they spend a lot of time at the surface, don’t seem to hear or get out of the path of oncoming vessels, and use the same nearshore habitats where most of the vessel traffic along the East Coast occurs. Like most baleen whales, Right whales are seasonally migratory. They inhabit colder waters for feeding in the summer, and then migrate to warmer waters for breeding and calving in the winter. Most sightings are concentrated within five high-use areas: coastal waters of the southeastern U.S. (Georgia and Florida), Cape Cod and Massachusetts bays, the Great South Channel, the Bay of Fundy, and the Nova Scotian Shelf. Three of these areas are designated as right whale critical habitats: the calving area off the coast of Georgia and Florida, Cape Cod Bay, and the Great South Channel. Right whales are known to migrate along the East Coast in the spring and fall and are most often sighted within 30nm of shore and in waters less than 25 fathoms deep while migrating through the mid-Atlantic area. While they are known to venture into deep offshore waters, this seems to be rare.

b. Gray Whales - There are two populations of Gray whales: the Eastern North Pacific population and the Western North Pacific population, also known as the Korean population. The Eastern North Pacific population is found along the west coast of the North American continent. The Western North Pacific population is found from the Sea of Okhotsk in Russia through the Sea of Japan and the South China Sea. They are usually found in coastal waters and when migrating usually pass within 1 1/3 nmi of the shoreline.

Rorqual – One family of Baleen whales is the Rorquals. This family of whales includes the Blue, Bryde’s, Fin, Minke, Sei, and Humpback whales. Rorquals have 25-100 parallel, pleated throat grooves (ventral grooves) that extend from the throat to the flippers. When these whales eat, these grooves expand, allowing them to take huge gulps of water, forcing it through their short baleen to filter out tiny organisms during filter feeding. Rorquals have a small dorsal fin in the rear third of their back. It is often difficult to distinguish them by species at sea, particularly those that share the long, sleek, and streamlined body type – the blue, Bryde’s, fin, minke and sei whales.

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18-25 UNCLASSIFIED a. Humpback Whales - Humpback whales are found in all of the world’s oceans. They generally are found during the summer on high-latitude feeding grounds and during the winter in the tropics around islands, over shallow banks, and along continental coasts, where calving occurs. Most humpback whale sightings are in nearshore and continental shelf waters. It is likely that at least some part of the migration is through the open ocean.

b. Fin Whales - Fin whales are found in all oceans of the world in both continental shelf and deep waters. They are believed to follow the typical baleen whale migratory pattern, spending summer months at feeding grounds in the northern latitudes and moving south to tropical and sub-tropical waters for mating and calving during winter months.

c. Sei Whales - Sei whales are found in all oceans, but are more restricted to mid-latitude temperate waters than other rorquals. Like other rorquals, they undertake long migrations during spring and fall. Sei whales appear to prefer regions of steep bathymetric relief, such as the continental shelf break, canyons, or basins situated between banks and ledges.

d. Minke Whales - Minke whales are found in polar, temperate, and tropical waters. They can be seen offshore but are more often seen in coastal and inshore areas.

e. Blue Whales - Blue whales are found from the ice edge to the subtropics. They are primarily found in deeper, offshore waters and are rare in shallower shelf waters.

2. Toothed – These whales have teeth and a single blowhole. The number of teeth varies by species; it ranges from 2 (in some beaked whales) to 250 (some dolphins). They are smaller than baleen whales. Many species live in pods. Toothed whales have well developed echolocation that they use to locate food (fish, squid, marine mammals, etc.) and other whales. Toothed whales have asymmetrical skulls.

a. Sperm Whales - Sperm whales are found from tropical to polar waters in all oceans of the world. They show a strong preference for deep waters and are most often sighted in waters with bottom depths greater than 550 fathoms. They are known to make deep dives lasting as long as an hour.

b. Pilot Whales - In general, pilot whales are found worldwide, from subpolar to tropical waters in offshore areas and some coastal waters.

c. Beaked Whales - Beaked whales typically inhabit deep ocean waters (>1100 fathoms) or continental slopes (100 to 1100 fathoms) and are rarely observed in coastal areas. Beaked whales also appear to aggregate around islands where there is steep bathymetry and essentially no shelf. Beaked whales are very deep divers, some staying submerged for 45 min or longer, and are difficult to sight because they spend so little time at the surface and are known to dive to avoid vessels.

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18-26 UNCLASSIFIED d. Killer whales - This is a cosmopolitan species found throughout all oceans and contiguous seas, from equatorial regions to the polar pack-ice zones. Though found in tropical waters and the open ocean, killer whales as a species are most numerous in coastal waters and at higher latitudes.

e. Dolphins and porpoises– Dolphins and porpoises can be found in almost all seas and oceans in the world. There are many different species, which use a wide variety of habitats.

Manatees - Sightings of manatees are primarily limited to warm freshwater, estuarine, and extremely near shore coastal waters. Shallow grass beds with ready access to deep channels are preferred feeding areas in coastal and riverine habitats. Manatees often use secluded canals, creeks, embayments, and lagoons, particularly near the mouths of coastal rivers and sloughs, for feeding, resting, mating, and calving. Estuarine and brackish waters and natural and artificial freshwater sources are sought by manatees.

Pinnipeds – (Seals, Sea Lions and Walrus). The word pinnipedia translates from Latin as “fin foot,” referring to their often large fin-like flippers. All pinnipeds must come ashore to breed, give birth and nurse their young, though some species are at sea for several months at a time while others return to the shore every day. Seals include elephant seals, several species of ice seals (some are found in fresh water lakes) and the harbor seal of temperate coastlines. Sea Lions are found in temperate colder waters and are associated in tropical latitudes with cold water upwelling currents. Walruses are found in both Pacific and Atlantic Arctic ice pack areas.

Sea otters - There are three species of sea otters, two of which are located within the United States - the Southern or California sea otter and the Northern sea otter. The Northern sea otter is found in the waters off Washington, Alaska, and Canada. Sea otters usually stay close to shore and often are found in groups or families. Sea otters feed in shallow shoreline areas.

Coral reefs - Coral reefs are the most complex, species-rich and productive marine ecosystems. Reefs cover 0.2% of the ocean’s area and yet they provide home to one-third of all marine fish species and tens of thousands of other species. Coral reefs provide essential fish habitat, support endangered and threatened species, and harbor protected marine mammals and turtles. Coral reef fisheries yield 6 million metric tons of fish catch annually, with one quarter of the total worldwide fish production in developing countries with coral reefs. On U.S. reefs, over 500 commercially valuable coral reef fishes and invertebrate are under federal management, including four candidate ESA species. Coral reefs provide critical protection to coastlines from storm damage, erosion and flooding by reducing wave action. Coral reefs are crucial sources of income and resources through their role in tourism, fisheries, building materials and as an important source of pharmaceutical compounds.

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18-27 UNCLASSIFIED 18.3.4 Observation Clues to Marine Mammal Presence and the Likelihood of Danger

1. Dorsal fin orientation – The dorsal fin is the fin on the dorsal side or “back” of the animal. Noting this feature is important in determining what direction the animal is headed. Note which way the tip is pointing. Since it points in the direction of the tail, you can be reasonably certain the animal(s) are moving in the opposite direction. This is important for you to note so that you can determine if the animal is traveling toward or away from the ship or target area. Since many marine mammals travel in groups or “pods,” there may be more that one present, even if you only see one dorsal fin. The dorsal fin shape, size, and placement on the animal’s body are all important to note if you are trying to identify species.

2. Fluke - The fluke refers to the tail of the whale, porpoise, or dolphin. Fluking is the display of the tail as a whale goes under for a dive. The orientation of the fluke can give you a clue whether the animal is going down for a long deep dive, a shallow dive, or if the whale is engaged in some sort of social behavior – such as lobtailing. If the fluke is held straight up when going down, the whale is probably down for a long dive. Because whales generally stay down from 6 to 10 minutes and some even as long as an hour, you may not see them again. Whether a whale lifts its flukes high in the air before a dive or at all, and the shape of the flukes could also help you identify which species it is. Sperm whales and beaked whales dive for long periods of time and may make a series of short dives or spend time at the surface before submerging for an hour or more. Another sign of possible whale presence is a “flukeprint” on the surface of the water. This is a calm, circular slick, which may look like an eddy current, on the surface. This is the result of the downward thrust of the whale’s tail. This flukeprint will often be visible on the surface of the water for 10 to 15 seconds after the animal submerges – so if you see something like this, you will want to stay very alert and on the lookout for when the whale resurfaces. Also, in some cases you can follow the fluke prints to see which direction the animal is traveling underwater.

3. Blow/Spout - Since all marine mammals need air to breath, they must come to the surface to exhale or “blow” which is done through the blow hole at the top of the head. The blow is the water vapor that is exhaled from the whales’ blowhole(s). You will often see the blow long before the animal itself, because it is shot into the air and can be seen from a long distance away in the right weather conditions. This is an important point to remember when on lookout. It may look like a gradual puff of smoke, a small cloud, or a flash of white just at the surface of the water and could be your first indication a whale is present. Occasionally, you can hear the blow before you see the whale – it sounds just like a loud exhale. If you see a series of blows close together, the animal may be getting ready for a long dive. Take care to note if the whale did this and then “fluked up,” which would indicate a long dive. The blow shape, frequency, and tilt are important characteristics to note if you are trying to identify the species.

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18-28 UNCLASSIFIED 4. Behavior - Some behaviors are demonstrated by one or two species, such as the jumps made by Humpback whales. It is important to note these behaviors since they may enable you to later identify the marine mammal species encountered.

Figure 18-12 Spouts Figure 18-13 Spyhopping

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a. Diving - Did the whale flip its tail up (“fluke up”) when it dove? Whales usually only fluke up before a deep dive. So, if you see a whale a couple times at the surface, maybe for a series of blows, then it flukes up, that almost always means it is going for a deep dive and will be down for 6 to 10 minutes and sometimes even as long as an hour. The whale won’t always continue going in the same direction that it is when diving, but it is very likely that it will.

b. Spyhopping - is where the whale raises its head just out of the water while vertical, seemingly to “take a look” and then just sinks back down without making much of a splash.

Figure 18-14 Angled Spouts Figure 18-15 Fluke

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18-30 UNCLASSIFIED c. Logging - Logging is when a whale or pod of whales just float or move slowly at the surface. This activity seems to be a form of rest or sleep for whales. One key thing to note is that when logging, whales may be unaware of ships moving in their direction and will generally not get out of the way. So, it is very important to steer clear of logging whales and if possible, move around in the direction of the tail. Fortunately, a pod of logging whales will be relatively easy to see in the right sighting conditions.

d. Breaching – Breaching typically involves a whale exploding through the surface, twisting in the air, and then returning to the water with a loud splash.

e. Flipper Slapping – This is when a whale lies on its back or side and slaps its pectoral fin (the fins on the side of the animal, also known as flippers) on the surface of the water.

f. Skimfeeding – This is when a whale moves along the surface of the water with its mouth open, “skimming” the water and filtering the food out with the baleen plates.

g. Porpoising – This refers to the way smaller whales and dolphins may leap clear of the water when traveling at a rapid pace.

18.4 SUMMARY In this lesson you learned about PMAP Requirements and PMAP Terms. Additionally you learned about Marine Mammal Incident Reports, Procedures, and Requirements, as well as Marine Species Awareness.

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A-1 UNCLASSIFIED APPENDIX-A GLOSSARY

ACCELEROMETER.—An instrument used to measure changes in velocity.

AFTER TRUCK .—The highest part of the aftermast.

AGROUND.— When any part of a ship is resting on the bottom. A ship runs aground or goes aground.

AIR ALMANAC.—A periodical publication of astronomical data, designed primarily for air navigation.

ALTOCUMULUS.— A cloud layer (or patches) within the middle level (mean height 6,500 to 20,000 feet), composed of rather flattened globular masses.

ALTOSTRATUS.— A sheet of gray or bluish clouds within the middle level (mean height 6,500 to 20,000 feet).

ANCHOR BALL .—A black circular shape hoisted to indicate that the ship is anchored.

ANCHORED.—Made fast to the bottom by an anchor.

ANGLE .— The inclination to each other of two intersecting lines, measured by the arc of a circle intercepted between the two lines forming the angle, the center of the circle being the point of intersection.

APPARENT TIME.— Time based upon the rotation of the earth relative to the apparent (true) Sun.

ARC.— Part of a curved line, as a circle. The graduated scale of an instrument for measuring angles, as a marine sextant.

ATMOSPHERE .—The envelope of air surrounding Earth or other celestial body.

AZIMUTH.—The horizontal direction of a celestial point from a terrestrial point. It is usually measured from 000° at the reference direction clockwise through 360°.

BAROMETER .— An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure.

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A-2 UNCLASSIFIED BASE LINE.—The line between two transmitters operating together to provide a line of position, as in loran.

BEARING.—The horizontal direction of one terrestrial point from another. It is usually measured from 000° at the reference direction clockwise through 360°.

BEARING CIRCLE.—A ring designed to fit snugly over a compass or compass repeater and provided with vanes for observing compass bearings.

BEARING CURSOR .—A mechanical or electronic bearing line of a plan position indicator type of display for reading the target bearing.

BEARING RESOLUTION.—The minimum angular separation in a horizontal plane between two targets at the same range that will allow an operator to obtain data on either individual target.

BINNACLE.—The stand in which a compass is mounted.

BLAST.—Signal on a ship’s whistle; short, about 1 second; prolonged, 4 to 6 seconds.

BLINKING.—Regular shifting right and left of a loran signal to indicate that the signals are out of synchronization.

BROAD COMMAND PENNANT.—Personal command pennant of an officer, not a flag officer.

BUOY.—A floating object, other than a lightship, moored or anchored to the bottom as an aid to navigation.

CELESTIAL EQUATOR .—The intersection of the celestial sphere and extended plane of the equator.

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION .—Navigation with the aid of celestial bodies.

CELESTIAL SPHERE.—An imaginary sphere of infinite radius concentric with Earth on which all celestial bodies except Earth are imagined to be provided.

CELSIUS.—Temperature based upon a scale in which, under standard atmospheric pressure, water freezes at 0° and boils at 100°.

CHART.— A map intended primarily for navigational use.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-3 UNCLASSIFIED CHRONOMETER.— A timepiece with a nearly constant rate.

CIRROCUMULUS.— High clouds (mean lower level above 20,000 feet), composed of small white flakes or of very small globular masses.

CIRROSTRATUS .— Thin, whitish, high clouds (mean lower level above 20,000 feet).

CIRRUS.— Detached high clouds (mean lower level above 20,000 feet) of delicate and fibrous appearance.

CLOSE ABOARD .— Near; within 600 yards for ship, 400 yards for boat.

CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH .—The position of a contact when it reaches its minimum range to own ship.

CLOSE UP.—A flag that is all the way up on its halyard.

CLOUD.— A visible assemblage of numerous tiny droplets of water or ice crystals formed by condensation of water vapor in the air with the base above the surface of Earth.

COAST PILOT .—A descriptive book for the use of mariners, containing detailed information about coastal waters, harbor facilities, and so forth, of an area, particularly along the coasts of the United States.

COLORS.—The national flag. The ceremony of raising the flag at 0800 and lowering it at sunset aboard a ship not under way or at a shore station.

COMMISSION PENNANT .— Narrow red, white, and blue pennant with seven stars, flown at the main-truck of a ship in commission.

COMPASS.—An instrument for determining courses steered and bearings by indicating the magnetic or true north and the ship’s head.

COMPASS HEADING .—A heading relative to compass north.

COMPASS POINTS .—The 32 divisions of a compass at intervals of 11 ¼°.

COMPUTED ALTITUDE .—Altitude of the center of a celestial body above the celestial horizon at a given time and place as determined by computation, table, mechanical device, or graphics.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-4 UNCLASSIFIED CONSOL.—An electr onic navigational system providing a number of rotating equisignal zones that permit determination of bearings from a transmitting station by counting a series of dots and dashes and referring to a table or special chart.

CONTOUR.—A line connecting points of equal elevation or equal depth.

CUMULONIMBUS.—A massive cloud with great vertical development, the summits of which rise in the form of mountains or towers, the upper parts often spreading out in the form of an anvil.

CUMULUS.—A dense cloud with vertical development, having a horizontal base and dome-shaped upper surface, exhibiting protuberances.

CURRENT.— Water in essentially horizontal motion. A hypothetical horizontal motion of such set and drift as to account for the difference between a dead-reckoning position and a fix at the same time.

DAY BEACON.—An unlighted beacon.

DEAD RECKONING.—Determination of position by advancing a previous position for courses and distances.

DECCA.— An electronic navigational system by which hyperbolic lines of position are determined by measuring the phase difference of synchronized continuous wave signals.

DECLINATION.—Angular distance north or south of the celestial equator and a point on the celestial sphere, measured northward or southward from the celestial equator through 90°, and labeled N or S to indicate the direction of measurement.

DEGAUSSING.—Neutralization of the strength of the magnetic field of a vessel by means of suitably arranged electric coils permanently installed in the vessel.

DEGREE.—A u nit of circular measure equal to 1/360 th of a circle.

DEPTH.— Vertical distance from a given water level to the bottom.

DEPTH OF WATER .—The vertical distance from the surface of the water to the bottom.

DEPTH-SOUNDING SONAR .— A direct reading device for determining the depth of water in fathoms or other units by reflecting sonic or ultrasonic waves from the ocean bottom.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-5 UNCLASSIFIED DEVIATION.—The angle between the magnetic meridian and the axis of a compass card expressed in degrees east or west to indicate the direction in which the northern end of the compass card is offset from magnetic north.

DEW POINT.—he temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure and constant water vapor content to reach saturation.

DIP.—Lowering a flag part way in salute or in answer and hoisting it again. A flag is “at the dip” when it is flown at about two-thirds the height of the halyards.

DIRECTION OF RELATIVE MOVEMENT.—The direction of motion relative to a reference point, itself usually in motion.

DIURNAL.—Having a period of, occurring in, or related to a day.

DIVIDERS.—An instrument consisting in its simple form of two pointed legs joined by a pivot and used principally for measuring distances or coordinates.

DOPPLER .—The observed change of frequency of a wave caused by a time rate of change of the effective distance traveled by the wave between the source and the point of observation.

DRESSING LINES .— The lines used in dressing ship.

DRESSING SHIP .—A display of national colors at all mastheads and the flagstaff. (Full dressing ship requires, in addition, a rainbow of flags from bow to stem over the mastheads.)

DRIFT.—The leeway of a vessel or amount of set of a tide or current; the spare end of a rope.

EBB.—Tidal current moving away from land or down a tidal stream.

ELECTROMAGNETIC .—Having both magnetic and electric properties.

ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION .—Navigation by means of electronic equipment.

EQUATOR .—The primary great circle of Earth, or a similar body, perpendicular to the polar axis.

ESTIMATED POSITION.—The most probable position of a craft determined from incomplete data or data of questionable accuracy.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-6 UNCLASSIFIED FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURE .—Temperature based upon a scale in which, under standard atmospheric pressure, water freezes at 32° and boils at 212°.

FATHOM .—A unit of length equal to 6 feet.

FIX.—A relatively accurate position determined without reference to any former position.

FLAGHOIST .—A display of flags used to indicate a signal or a group of signals.

FLAGSTAFF .—A small vertical spar at the stem on which the ensign is hoisted.

FLOOD TIDE .—Tide rising or flowing toward land.

FOG.—A visible assemblage of numerous tiny droplets of water or ice crystals formed by condensation of water vapor in the air with the base at the surface of Earth.

FORETRUCK .—The highest point of the forward mast.

FRONT.— The intersection of a frontal surface and a horizontal plane.

GAFF.—A small spar abaft the mainmast from which the national ensign is flown when the ship is under way.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION .—That point on Earth at which a given celestial body is in the zenith at a specified time. Any position on the earth defined by means of its geographical coordinates.

GNOMONIC PROJECTION.—A map projection in which points on the surface of a sphere or spheroid, such as Earth, are conceived as projected by radials from the center to a tangent plane.

GREAT CIRCLE.—The intersection of a sphere and a plane through its center meridian; angular distance west of the Greenwich celestial meridian; the arc of the celestial equator, or the angle at the celestial pole, between the upper branch of the Greenwich celestial meridian and the hour circle of a point on the celestial sphere, measured westward from the Greenwich celestial meridian through 360°.

GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE.— Local hour angle at the Greenwich Meridian.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-7 UNCLASSIFIED GREENWICH MEAN TIME.—Local mean time at the Greenwich Meridian; the arc of the celestial equator, or the angle at the celestial pole, between the lower branch of the Greenwich celestial meridian and the hour circle of the mean sun, measured westward from the lower branch of the Greenwich celestial meridian through 24 hours; Greenwich hour angle of the mean sun, expressed in time units, plus 12 hours.

GROUND WAVE .— That portion of a radio wave in proximity to, and affected by, the ground, being somewhat refracted by the lower atmosphere and diffracted by the surface of Earth.

GUN SALUTE.— Blank shots fired to honor a dignitary or in celebration.

GYROCOMPASS .— A compass having one or more gyroscopes as the directive element and tending to indicate true north.

GYRO REPEATER.—That part of a remote indicating gyrocompass system that repeats at a distance the indications of the master gyrocompass.

HALFMAST.—To fly a flag halfway up the mast as a sign of mo urning.

HAUL DOWN.—A term used as directive to execute a flaghoist by lowering it.

HONORS AND CEREMONIES.—A collective term; official guards, bands, salutes, and other activities that honor the colors, celebrate a holiday, or greet a distinguished guest or officer.

HUMIDITY.—The amount of water vapor in the air.

HYPERBOLA .—A curve that is the locus of points having a constant difference of distance from two fixed points.

HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM.— A method of radio navigation (for example, loran) in which pulses transmitted by two ground stations are received by an aircraft or ship.

INDEX CORRECTION .—That correction due to index error.

INDICATOR .—A device or apparatus, usually partly or wholly automatic, for indicating something.

INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS).—System designed to guide a ship by a device independent of outside information, using the inertial properties of gyroscopes.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-8 UNCLASSIFIED INLAND RULES .— Rules of the nautical road that are applicable in most inland U.S. waters.

INTERNATIONAL RULES.— Rules of the nautical road made effective by agreement of the major maritime powers for use on high seas and most inland waters of the world except the United States.

INTERPOLATION .—The process of finding a value between two known values on a chart or graph.

IONOSPHERE .—That part of Earth’s atmosphere between the chemopause (at a height of about 50 miles) and the ionopause (at about 250 miles).

ISOBARS.—Lines connecting points having the same atmospheric pressure reduced to a common datum, usually sea level.

JOOD.—Junior officer of the deck. The assistant to the officer of the deck.

KNOT.—The unit of speed that is equivalent to 1 nautical mile (6,080 feet per hour); a collective term for hitches and bends.

LATITUDE.—Distance north (N) or south (S) of the equator, expressed in degrees and minutes.

LIGHT CHARACTERISTICS.— The sequence and length of light and dark periods and the color or colors by which it is identified.

LIGHTHOUSE .—A distinctive structure exhibiting a major light designed to serve as an aid to navigation.

LIGHT LIST .—A publication tabulating navigational lights, with their locations, candlepowers, characteristics, and so forth.

LIGHTSHIP .—A distinctively marked vessel anchored or moored at a charted point to serve as an aid to navigation.

LINE OF POSITION (LOP ) .—A line indicating a series of possible positions of a ship as a result of observation or measurement.

LIST OF LIGHTS .—A publication containing a description of every light in the world not located in the United States or its possessions.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-9 UNCLASSIFIED LOCAL APPARENT NOON .—The instant at which the apparent (true) sun is over the upper branch of the local meridian.

LOCAL HOUR ANGLE .—Angular distance west of the local celestial meridian; the arc of the celestial equator or the angle at the celestial pole between the upper branch of the local celestial meridian and the hour circle of a point on the celestial sphere, measured westward from the local celestial meridian through 360°.

LOCAL MEAN TIME.—The arc of the celestial equator or the angle at the celestial pole between the lower branch of the local celestial meridian and the hour circle of the mean sun, measured westward from the lower branch of the local celestial meridian through 24 hours; local hour angle of the mean sun, expressed in time units, plus 12 hours.

LOCUS.— All possible positions of a point or curve satisfying stated conditions.

LONGITUDE.—Distance east (E) or west (W) of the prime meridian, which runs through Greenwich, England.

LOOKOUT.—A man stationed as a visual watch.

LORAN.— An electronic navigational system by which hyperbolic lines of position are determined by measuring the difference in the time of reception of synchronized pulse signals from two fixed transmitters.

LUBBER’S LINE .—A r eference line on any direction-indicating instrument, marking the reading that coincides with the heading.

LUNAR TIME .—Time based upon the rotation of Earth relative to the Moon.

MAINMAST.—Second mast aft from the bow.

MAIN-TRUCK .—The highest part of the mainmast.

MANEUVERING BOARD.— A polar coordinate plotting sheet devised to facilitate the solution of problems involving relative movement.

MANEUVERING SHIP .—A ship the movements of which are defined relative to a given ship called the reference ship.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-10 UNCLASSIFIED MASTER STATION .—The governing of two or more synchronized transmitting stations.

MASTHEAD.—The top of a mast.

MEAN TIME .—Time based upon the rotation of Earth relative to the mean Sun.

MERCATOR PROJECTION.— A conformal cylindrical map projection in which the surface of a sphere or spheroid, such as Earth, is conceived as developed on a cylinder tangent along the equator.

MERIDIAN.—A north- south reference line, particularly a great circle through the geographic poles of Earth.

MESSAGE.—Any thought briefly stated in plain or secret language in a form suitable for rapid transmission.

METER .—The basic unit of length of the metric system, equal to the distance at 0°C between two lines on a standard platinum-iridium bar.

MICROSECOND .— One-millionth of a second.

MILLIBARS .—A unit of measure of atmospheric pressure.

MINUTE.—The sixtieth part of a degree of arc.

MODULATOR .—That part of radio equipment that alters the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a radio signal in accordance with speech or a signal, or that regulates the length of a pulse.

MORSE CODE .—Dots and dashes used in communications in place of letters, numerals, and punctuation.

MRM.—Distance of relative movement. The distance along the relative movement line between any two specified points or time.

NAUTICAL ALMANAC.—A periodical publication of astronomical statistics useful to, and designed primarily for, marine navigation, particularly the American Nautical Almanac published by the U.S. Naval Observatory.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-11 UNCLASSIFIED NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.—Navigational astronomy.

NAUTICAL MILE .— A unit of distance used principally in navigation. See Knot.

NAVIGATION.—The process of directing the movement of a craft from one point to another.

NEAP TIDES.—The tides occurring near the times of first and last quarter of the moon when the range of tide tends to decrease.

NIMBOSTRATUS.— A dark, low, shapeless cloud layer (mean upper level below 6,500 feet), usually nearly uniform; the typical rain cloud.

NOMOGRAM.—A diagram showing to scale the relationship between several variables in such a manner that the value of one that corresponds to known values of the others can be determined graphically.

NOT UNDER COMMAND .— A ship disabled or uncontrollable.

OFFICIAL VISIT .— A formal visit of courtesy requiring special honors and ceremonies.

OMEGA.—An electronic navigational system.

OSCILLOSCOPE .—An instrument for producing a visual representation of oscillations or changes in an electric current.

PARALLAX.—The difference in the apparent direction or position o f an object when viewed from different points.

PARALLEL.—A circle on the surface of Earth parallel to the plane of the equator and connecting all points of equal latitude; a circle parallel to the primary great circle of a sphere or spheroid.

PASSING HONORS.—Honors, except gun salutes, that are rendered by a ship when ships or embarked officials or officers pass close aboard.

PEAK.—The topmost end of the gaff from which the ensign is flown while a ship is under way.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-12 UNCLASSIFIED PELORUS.—A dumb compass, or a compass card (called a pelorus card) without a directive element, suitably mounted and provided with vanes to permit observation of relative bearings, unless used in conjunction with a compass, to give true or magnetic bearings.

PHONETIC ALPHABET .— A system of words that represents each letter of the alphabet.

PILOTING.—Navigation involving frequent or continuous determination of position or a line of position relative to geographical points to a high order of accuracy.

PIPE THE SIDE.—A ceremony conducte d at the brow of a ship in which sideboys are paraded and the boatswain’s pipe is blown.

PLAN POSITION INDICATOR.—A radarscope that has a sweep that originates in the center and moves to the outer edge of the scope and presents an overflow of a given area.

PLOTTING SHEET . —A blank chart, usually on the Mercator projection, showing only the graticule and a compass rose so the plotting sheet can be used for any longitude.

POLAR DISTANCE .—Angular distance from a celestial pole.

POSITION.—A point defined by stated or implied coordinates, particularly one on the surface of Earth.

PRESSURE.—Force per unit area. The pressure exerted by the weight of Earth’s atmosphere is called atmospheric or, if indicated by a barometer, barometric pressure.

PROLONGED BLAST .—A blast on the whistle of from 4 to 6 seconds duration.

PROPAGATION.—A transmission of electromagnetic energy.

PRO WORD .—Pronounceable words or phrases that have been assigned meanings for expediting message handling on radio circuits where procedure is used.

PSYCHROMETER .—A type of hygrometer (an instrument for determining atmospheric humidity) consisting essentially of dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers.

PULSE-REPETITION RATE.—The rate at which recurrent pulses are transmitted, usually expressed in pulses per second.

QUARTERDECK .—The portion of the weather deck designated by the commanding officer for official ceremonies.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-13 UNCLASSIFIED RADAR.— (RAdio Detection And Ranging) is a method of determining the distance to and direction of objects by sending out a beam of microwave radio energy and detecting the returned reflections.

RANGE.— Two or more objects in line.

RANGE MARKER .— A distance marker, as on a radar PPI.

RANGE STROBE .—An electronic range marker on a radar PPI.

RECIPROCAL.— A direction 180° from a given direction.

REFERENCE SHIP .—A ship to which relative movement of other ship is referred.

REFRACTION .—The change in direction of motion of a ray of radiant energy as it passes obliquely from one medium into another in which the speed of propagation is different.

RELATIVE BEARING .—Bearing relative to heading or to the ship.

RELATIVE MOTION .—Apparent motion; relative movement.

RELATIVE MOVEMENT LINE.—A line connecting successive positions of a maneuvering ship relative to a reference ship.

RELATIVE PLOT .—A plot of the successive positions of a ship relative to a reference point, which is usually in motion.

ROOT MEAN SQUARE .—The square root of the arithmetical mean of the squares of a group of numbers.

RUNNING FIX.—A posi tion determined by crossing lines of position obtained at different times and advanced or retired to a common time.

SAILING DIRECTIONS .—A descriptive book for the use of mariners, containing detailed information of coastal waters, harbor facilities, and so forth, of an area.

SCALE.— The ratio between the linear dimensions of a chart, map, drawing, and so forth, and the actual dimensions represented.

SEMIDIAMETER.— The radius of a closed figure. Half the angle at the observer subtended by the visible disk of a celestial body.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-14 UNCLASSIFIED SET.—The direction toward which a current flows.

SEXTANT.—A double -reflecting instrument for measuring angles, primarily altitudes of celestial bodies.

SHORAN.—A precision electronic position fixing system using a pulse transmitter and receiver and two transponder beacons at fixed points.

SIDEREAL HOUR ANGLE .—Angular distance west of the vernal equinox; the arc of the celestial equator or the angle at the celestial pole between the hour circle of the vernal equinox and the hour circle of a point on the celestial sphere, measured westward from the hour circle of the vernal equinox through 360°.

SIDEREAL TIME .—Time based upon the rotation of Earth relative to the vernal equinox.

SKY WAVE.—An indirect radio wave that travels from the transmitting antenna into the sky, where the ionosphere bends it back toward the Earth.

SLACK WATER .—The condition when the speed of a tidal current is zero, especially the momentary condition zero speed when a reversing current changes direction.

SOLAR TIME .—Time based upon the rotation of Earth relative to the Sun.

SOUNDING.—Measured or charted depth of water or the measurement of such depth.

SPEED OF RELATIVE MOVEMENT .—Speed relative to a reference point itself usually in motion.

SPRING TIDES .—The tides occurring near the times of full moon and new moon when the range of tide tends to increase.

STADIMETER .— An instrument for determining the distance to an object of known height by measuring the angle subtended at the observer by the object.

STAND.— The condition at high or low tide when there is no change in the height of the water.

STAR FINDER .— A device to facilitate the identification of stars.

STATUTE MILE .—A unit of distance equal to 5,280 feet.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-15 UNCLASSIFIED STRATOCUMULUS.—Low clouds (mean upper level below 6,550 feet), composed of a layer or patches of globular masses or rolls.

STRATUS.—A low cloud (mean upper level below 6,550 feet) in a uniform layer.

TANGENT.—The ratio of the side opposite an acute angle of a plane right triangle to the shorter side adjacent to the same angle. A straight line, curve, or surface touching a curve or surface at one point.

TELESCOPIC ALIDADE.— A device used with a gyro repeater for taking bearings.

TEMPERATURE .—Intensity or degree of heat. Fahrenheit temperature is based upon a scale in which water freezes at 32° and boils at 212°.

TERRESTRIAL SPHERE.—The Earth.

THERMOMETER.— An instrument for measuring temperature.

THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR.—An instrument consisting essentially of a circle graduated in degrees to which is attached one fixed arm and two arms pivoted at the center and provided with clamps so they can be set at any angle to the fixed arm within the limits of the instrument.

TIDE.—The periodic rise and fall of the surface of oceans, bays, and so forth, due principally to the gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun for the rotating Earth.

TIME DIAGRAM .—A diagram in which the celestial equator appears as a circle and celestial meridians and hour circles as radial lines, used to facilitate solution of time problems and others involving arcs of the celestial equator or angles at the pole by indicating relations between various quantities involved.

TRACK.—To follow the movements of an object, as by radar or an optical system.

TRANSMITTER .—One who or that which transmits or sends anything, particularly a radio transmitter.

TROPICAL CYCLONE.—A violent cyclone originating in the tropics.

TWILIGHT .—The periods of incomplete darkness following sunset (evening twilight) or preceding sunrise (morning twilight).

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

A-16 UNCLASSIFIED UNION JACK .—Flag flown at the bow of a ship moored or anchored, consisting of the union of the national flag. Also flown in the boat of a high official and at a yardarm during a general court-martial or court of inquiry.

UPPER BRANCH .—That half of a meridian or celestial meridian from pole to pole that passes through a place or its zenith.

VARIATION.—The angle between the magnetic and geographical meridians at any place, expressed in degrees east or west to indicate the direction of magnetic north from true north.

VECTOR .—A straight line representing both direction and magnitude.

VECTOR DIAGRAM .—A diagram of more than one vector drawn to the same scale and reference direction and in correct position relative to each other.

VERNAL EQUINOX .—That point of intersection of the elliptical and the celestial equator occupied by the Sun as it changes from south to north declination on or about March 21.

VISIBILITY.—The extreme horizontal distance at which prominent objects can be seen and identified by the unaided eye.

VOICE RADIO.—Electronic communications equipment that transmits the speaker’s voice through the air on radio waves to an appropriately tuned receiver.

WAVELENGTH .—The distance in the direction of advance between the same phase of successive waves.

WEATHER .—The state of the atmosphere as defined by various meteorological elements, such as temperature, pressure, wind speed, direction, humidity, cloudiness, and precipitation.

WIND.—Moving air, especially a mass of air having a common direction of motion.

YARDARM.—The port or starboard half of a spar set athwartships across the upper part of a mast.

ZONE TIME .—The local mean time of a reference or zone meridian whose time is kept throughout a designated zone.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

B1 UNCLASSIFIED APPENDIX-B REFERENCES

Note: Although the following references were current when this TRAMAN was published, their continued currency cannot be assured. Therefore, you need to be sure that you are studying from the latest version.

Defense Mapping Agency Catalog of Maps, Charts, and Related Products, Pub. l-N, Defense Mapping Agency, Washington, D.C., issued quarterly.

Dutton‘s Navigation and Piloting, 14 th ed., Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1985.

Notice to Mariners, Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center, Washington, D.C., 1994.

American Practical Navigator (Bowditch), HO-9 Vol. I, Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center, Washington, D.C., 2002.

Handbook of Magnetic Compass Adjustment, 4 th ed., Pub. No. 226, Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center, Washington, D.C., 1980.

Magnetic Compass Record Book, NAVSEA 3120/3, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, D.C.

Magnetic Compass Table, NAVSEA 3120/4, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, D.C.

Current Tables, Atlantic Coast of North America, Defense Mapping Agency, Washington, D.C., issued annually.

Tide Tables, East Coast of North and South America, Defense Mapping Agency, Washington, D.C., issued annually.

Light List, Vol. III, Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Coast Guard, issued annually.

Navigation Rules, USCG Commandant Instruction M16672.2B, 17 August 1990.

SRN-19 Operation Manual, Shipboard Operations and Maintenance Manual, NAVELEX 0967-LP-634-9010, Naval Electronics Command, Charleston, S.C. 1977.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

B2 UNCLASSIFIED Satellite Signals Navigation Set AN/WRN-163, COMSPAWARSYSCOM PMW-167, Commander, Naval Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command, Washington, D.C., May 1997.

Manual for Ships Surface Weather Observations, NAVOCEANCOMINST 3144.1 D, Commander Naval Oceanography Command, Stennis Space Center, Miss., July 1996.

Allied Maritime Tactical Instructions and Procedures, ATP 1D, Volume 1, 2002.

Instructions for Ships Deck Log, OPNAVINST 3100.7B, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., March 1986, Change 2 July 1994.

Naval Shiphandling (Crenshaw’s), 4 th ed., U.S. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1985.

Navigation Rules, USCG Commandant Instruction M16672.2B, 17 August 1990.

Communication Instructions Visual Signaling Procedure, ACP 129, Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, DC, 1987.

Naval Telecommunication Procedures, Fleet Communication, NTP 4, Washington, DC, June 1988.

Chemical Warfare Directional Detector, Technical Manual, SW073-AAMMO-010, Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC. 1985.

Infrared Transmitting Sets, Technical Manual, EE810-AA-OMI-010/82X1, Commander, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command, Washington, DC., 1985.

Navigation and Signal Lights, Technical Manual, S9086-N2-STM- 010/ CH-422 R2, Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC., 1990.

Night Vision Goggles, Technical Manual, SW215-AF-MMO-010, Commander, Naval Sea System Commands, Washington, DC. 1988.

Night Vision Sight, Technical Manual, SW215-AP-MMO-010, Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC. 1994.

Night Vision Sight, Technical Manual, SW215-AU-MMO-010, Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC, 1995.

Ship Binoculars, Technical Manual, S9421-AA-MMA-010, Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC, 1977.

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

B3 UNCLASSIFIED International Code of Signals, Pub. 102, Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/ Topographic Center, Washington, DC, 1993.

Flags, Pennants and Customs, NTP 13, Commander, Naval Telecommunications Command, Washington, DC, 1986.

Pyrotechnic Signals, ACP 168, Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, DC 1979.

Pyrotechnic, Screening, Marking, and Countermeasures Devices, Technical Manual, SW050-AB-MMA-010, Commander Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC, 1994.

Replenishment at Sea, NWP 14, Chief of Naval Operations, Washington, DC 1989.

NAVEDTRA 14308A, Operations Specialist Vol 1, September 2010.

NAVEDTRA 14120A, Interior Communications Electrician Vol 1, October 2010.

NAVEDTRA 14121A, Interior Communications Electrician Vol 2, October 2010.

NAVEDTRA 12968-D, Lookout Training Handbook, Chapter 13, February 2007.

OPNAVINST 3100.6H, Marine Mammal Incident Reports

E9030-AA-PLN-010, CNO Washington, D.C. Protective Measures Assessment Protocol (PMAP) Users Manual

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

1 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 1

Textbook assignment: Chapter 1, “Introduction to Navigation” pages 1-1 through 1-56.

1-1. Navigation is known as both an (a) and a (b)

1. (a) craft (b) hobby 2. (a) hobby (b) science 3. (a) art (b) science 4. (a) craft (b) art

1-2. The primary areas of navigation are:

1. Plotting, dead reckoning, set and drift, maneuvering 2. Celestial navigation, dead reckoning, maneuvering, maintenance 3. Piloting, plotting, celestial navigation and GPS 4. Piloting, dead reckoning, celestial navigation and radionavigation

For questions 3 through 5 use the following scenario: Your ship is on course 135T, speed 12 kts, winds are 15° off port bow at 10kts. Your ship departs from is location at 1800. Using time, speed and distance, compute the following:

1-3. Your ship is proceeding outbound and needs to intercept turn “A” 20nm away by 1930. Using current speed determine the time your ship will reach turn “A”

1. 1910 2. 1905 3. 1900 4. 1855

1-4. You reached turn “A”. Turn “B” is 50nm away. Determine best speed to reach turn “B” NLT 2300

1. 11kts 2. 12kts 3. 13kts 4. 14kts

1-5. You reached turn “B”. Based on current speed your will reach turn “C” by 0246. How far will you travel using current speed?

1. 48nm 2. 49nm 3. 50nm 4. 51nm

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

2 UNCLASSIFIED 1-6. What type of chart projection is most frequently for navigation?

1. Lambert conformal 2. Polar region gnomonic 3. Mercator 4. Gnomonic

1-7. Which of this doesn’t represent a Great Circle meridian?

1. 00N 2. 180E 3. 125W 4. 37N

1-8. Which of these is not a description of a Great Circle?

1. Cuts the Earth in half 2. A plane passing through the center of the Earth 3. It only runs from the North Pole to the South Pole 4. A plane that passes around the surface of the Earth

1-9. Which of these is an advantage of Mercator charts?

1. Rhumb lines are shown as straight lines 2. They’re developed by wrapping a cylinder around the Earth 3. Rhumb lines are shown as curve lines 4. Run through meridians at the same angle

1-10. Which charts are used when piloting out of a harbor?

1. Combat charts 2. Coastal charts 3. General and Sailing charts 4. Harbor and Approach charts

1-11. Which charts are used when in sight of land?

1. Combat charts 2. Coastal charts 3. General and Sailing charts 4. Harbor and Approach charts

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

3 UNCLASSIFIED 1-12. Which charts provide the most detail?

1. Harbor and Approach charts 2. Coastal charts 3. General and Sailing charts 4. Combat charts

1-13. Which agency is the primary source for charts for US Navy ships?

1. NOS 2. NOAA 3. NGA 4. British Admiralty

1-14. What are the portfolios designated for Standard Nautical Charts?

1. A, P and B 2. A and O 3. A, B and X 4. G, E and N

1-15. Which charts are assigned as Great Circle tracking charts?

1. One digit charts 2. Four digit charts 3. Six digit charts 4. Five digit charts

1-16. Which charts are designated for general sailing?

1. Five digit charts 2. One digit charts 3. Four digit charts 4. Six digit charts

1-17. Which of the following sources of information is not normally used to correct charts?

1. Notice to Mariners 2. After Action Reports 3. Hydrolants 4. Local Notice to Mariner

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

4 UNCLASSIFIED 1-18. How often are Notice to Mariners published?

1. Semi-Annual 2. Quarterly 3. Weekly 4. Daily

1-19. Which agency publishes Local Notice to Mariners?

1. NOS 2. NOAA 3. NGA 4. US Coast Guard

1-20. When correcting paper charts, what color ink is not used?

1. Black ink 2. Blue ink 3. Red ink 4. Purple ink

1-21. Which source is used to correct electronic charts?

1. VDU 2. DNC 3. TOD 4. PDU

1-22. Which of the following is not a situation in which a ship would engage in piloting?

1. Open ocean 2. Operating near land 3. When visual aids are in sight 4. Entering or leaving port

1-23. What steps have been taken by NGA to prevent problems with colors in charts at night?

1. Changed colors to red, orange, pink and yellow on charts 2. Changed colors to magenta, purple, gray and blue on charts 3. Changed colors to black, brown, gray and blue on charts 4. No changes have been made

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

5 UNCLASSIFIED 1-24. Which element is not utilized when determining advance and transfer on a track?

1. Course changes 2. Winds and seas 3. Speed 4. Rudder angle

1-25. Which of the following is not an element of determining the “letting-go circle” during anchoring?

1. Distance from the hawsepipe to pelorus stand. 2. Depth of the water 3. Type of bottom 4. Distance from pelorus stand to stern

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

6 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 2

Textbook assignment: Chapter 2, “Voice Communications” pages 2-1 through 2-27.

2-1. Which of the following is not considered an internal form of communication?

1. Internal Voice Communications System (IVCS) 2. Multi-channel system (MC) 3. Messenger 4. Flag hoist

2-2. Which of the system can be used as an internal communication system or as a shipboard announcing system?

1. Internal Voice Communications System (IVCS) 2. Multi-channel system (MC) 3. Messenger 4. Flag hoist

2-3. Which of the following systems doesn’t require electrical power to be operated?

1. Internal Voice Communications System (IVCS) 2. Multi-channel system (MC) 3. Messenger 4. Sound-powered (S/P) phones

2-4. Which of the following is not considered an internal form of communication?

1. 1MC 2. 24MC 3. 20MC 4. 19MC

2-5. Which of the following is the Captain’s Command circuit?

1. 1MC 2. 24MC 3. 20MC 4. 21MC

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

7 UNCLASSIFIED 2-6. Which of the following circuits provides communication between aircraft control stations?

1. 1MC 2. 19MC 3. 20MC 4. 21MC

2-7. Which of these is not an advantage of (S/P) phones?

1. Simple to operate 2. Transmission doesn’t contribute to noise level 3. Can be used to handle other equipment 4. Ear piece might be used to transmit message

2-8. Which of the following circuit is considered an auxiliary circuit?

1. JA 2. 1JV 3. 22JS 4. X40J

2-9. Which designation in circuit X22JS1 indicates the general purpose of the circuit?

1. S 2. 22 3. J 4. X

2-10. Which designation in circuit X22JS1 indicates the specific purpose of the circuit?

1. S 2. 22 3. J 4. X

2-11. Which of the following circuit is used by bearing takers?

1. JA 2. JW 3. JL 4. 1JS

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

8 UNCLASSIFIED 2-12. Which of the following circuits is used by Lookouts?

1. JA 2. 1JS 3. JL 4. JW

2-13. Which of the following circuits is used by CIC?

1. 1JS 2. JA 3. JL 4. JW

2-14. Which item doesn’t’ apply to the proper care of (S/P) phones?

1. Inoperative phones may be left out on station 2. The length of the cord is limited 3. Phones should be made up and stowed on hooks or in the stowage when not in use 4. Unauthorized persons should not disassemble S/P phones

2-15. What is the proper procedure for transmitting messages using S/P phones or IVCS?

1. Station calling, call station, transmit message 2. Call station, wait for reply, transmit message 3. Call station, station calling, transmit message 4. Call station, station calling, wait for reply, transmit message

2-16. Which standard phrase is used to indicate an error in the message transmission?

1. Say again 2. Belay my last 3. Correction 4. That is wrong

2-17. Which standard phrase is used to request transmitting station repeats transmission?

1. Say again 2. Repeat your last 3. Belay my last 4. Wait

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

9 UNCLASSIFIED 2-18. What is the correct enunciation for the numeral eight?

1. EITE 2. ATE 3. Eight 4. AIT

2-19. Bearings are always reported in how many digits?

1. One 2. Two 3. Three 4. Four

2-20. Ranges are always reported digit by digit except for what multiples?

1. Hundreds only 2. Thousands only 3. Tens and Hundreds 4. Hundreds and Thousands

2-21. Ranges are always reported digit by digit except for what multiples?

1. Hundreds only 2. Thousands only 3. Tens and Hundreds 4. Hundreds and Thousands

2-22. Which frequency band is used in short range Line of Sight (LOS) communications?

1. ELF 2. UHF 3. VHF 4. VLF

2-23. Which frequency band used in LOS and satellite communications?

1. UHF 2. VLF 3. ELF 4. VHF

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

10 UNCLASSIFIED 2-24. Which frequency band is the workhorse of microwave communications?

1. ELF 2. SHF 3. UHF 4. VHF

2-25. Which of the following pieces of equipment generates an RF signal?

1. Modulator 2. Transceiver 3. Transmitter 4. Receiver

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

11 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 3

Textbook assignment: Chapter 3, “Compasses” pages 3-1 through 3-85.

3-1. The gyrocompass is the compass that is used most aboard ship.

1. True 2. False

3-2. Which of the following are characteristics of a magnet?

1. A metallic element that attracts iron 2. A metallic element that produces a magnetic field around itself 3. The magnetic field is pictured as lines of force 4. Each of the above

3-3. What are the two types of magnetism?

1. Permanent and reduced 2. Permanent and induced 3. Inducted and magnetic 4. Magnetic and permanent

3-4. According to the laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion, how will the south pole of one magnet react to another magnet?

1. It will be repelled only by the north pole of the second magnet 2. It will be attracted only to the north pole of the second magnet 3. It will be repelled by either the north pole or south pole of the second magnet 4. It will be attracted by either the north pole or south pole of the second magnet

3-5. What causes the magnetic compass error called variation?

1. The Earth is not a perfect sphere 2. Metals in ships have magnetic qualities 3. Compasses cannot be constructed without mechanical defects 4. Positions of the Earth's magnetic and geographic poles do not coincide

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

12 UNCLASSIFIED 3-6. What part of a chart shows the magnetic variation for a specific area?

1. Legend 2. Chart data 3. Compass rose 4. Publication note

3-7. Of the following vessels, which ones do NOT require a magnetic steering compass at the primary steering station?

1. Submarines 2. Hover craft 3. Tug boats 4. Landing craft

3-8. If a ship has two magnetic compasses, what is the primary compass called?

1. Reference compass 2. Standard compass 3. Steering compass 4. Support compass

3-9. If a ship has two magnetic compasses, what is the second compass called?

1. Back-up compass 2. Standard compass 3. Checking compass 4. Auxiliary compass

3-10. The notation "PSC" after courses and bearings indicates the readings were obtained using which of the following compasses?

1. Steering 2. Standard 3. Selsyn 4. Synchronized

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

13 UNCLASSIFIED 3-11. Which of the following precautions must be observed in the vicinity of a magnetic compass?

1. A compass should not be placed near iron or steel equipment that will be frequently moved 2. The immediate vicinity should be kept free of sources of magnetism, particularly those of a changing nature 3. No source of magnetism should be permitted within a radius of several feet 4. All of the above

3-12. What are the two influences that must be taken into account when compass error is determined?

1. Variation and deviation 2. Gyro error and variation 3. Annual change and variation 4. Gyro error and deviation

3-13. The amount a compass is deflected from the magnetic meridian because of the effects of the ship's iron defines which of the following terms?

1. Deviation 2. Degradation 3. Declination 4. Depreciation

3-14. The amount of deviation varies as the ship changes course.

1. True 2. False

3-15. What is the process of correcting for deviation called?

1. Adjusting the compass 2. Swinging ship 3. Swinging the compass 4. Compensating the compass

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

14 UNCLASSIFIED 3-16. What does the bottom of the magnetic compass table indicate?

1. The date and ship's position 2. Magnet placements only 3. Flinders bar placements only 4. Magnet and flinders bar placements

3-17. The bearing of a range is 081° magnetic, and your ship's magnetic compass reads 079.5°. What is the compass deviation?

1. 1.5°E 2. 1.5°W 3. 2.0°E 4. 2.0°W

3-18. What is the purpose of degaussing?

1. To detect magnetic compass error 2. To counteract a ship's magnetic field 3. To correct magnetic compass error 4. To fix the location of the ship

3-19. Which of the following is NOT a proper name for a heading?

1. True 2. Magnetic 3. Relative 4. Compass

3-20. Which of the following terms defines converting a compass course to a true course?

1. Correcting 2. Uncorrecting 3. Compensating 4. Adjusting

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

15 UNCLASSIFIED 3-21. Which of the following factors must be applied to a true heading to obtain a magnetic heading?

1. Variation and deviation 2. Gyro error and variation 3. Gyro error and deviation 4. Compass error and deviation

3-22. Which of the following methods should you use to convert compass courses to true courses?

1. Add deviations and variations, regardless of their direction, to the compass course 2. Subtract deviations and variations, regardless of their direction, to the compass course 3. Add easterly deviation and variation to the compass course and subtract westerly variation and deviation from the compass course 4. Subtract easterly deviation and variation from the compass course and add westerly deviation and variation to the compass course

3-23. If the magnetic heading is 255° and the variation is 5°W, what is the approximate true course?

1. 250° 2. 251° 3. 259° 4. 260°

3-24. If the compass course is 170°, the variation is 15°E, and the deviation is 5°W, what is the true course?

1. 150° 2. 160° 3. 180° 4. 190°

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

16 UNCLASSIFIED 3-25. If the variation is 5°W and the deviation is 10°E, what compass course must be steered to make good a course of 090°T?

1. 075° 2. 085° 3. 095° 4. 105°

3-26. If the compass course is 270°, the variation is 10°E, and the deviation is 5°E, what is the magnetic course of the ship?

1. 255° 2. 265° 3. 275° 4. 290°

3-27. A ship is steering a compass course of 180° making good a true course of 176°. If the deviation is 2°E, what is the variation?

1. 2°E 2. 6°E 3. 2°W 4. 6°W

3-28. When a ship is under way, the ship's compasses should be compared at least how often?

1. Once a watch 2. Every 4 hours 3. Every course change only 4. Every 1/2 hour and at each course change

3-29. At least how often must the magnetic compass be adjusted?

1. Every time the ship gets under way 2. Once a year 3. Once a quarter 4. Only when the ship leaves the shipyard

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

17 UNCLASSIFIED 3-30. What publication number must be used when performing actual compass adjustments?

1. 226 2. 229 3. 249 4. 251

3-31. The master gyrocompass should be energized a minimum of how many hours before being used?

1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4

3-32. When a ship is under way, the gyrocompass must be checked for error a minimum of how many times each day?

1. Once 2. Twice 3. Three times 4. Four times

3-33. In what area(s) aboard ship are gyro repeaters normally found?

1. The pilothouse and bridgewings 2. Aftersteering 3. Secondary conn 4. At all ship's control stations

3-34. The magnetic compass requires electricity to operate.

1. True 2. False

3-35. Which of the following methods should NOT be used to check the accuracy of a gyrocompass?

1. Terrestrial range 2. Azimuth of the Moon 3. Azimuth of the Sun 4. Amplitude of the Sun

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

18 UNCLASSIFIED 3-36. The azimuth circle can also be used as a bearing circle.

1. True 2. False

3-37. What is the advantage of plotting with a PMP?

1. It is anchored to the chart table 2. It allows the plotter to plot quickly and accurately 3. It allows the plotter to plot fixes every 3 minutes 4. It works in conjunction with the compass rose

3-38. What reference line should be used to align a PMP to a chart?

1. Latitude 2. Longitude 3. Meridian

3-39. Why is it important to use a telescopic alidade when taking visual bearings?

1. It gives bearings in true degrees 2. It fits on any compass 3. It allows the bearing taker to see both the object and its bearing at the same time 4. It can be used in any type of weather

3-40. What is the disadvantage of determining gyro error by terrestrial range?

1. The ship has to be on the range when the bearing is taken 2. Most harbors don't use ranges 3. This method is only as accurate as the person taking the bearing

3-41. When is the Franklin technique of checking gyro error most useful?

1. In open ocean 2. Prior to getting under way 3. When a range cannot be found 4. At any time

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

19 UNCLASSIFIED 3-42. When must you use the Franklin technique of checking gyro error?

1. The Sun is not visible 2. A range cannot be found 3. An amplitude is not possible 4. No other method of checking the gyro error is available prior to getting under way

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

20 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 4

Textbook assignment: Chapter 4, “Navigation Publications and Instructions” pages 4-1 through 4-10.

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 4-1 THROUGH 4-4, SELECT FROM COLUMN B THE PUBLICATION NAME THAT MATCHES THE PUBLICATION NUMBER IN COLUMN A. RESPONSES ARE USED ONLY ONCE.

A. PUBLICATION B. PUBLICATION NUMBER NAME

4-1. Pub 9 1. World Port Index

4-2 Pub 102 2. American Practical Navigator

4-3. Pub 150 3. Sight Reduction Tables

4-4. Pub 229 4. International Code of Signals

4-5. What agency publishes the Coast Pilots?

1. NOS 2. NOAA 3. DMA 4. USCG

4-6. What agency publishes the Sailing Directions?

1. NOS 2. NOAA 3. DMAHTC 4. Naval Press

4-7. The U.S. Coast Pilots is published in a total of how many volumes?

1. 9 2. 10 3. 11 4. 12

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

21 UNCLASSIFIED 4-8. What type of information does the Coast Pilots cover?

1. The waters of U.S. possessions only 2. The waters of the United States and its possessions 3. The waters of foreign coasts 4. Harbor data for foreign ports

4-9. Which agency publishes the Fleet Guides?

1. USN 2. DMAHTC 3. NOS 4. USCG

4-10. What type of information does the Fleet Guides contain?

1. Repair 2. Navigational 3. Logistic 4. All of the above

4-11. The information contained in Fleet Guides is much like that contained in Coast Pilots and Sailing Directions.

1. True 2. False

4-12. Sailing Directions are based on a total of how many ocean basins?

1. Five 2. Six 3. Eight 4. Nine

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

22 UNCLASSIFIED 4-13. What type of information is contained in the Planning Guides?

1. Danger areas 2. Buoyage systems 3. Local coastal phenomena 4. All of the above

4-14. Which agency publishes the List of Lights?

1. USCG 2. DMAHTC 3. NOS 4. NOAA

4-15. The List of Lights contains information on what type(s) of navigational aids?

1. Lighted aids only 2. Lighted aids and fog signals 3. Radio signals 4. Radio beacons

4-16. Changes to List of Lights may be contained in Notice to Mariners.

1. True 2. False

4-17. The Tide Tables are made up of a total of how many volumes?

1. Seven 2. Six 3. Five 4. Four

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

23 UNCLASSIFIED 4-18. Which agency publishes the Tide Tables?

1. NOS 2. DMA 3. NOAA 4. USCG

4-19. The Tide Tables contain which of the following types of information?

1. Times of high and low water 2. Times of Sunrise and Sunset 3. Times of Moonrise and Moonset 4. Each of the above

4-20. The Tidal Current Tables are contained in a total of how many volumes?

1. Six 2. Two 3. Eight 4. Four

4-21. What type of chart indicates the best route between ports and graphically shows magnetic variation, currents, and prevailing winds?

1. Harbor Chart 2. Coastal Chart 3. Pilot Chart 4. General Sailing Chart

4-22. What is the publication number for Distance Between Ports?

1. 117 2. 140 3. 150 4. 151

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

24 UNCLASSIFIED 4-23. When Distance Between Ports is used, updated information must be obtained from which of the following publications?

1. Sailing Directions 2. Coast Pilots 3. Fleet Guides 4. Each of the above

4-24. What agency publishes the Distances Between United States Ports?

1. NOAA 2. NOS 3. DMA 4. USN

4-25. Which of the following agencies gather(s) data for the Nautical Almanac?

1. The U.S. Naval Observatory 2. Royal Greenwich Observatory 3. Both 1 and 2 above 4. The U.S. Government Printing Office

4-26. The Nautical Almanac is printed only in the United States.

1. True 2. False

4-27. What agency publishes the Almanac for Computers?

1. The Government Printing Office 2. The Royal Greenwich Observatory 3. The U.S. Naval Observatory 4. The National Ocean Service

4-28. What agency publishes the Sight Reduction Tables?

1. NOS 2. NOAA 3. DMAHTC 4. USNO

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

25 UNCLASSIFIED 4-29. How many degrees of latitude are covered in each volume of the Sight Reduction Tables?

1. 10 2. 15 3. 16 4. 20

4-30. What publication number for the Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation?

1. 229 2. 249 3. 259 4. 269

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

26 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 5

Textbook assignment: Chapter 5, “Aids to Navigation” pages 5-1 through 5-35.

5-1. Of the following light characteristics, which one is considered valuable in identifying a light?

1. Color 2. Rhythm 3. Intensity 4. Position

5-2. Which of the following light characteristics indicates a group-occulting light?

1. The intervals of darkness are of equal duration 2. The intervals of darkness are regularly repeated 3. All intervals of light and darkness are equal 4. The intervals of light are equal and show different colors alternately

5-3. Which of the following light characteristics indicates an isophase light?

1. A light in which all durations of light and darkness are equal 2. A light in which the period of light is shorter than the period of darkness 3. A light in which the period of light is greater than the period of darkness 4. A light that shows continuously and steadily

5-4. Which of the following lights flashes at a rate of 60 flashes per minute?

1. Flashing 2. Occulting 3. Isophase 4. Quick

5-5. The light abbreviation Oc(2) is indicated on one of your charts. What is the meaning of the (2) in parentheses?

1. The pattern of eclipses in the light 2. The pattern of flashes in the light 3. The flashes and eclipses are equal 4. The flashes and eclipses are unequal

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

27 UNCLASSIFIED 5-6. Which of the following definitions best defines the term "light cycle"?

1. The time it takes to complete one phase 2. The time it takes a light to complete one full cycle of on and off changes 3. The duration the light is on 4. The duration the light is off

5-7. Which of the following aids to navigation (buoys) are numbered?

1. Solid red only 2. Solid green only 3. Solid red and solid green 4. Buoys that have letters only

5-8. For what purpose are letters used on buoys?

1. To indicate the preferred channel 2. To indicate midchannel buoys 3. To indicate the first buoy in a channel 4. To augment numbers on lateral aids

5-9. Which of the following buoys are NOT numbered?

1. Safe water 2. Isolated dangers 3. Special marks 4. All of the above

5-10. What factor(s) contribute(s) to the visibility of a light?

1. Intensity only 2. Height above water only 3. Color 4. Intensity and height above water

5-11. Of the following factors, which one should you take into account when determining the luminous range of a light?

1. Height of the light 2. Curvature of the Earth 3. Observer's height of eye 4. Intensity of the light itself

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

28 UNCLASSIFIED 5-12. When you compute the visibility of a light, the computed visibility will always exceed the light's luminous range.

1. True 2. False

5-13. Which of the following factors influences the shape and construction of a lighthouse?

1. Location 2. Importance of its light 3. Prevalence of violent storms 4. Each of the above

5-14. What is the primary purpose of the various patterns painted on lighthouses?

1. To aid in the identification of the structure 2. To prevent low-flying aircraft from hitting the structure 3. To decorate the structure 4. To make the structure visible at greater distances

5-15. A navigator knows that he is "on the range" when the lights or beacons of the range are observed in what position?

1. One over the other 2. At a 45° angle 3. At a 90° angle 4. At a 180° angle

5-16. Daymarks marking the sides of a channel are colored and numbered in the same manner as buoys.

1. True 2. False

5-17. Minor lights are structured like daybeacons, but are equipped with lights generally found on buoys.

1. True 2. False

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

29 UNCLASSIFIED 5-18. Which of the following colors is NOT used for navigation lights?

1. White 2. Red 3. Yellow 4. Green

5-19. What light color abbreviation does NOT appear on a chart and is assumed?

1. Blue 2. Yellow 3. Green 4. White

5-20. Alternating lights are reserved for which of the following special applications?

1. Lighthouses 2. Airport beacons 3. Harbor entrance lights 4. Each of the above

5-21. What is indicated by the red sectors placed in the lanterns of some lighthouses?

1. Danger bearings 2. Recommended approaches 3. Restricted areas 4. Safety sectors

5-22. What does a narrow green sector in a navigational light indicate?

1. A range 2. A radio beacon 3. Water that should be avoided 4. The best water across a shoal

5-23. All sector bearings are true bearings expressed as bearings observed from the ship towards the light.

1. True 2. False

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

30 UNCLASSIFIED 5-24. Atmospheric conditions may cause a white light to appear what color?

1. Yellow 2. Amber 3. Orange 4. Reddish

5-25. Emergency lights may or may not have the same characteristics as the main light.

1. True 2. False

5-26. A RACON is a radar beacon that produces which of the following outputs?

1. Coded response when swept by a radio signal 2. Radar paint when triggered by a radio signal 3. Coded signal when swept by light 4. Radar paint when triggered by a radar signal

5-27. Which of the following buoy characteristics assists the mariner in following the proper course?

1. Shape 2. Light 3. Color 4. Each of the above

5-28. What type of buoy produces a sound signal and shows a light?

1. Whistle buoy 2. Combination buoy 3. Lighted buoy 4. Gong buoy

5-29. Buoys may be unreliable for which of the following reasons?

1. Passing vessels may hit them 2. Lights on a lighted buoy may fail 3. Sound signals may not function because of ice 4. Each of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

31 UNCLASSIFIED 5-30. Of the following directions, which one conforms to the conventional direction of buoyage?

1. North along the Atlantic coast 2. South along the Gulf coast 3. East along the Pacific coast 4. West along the Gulf coast

5-31. Virtually all U.S. lateral marks are located in what is known as IALA region B and follow the traditional "red right returning" rule.

1. True 2. False

5-32. Buoys of the IALA buoyage system use which of the following buoy characteristics to convey desired information to the navigator?

1. Shape 2. Color 3. Rhythm 4. Each of the above

5-33. Buoys with which of the following solid colors have lateral significance?

1. Green and black 2. Red and green 3. Red and black 4. Black and yellow

5-34. Green buoys will only have green lights.

1. True 2. False

5-35. Red buoys will only have red lights.

1. True 2. False

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

32 UNCLASSIFIED 5-36. Buoys that have horizontal red and green stripes are used to mark which of the following points?

1. Junctions 2. Obstructions 3. Bifurcations 4. Each of the above

5-37. If the topmost band of a red and green striped buoy is green, keep the buoy to port to follow the preferred channel.

1. True 2. False

5-38. What is the shape of a daybeacon if the topmost band is green?

1. Circle 2. Sphere 3. Triangle 4. Square

5-39. If the topmost band of a red and green striped buoy is red, keep the buoy to starboard to follow the preferred channel.

1. True 2. False

5-40. What is the shape of a daybeacon if the topmost band is red?

1. Square 2. Triangle 3. Cone 4. Sphere

5-41. A buoy with red and white vertical stripes is called what type of mark?

1. Special purpose 2. Safe water 3. Non-lateral 4. Lateral

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

33 UNCLASSIFIED 5-42. What color are special purpose buoys?

1. Yellow 2. Orange 3. Black 4. Green

5-43. Isolated danger marks are horizontally banded buoys of what colors?

1. Green and white 2. Orange and black 3. Black and red 4. Red and green

5-44. What term identifies an aid to navigation that produces an audible signal designed to assist the mariner in periods of reduced visibility?

1. Sound signal 2. Noise alarm 3. Sound beacon 4. Noise signal

5-45. Unless operating continuously, under which of the following conditions will a sound buoy operate?

1. Fog 2. Adverse weather 3. Reduced visibility 4. Each of the above

5-46. Yellow markings in what two shapes are used to designate Intracoastal Waterway (ICW) aids to navigation?

1. Round and rectangle 2. Triangle and round 3. Square and triangle 4. Rectangle and square

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

34 UNCLASSIFIED 5-47. What is the conventional direction of buoyage in the ICW along the (a) Atlantic coast and (b) the Gulf coast?

1. (a) Southerly (b) westerly 2. (a) Southerly (b) easterly 3. (a) Northerly (b) easterly 4. (a) Northerly (b) westerly

5-48. When navigating on western rivers, what does the number on the buoy indicate?

1. The buoy number 2. Mileage from a fixed point 3. The light number for that buoy 4. The list of lights number for that buoy

5-49. In western rivers, what do diamond shaped daymarks indicate?

1. Safe water 2. Restricted areas 3. Channel crosses 4. Shoal water

5-50. What type of marker is NOT used in western rivers?

1. Isolated danger 2. Midchannel buoy 3. Safe water buoy 4. Junction buoy

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

35 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 6

Textbook assignment: Chapter 6, “Basics of Time” pages 6-1 through 6-20.

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 6-1 THROUGH 6-2, SELECT THE REFERENCE POINT FROM COLUMN B THAT IS USED TO CALCULATE THE TIME LISTED IN COLUMN A. NOT ALL RESPONSES ARE USED.

A. TIME B. REFERENCE POINT

6-1. Mean solar 1. 24 hours

6-2. Solar apparent 2. Fictional sun

3. First point of Aries

4. Sun

6-3. Mean solar time and apparent solar time are nearly equal, but apparent solar time is the time used in everyday life.

1. True 2. False

6-4. The "equation of time" is the name given to the difference between what two types of time?

1. Mean time and zone time 2. Apparent time and mean time 3. Apparent time and zone time 4. Zone time and Greenwich mean time

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

36 UNCLASSIFIED IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 6-5 THROUGH 6-7, SELECT FROM COLUMN B THE DEFINITION THAT MATCHES THE TYPE OF TIME IN COLUMN A. RESPONSES ARE USED ONLY ONCE.

A. TYPE OF TIME B. DEFINITION

6-5. LMT 1. The time at the standard meridian

6-6. ZT 2. The adjustment to be applied to achieve GMT

6-7. ZD 3. Time based on longitude measurement

4. Mean solar time with reference to your meridian

6-8. What kind of time is usually indicated by a ship's clock?

1. LMT 2. ZT 3. GMT 4. LAT

6-9. How many degrees does a time zone extend on either side of the standard time meridian?

1. 7 1/2 2. 15 3. 24 4. 30

6-10. What time is it when the Sun is on the Greenwich meridian (0°)?

1. Noon GMT 2. Noon LMT 3. Noon ZT 4. Each of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

37 UNCLASSIFIED 6-11. Which of the following publications contains tables for converting ARC to time?

1. Nautical Almanac only 2. Bowditch only 3. Nautical Almanac and Bowditch 4. Air Almanac

6-12. What are the zone time and date at 170°W longitude when it is noon on 16 March zone time at 30°E longitude?

1. 2100, 15 March 2. 2300, 15 March 3. 2100, 16 March 4. 2300, 16 March

6-13. What are the time and date at 170°E longitude when it is noon on 24 December at 125°W longitude?

1. 0600, 24 December 2. 0700, 24 December 3. 0600, 25 December 4. 0700, 25 December

6-14. What is LMT at 69°W longitude when ZT for that zone is 4h36m16s?

1. 4h8m16s 2. 4h12m16s 3. 5h0m16s 4. 5h4m16s

6-15. What is ZT at 158°W longitude when LMT is 5h30m45s?

1. 5h2m45s 2. 5h10m45s 3. 5h40m45s 4. 5h58m45s

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

38 UNCLASSIFIED 6-16. How much time is equivalent to 1° of arc?

1. 15 min 2. 15 set 3. 4 min 4. 4 set

6-17. What is the arc equivalent of 1 minute of time?

1. 1' of arc 2. 4' of arc 3. 15" of arc 4. 15' of arc

6-18. What is the arc equivalent of 1 second of time?

1. 4" of arc 2. 4' of arc 3. 15" of arc 4. 15' of arc

6-19. In the time-to-arc conversion process, to obtain degrees the hours should be multiplied by what number?

1. 5 2. 10 3. 15 4. 20

6-20. What is the equivalent in arc to 8 h26m46s in time?

1. 120°36'40" 2. 124°50'40" 3. 126°41'30" 4. 127°10'00"

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

39 UNCLASSIFIED 6-21. When converting arc to time, the degrees should be divided by 15 to obtain hours.

1. True 2. False

6-22. Which of the following relations holds true in time zones west of Greenwich?

1. The ZD is plus and is added to GMT to get ZT 2. The ZD is plus and is added to ZT to get GMT 3. The ZD is minus and is added to GMT to get ZT 4. The ZD is minus and is added to ZT to get GMT

6-23. When figuring for GMT, a correction of how many hours should be applied to ZT at 172°E longitude?

1. Plus 10 2. Minus 10 3. Plus 11 4. Minus 11

6-24. A correction of how many hours should be applied to GMT to compute zone time at 158°W longitude?

1. Plus 10 2. Minus 10 3. Plus 11 4. Minus 11

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

40 UNCLASSIFIED 6-25. When you convert GMT to ZT, which of the following relations holds true in time zones east of Greenwich?

1. The ZD is plus and is added to GMT to get ZT 2. The ZD is minus and is subtracted from GMT to get ZT 3. The ZD is plus and is subtracted from GMT to get ZT 4. The ZD is minus and is added to GMT to get ZT

6-26. When traveling towards the west and you enter a new time zone, the clocks must be retarded 1 hour.

1. True 2. False

6-27. When, if ever, should you advance the ship's chronometers?

1. When traveling west into a new time zone 2. When traveling east into a new time zone 3. When the commanding officer tells you 4. Never

6-28. Which reference line, if any, is the 180th meridian?

1. International Dateline 2. Greenwich Meridian 3. Equator

6-29. When you cross the International Dateline, which of the following rules is correct for adjusting time?

1. Traveling east retard 1 day 2. Traveling west retard 1 day 3. Traveling east retard 12 hours 4. Traveling west retard 12 hours

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

41 UNCLASSIFIED 6-30. Which publication number gives a listing of time ticks?

1. No. 102 2. No. 110 3. No. 116 4. No. 117

6-31. What time scale contributes to the UTC and GMT differing by up to .7 seconds?

1. Geographic 2. Gnomonic 3. Atomic 4. Atmospheric

6-32. Which of the following formulas should be used to compute correct time?

1. GMT = UTC - DUT 2. GMT = UTC + DUT 3. UTC = GMT - DUT 4. UTC = GMT + DUT

6-33. Each page of the Navigational Timepiece Rate Book can accommodate the records of (a) how many chronometers and (b) for what time period?

1. (a) One (b) 3 mo 2. (a) Three (b) 3 mo 3. (a) One (b) 1 mo 4. (a) Three (b) 1 mo

6-34. Chronometer error should be determined no closer than which of the following time periods?

1. 1 sec 2. 2 sec 3. 3 sec 4. 1/2 sec

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

42 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 7

Textbook assignment: Chapter 7, “Tides and Currents” pages 7-1 through 7-21.

7-1. Which of the following terms applies to the vertical movement of water?

1. Currents 2. Tides 3. Set 4. Drift

7-2. Which of the following gravitational forces causes tides?

1. Earth and Moon only 2. Moon and Sun only 3. Earth and Sun only 4. Earth, Moon, and Sun

7-3. What is the tidal day?

1. One high and one low tide 2. Two high and two low tides 3. Two high and one low tide 4. One high and two low tides

7-4. What is a tidal cycle?

1. One high and one low tide 2. Two high and two low tides 3. Two high and one low tide 4. One high and two low tides

7-5. Approximately how many hours elapse between successive high tides?

1. 6 2. 12 3. 18 4. 24

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

43 UNCLASSIFIED 7-6. Which of the following terms identifies the total rise from low water to high water?

1. Rip 2. Range 3. Stand 4. Spring

7-7. Which of the following terms identifies the period during high and low water when the water level remains steady?

1. Range 2. Stand 3. Mean sea level 4. Reference plane

7-8. What does a depth of water figure on a chart indicate?

1. The average depth soundings taken at various high water times 2. The average depth soundings taken at various low water times 3. The greatest depth soundings ever recorded at low water 4. The greatest depth soundings ever recorded at high water

7-9. Spring tides occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are in line.

1. True 2. False

7-10. How do tides react during spring tides?

1. Higher than normal low tides and higher than normal high tides 2. Higher than normal high tides and lower than normal low tides 3. Lower than normal low tides and lower than normal high tides 4. Higher than normal low tides and lower than normal high tides

7-11. What type of tide is produced when the Moon is in its first and last quarter?

1. Spring 2. Solar 3. Neap 4. Rip

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

44 UNCLASSIFIED 7-12. How often are the Tide Tables published?

1. Quarterly 2. Semiannually 3. Annually 4. Every 3 years

7-13. Which of the following agencies publishes the Tide Tables?

1. National Ocean Service 2. Defense Mapping Agency 3. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4. Naval Observatory

7-14. A total of how many volumes are contained in the Tide Tables?

1. Five 2. Seven 3. Eight 4. Four

7-15. How many volumes of the Tide Tables pertain to the United States?

1. One 2. Two 3. Three 4. Four

7-16. Which tables in the Tide Tables contains information on (a) Sunrise/Sunset and (b) Moonrise/Moonset?

1. (a) 4 (b) 5 2. (a) 4 (b) 6 3. (a) 5 (b) 5 4. (a) 5 (b) 6

7-17. Tidal data for a subordinate station are obtained by applying a height difference or a ratio of ranges to the predictions for the

1. general area 2. stated reference station 3. nearest secondary station 4. closest main subordinate station

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

45 UNCLASSIFIED 7-18. Graphing tides for the entire day will save you from calculating the height of tide separately for each aid you visit.

1. True 2. False

7-19. Set is the velocity of a current, and drift is the direction of a current.

1. True 2. False

7-20. How often are Tidal Currents Tables published?

1. Quarterly 2. Semiannually 3. Annually 4. Every 2 years

7-21. A total of how many volumes make up the Tidal Current Tables?

1. Five 2. Two 3. Three 4. Four

7-22. When are the velocity ratios multiplied?

1. When the currents are weak and variable only 2. Only in inland rivers 3. When the currents are strong and stable only 4. Always

7-23. The graphing of current velocity information is generally the same as graphing tidal data.

1. True 2. False

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

46 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 8

Textbook assignment: Chapter 8, “Dead Reckoning and Piloting” pages 8-1 through 8- 61.

8-1. What is the primary purpose of dead reckoning (DR) navigation?

1. To check the accuracy of electronic navigation 2. To indicate a reasonable account of the ship's position 3. To navigate in open ocean with no landfall in sight 4. To show where the ship has been

8-2. DR positions are always accurate.

1. True 2. False

8-3. Which of the following is NOT a rule for plotting a DR position?

1. Should be plotted every 1/2 hour 2. Should be plotted every hour 3. Should be plotted when a single LOP is obtained 4. Should be plotted at every speed change.

8-4. Regarding the DR plot, a new course line need not be plotted from each new fix or running fix.

1. True 2. False

8-5. If a ship made good the exact course and speed ordered, and there was no wind or current, dead reckoning would, at times, provide an accurate indication of the ship's position.

1. True 2. False

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

47 UNCLASSIFIED 8-6. When a DR position should be plotted is determined by a total of how many rules?

1. Five 2. Six 3. Seven 4. Four

8-7. The term "speed" is defined as the ship's ordered speed.

1. True 2. False

8-8. Which of the following information is determined by laying out the ship's course and speed on the chart?

1. DR position 2. Estimated position 3. Ship's heading 4. Ship's speed

8-9. The effects of currents are always taken into account when determining a DR position.

1. True 2. False

8-10. When data such as the direction and speed of the current are applied to a DR position, the resultant position is known as which of the following points?

1. Fix 2. Estimated position 3. Running fix 4. Line of position

8-11. For purposes of DR, how far will a ship travel in a half hour if the ship's speed is 21 knots?

1. 10.5 mi 2. 10.5 nmi 3. 21.0 mi 4. 21.0 nmi

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

48 UNCLASSIFIED 8-12. A nautical mile is equal to how many yards?

1. 1,000 2. 1,500 3. 2,000 4. 2,500

8-13. Which of the following formulas for figuring time, distance, and speed is correct?

1. Time = distance ÷ speed 2. Distance = speed × time 3. Speed = distance ÷ time 4. Each of the above

8-14. If a ship travels 18,800 yards, how many nautical miles has the ship covered?

1. 8.2 2. 8.8 3. 9.4 4. 9.8

8-15. If a ship travels 6.1 nautical miles, how many yards has the ship covered?

1. 12,200 2. 11,800 3. 10,400 4. 6,100

8-16. If a ship travels 87 nautical miles in 6 hours, what speed did the ship make good?

1. 12.7 kn 2. 14.5 kn 3. 15.3 kn 4. 16.7 kn

8-17. How much time will it take a ship to travel 16.0 nautical miles at a speed of 18 knots?

1. 53.5 min 2. 53.0 min 3. 52.0 min 4. 51.0 min

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

49 UNCLASSIFIED 8-18. What distance will a ship travel if the ship's speed is 17.5 knots for 45 minutes?

1. 12.5 nmi 2. 12.7 nmi 3. 13.0 nmi 4. 13.5 nmi

8-19. The 3-minute rule states that a ship's speed in knots is equal to the distance traveled in yards over 3 minutes divided by 100.

1. True 2. False

8-20. What is the function of the nautical slide rule?

1. To simplify time, speed, and distance solutions 2. To plot courses 3. To figure direction

8-21. To use the nautical slide rule, enter two known variables on the appropriate scales and the third value can be obtained.

1. True 2. False

8-22. When figuring a PIM, how often are points indicated and in what type of time?

1. 2 hr, LMT 2. 4 hr, LMT 3. 4 hr, GMT 4. 8 hr, GMT

8-23. When distance is to be indicated on a plot, the distance may be indicated in which of the following increments?

1. Feet 2. Yards only 3. Miles only 4. Yards or miles

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

50 UNCLASSIFIED 8-24. How is the term "course" best described?

1. The direction to be steered 2. The direction actually steered 3. The course over ground 4. The course made good

8-25. How may courses be designated?

1. True 2. Magnetic 3. Compass 4. Each of the above

8-26. To what does the term "frequency of fix" refer?

1. GPS 2. AN/SRN-19 3. Electronic navigation 4. How often fixes are obtained

8-27. Who determines the fix frequency?

1. Commanding officer 2. Executive officer 3. Leading Quartermaster 4. Navigator

8-28. Which of the following situations refers to emergency plotting?

1. Man overboard 2. Collision 3. Ship's alongside refueling 4. Each of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

51 UNCLASSIFIED 8-29. When MAN OVERBOARD is sounded, within what maximum period of time should the QMOW obtain a fix?

1. 1 min 2. 30 set 3. 3 set 4. 15 set

8-30. When must "piloting" be carried out?

1. When the ship is in open waters 2. Only when the ship is in a harbor 3. When the ship is in coastal waters 4. When frequent or continuous fixes relative to geographical point to high order of accuracy is required

8-31. In general, a total of how many types of navigational observances are used in piloting?

1. One 2. Two 3. Three 4. Four

8-32. Which of the following objects are used in obtaining a fix during piloting?

1. Visual bearings 2. Radar ranges 3. Depth soundings 4. Each of the above

8-33. Which of the following definitions best describes a LOP?

1. A line established to fix the ship's position 2. A line only used in piloting to fix the ship's position 3. Any straight line used in establishing the ship's position 4. Any line established by observations or measurements used to fix the ship's location

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

52 UNCLASSIFIED 8-34. As a minimum, how many lines of position must you have to obtain an accurate fix in piloting?

1. One 2. Two 3. Three only 4. Three or more

8-35. When piloting, you must always strive to obtain how many LOPS for an accurate fix?

1. Two only 2. Two or more 3. Three only 4. Three or more

8-36. How many degrees are considered an optimum spread when you use three lines of position to obtain a fix?

1. 60° 2. 90° 3. 120° 4. 150°

8-37. When you shoot visual bearings, how much time should be given between the stand-by and the mark?

1. 5 set 2. 10 set 3. 15 set 4. 30 set

8-38. To more accurately reflect the ship's position at the time of a mark, what bearings should be observed first?

1. Bow 2. Stern 3. Beam 4. Quarter

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

53 UNCLASSIFIED 8-39. Which of the following statements best describes a relative bearing?

1. A bearing relative to true north 2. A bearing relative to magnetic north 3. A bearing relative to the ship's heading 4. A bearing relative to the gyro compass

8-40. When should you use relative bearings?

1. When transiting a mine field 2. When using the degaussing coils 3. When you have a gyro compass casualty 4. Always

8-41. Which of the following instruments should be used to plot relative bearings?

1. PMP 2. Parallel ruler 3. Weems plotter 4. Three-arm protractor

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

54 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 9

Textbook assignment: Chapter 9, “Electronic Navigation/ECDIS-N” pages 9-1 through 9- 29.

9-1. Which of the following is/are disadvantage(s) of electronic navigation?

1. Possible breakdown 2. Malfunctioning 3. Damage 4. All of the above

9-2. Which of the following devices is the most accurate for obtaining soundings in shallow depths?

1. Sounding machine 2. Hand lead 3. Fathometer 4. Pit log

9-3. What type of echo sounder is most commonly found aboard U.S. Naval vessels?

1. AN/UQN-1 2. AN/UQN-4 3. SRN-12 4. SRN-19

9-4. What is the largest depth the echo sounder will record?

1. 600 feet 2. 600 fathoms 3. 6,000 feet 4. 6,000 fathoms

9-5. Depths less than 400 feet can be most accurately established by the AN/UQN-4 when the recorder is set to what range?

1. 600 feet 2. 600 fathoms only 3. 6,000 fathoms only 4. 600 or 6,000 fathoms

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

55 UNCLASSIFIED 9-6. At what time each day should the depths be recorded?

1. 0800 LMT 2. 0800 GMT 3. 1200 LMT 4. 1200 GMT

9-7. To what does the term Loran refer?

1. Low range navigation 2. Low range radio navigation 3. Long range navigation 4. Long range radio navigation

9-8. Loran-C is generally accurate to within what maximum distance?

1. .10 nmi 2. .25 nmi 3. .50 nmi 4. 1.00 nmi

9-9. Which of the following best describes the SATNAV system of navigation?

1. All-weather, worldwide navigational system 2. All-weather, navigational system used by ships, aircraft, and submarines 3. Highly accurate, worldwide navigation system 4. Highly accurate, all-weather, worldwide navigational system, used by ships, aircraft, and submarines

9-10. How many total satellites make up the Navstar GPS navigation system?

1. 18 2. 21 3. 24 4. 27

9-11. When using the Navstar GPS a minimum of how many satellites are in-view of any user?

1. Five 2. Two 3. Three 4. Four

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

56 UNCLASSIFIED 9-12. What is the accuracy of the AN/WRN-6(V) in the encrypted mode?

1. 100 meters 2. 100 yards 3. 16 meters 4. 16 yards

9-13. A typical surface radar is made up of how many components?

1. Nine 2. Seven 3. Three 4. Five

9-14. Which of the following is a basic principle of radar operation?

1. The antenna receives pulses transmitted by shore stations 2. Radio waves are reflected from solid objects 3. Transmitting high power will burn through interference 4. The antenna will pick up any change in the magnetic field of an object

9-15. What component of a radar system provides a bird's-eye view of the area covered?

1. Modulator 2. Receiver 3. Transmitter 4. PPI

9-16. On a radar scope, what indicates the sweep?

1. A bright line 2. A bright spot 3. A green line sweeping through 360° 4. A variable bright ring

9-17. In what increments is range measured on a radar scope?

1. Feet 2. Yards only 3. Miles only 4. Yards or miles

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

57 UNCLASSIFIED 9-18. On a radar scope, what indicates the bearing cursor?

1. A bright line 2. A bright spot 3. A green line sweeping through 360° 4. A variable bright ring

9-19. Range is determined on a radar scope by placing the strobe on what position of the target?

1. Middle 2. Leading edge 3. Trailing edge 4. Right side

9-20. What type of system(s) is SINS?

1. Satellite 2. Inertial 3. Radio wave

9-21. Which of the following craft would use SINS to navigate?

1. Rocket 2. Ship 3. Airplane 4. Each of the above

9-22. Which of the following is a characteristic of SINS?

1. Extremely accurate, global system 2. Global, all-weather system 3. Global, all-weather satellite system 4. Accurate, all-weather, dead reckoning system

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

58 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 10

Textbook assignment: Chapter 10, “Weather Observations” pages 10-1 through 10-36.

10-1. What gas near the Earth's surface has the largest percentage by volume of the atmosphere?

1. Argon 2. Nitrogen 3. Helium 4. Oxygen

10-2. In which of the following regions would the air contain a greater quantity of water vapor?

1. North Pole 2. South Pole 3. Equator 4. Mid-latitudes

10-3. The primary purpose of a barometer is to measure which of the following factors?

1. Amount of relative humidity 2. Variations in atmospheric pressure 3. Altitude above or below sea level 4. Variations in ambient temperature

10-4. Warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air.

1. True 2. False

10-5. Which of the following conditions is a factor in considering the makeup of weather?

1. Humidity 2. Atmospheric pressure 3. Temperature 4. Each of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

59 UNCLASSIFIED 10-6. Which of the following is the correct definition of a cyclone?

1. An approximately circular portion of the atmosphere, in the vicinity of an atmospheric high 2. The thin zone of discontinuity between two air masses 3. An approximately circular portion of the atmosphere, in the vicinity of an atmospheric low 4. A movement of air down a pressure gradient from higher to lower pressure

10-7. Where are doldrums generally positioned?

1. Slightly south of the equator 2. Slightly north of the equator 3. On the equator 4. All of the above

10-8. In the doldrums, which factor causes greater rainfall?

1. The temperatures stay the same in the convergent zone 2. The temperatures change erratically in the convergent zone 3. The temperatures are low in the convergent zone 4. The temperatures are high in the convergent zone

10-9. Which of the following particles is NOT found in the atmosphere?

1. Salt 2. Sand 3. Dust 4. Plant resin

10-10. Water vapor forms in clouds by what basic process?

1. Crystallization 2. Distillation 3. Evaporation 4. Condensation

10-11. Which of the following conditions is NOT necessary for clouds to form?

1. Wind 2. Moisture 3. A cooling process 4. Hygroscopic nuclei

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

60 UNCLASSIFIED 10-12. Fog is merely a cloud on the ground.

1. True 2. False

10-13. The low-etage clouds form from the surface up to how many feet?

1. 5,000 2. 5,700 3. 6,500 4. 8,000

10-14. The mid-etage clouds occur in what altitude range, in feet?

1. 5,000 to 13,000 2. 5,700 to 15,000 3. 6,500 to 18,500 4. 8,000 to 20,000

10-15. The high-etage clouds occur in what altitude range, in feet?

1. 13,000 to 50,000 2. 15,000 to 30,000 3. 18,500 to 45,000 4. 20,000 to 50,000

10-16. Clouds described as thin and feather-like are identified by what name?

1. Cirrus 2. Stratus 3. Cumulus 4. Nimbostratus

10-17. What type of clouds are associated with the term "mackerel sky"?

1. Cirrostratus 2. Cumulonimbus 3. Stratocumulus 4. Cirrocumulus

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

61 UNCLASSIFIED 10-18. What type of weather is generally associated with cirrostratus clouds?

1. Fog 2. Fair 3. Clear and cold 4. Rain

10-19. What type of cloud is composed of flattened globular masses being fairly small and thin?

1. Altocumulus 2. Altostratus 3. Cirrocumulus 4. Stratocumulus

10-20. What type of clouds are low, uniformly layered, and resemble fog?

1. Stratus 2. Stratocumulus 3. Altostratus 4. Nimbostratus

10-21. Vertical development is indicative of what two types of clouds?

1. Altostratus and cumulus 2. Cumulonimbus and stratus 3. Stratus and nimbostratus 4. Cumulus and cumulonimbus

10-22. Which of the following is a distinctive feature of cumulonimbus clouds?

1. Hazy appearance 2. Wispiness 3. Anvil-shaped tops 4. Shapelessness

10-23. Which form(s) of precipitation should you expect from cumulonimbus clouds?

1. Thunderstorms 2. Snow 3. Hail 4. All of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

62 UNCLASSIFIED 10-24. Fog at sea is formed through what process?

1. Condensation 2. Convection 3. Evaporation 4. Advection

10-25. Which of the following is a fairly reliable predictor of fog?

1. Barometric pressure 2. Wind shifts 3. Temperature gradient 4. Wet-bulb depression

10-26. What is a front?

1. Where distinctly different air masses touch 2. Where air separates 3. Where two strong air masses meet 4. Where two weak air masses meet

10-27. How are isobars measured?

1. In inches of pressure 2. In inches of mercury only 3. In millibars only 4. In inches of mercury and millibars

10-28. Which of the following conditions would mark the passage of a warm front?

1. Pressure usually rises 2. Wind will advance from the southeast, shifting to southwest 3. Rapid temperature change 4. Decreased visibility

10-29. What type of clouds accompanies a warm front?

1. Low range 2. Mid range 3. High range 4. Each of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

63 UNCLASSIFIED 10-30. Where are cold fronts located?

1. In well-deemed pressure troughs 2. In shallow pressure troughs 3. Originally in northern regions 4. Between two air masses of the same temperature

10-31. Which of the following conditions would mark the passage of a cold front?

1. Rise in temperature 2. Decreased visibility 3. Gradual clearing of the sky 4. Fairly rapid wind shift

10-32. What type of front is the result of a warm and cold front converging?

1. Warm 2. Cold 3. Occluded 4. Predominant

10-33. Which of the following equipment measures wind speed?

1. Psychrometer only 2. Synchronometer 3. Anemometer only 4. Psychrometer or anemometer

10-34. Which of the following is NOT a method for gathering wind data?

1. Visual estimation 2. Wave timing 3. Installed anemometer 4. Hand-held anemometer

10-35. What type of wind is measured by the anemometer?

1. Relative 2. True 3. Apparent 4. Actual

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

64 UNCLASSIFIED 10-36. When a ship has two anemometers, which should be used to measure wind direction?

1. The one on the leeward side 2. The one on the windward side 3. The anemometer that reads higher 4. Both, by taking the average of the two

10-37. What data should you consider to arrive at an estimated true wind speed?

1. The limited fetch area 2. Swell waves from constant directions 3. Waves running into shallow water 4. Offshore winds within sight of land

10-38. Which of the following factors will cause the speed estimation of wind to be too high?

1. Waves running into shallow water 2. Obscure flags 3. Smoke and rigging 4. All of the above

10-39. In Celsius, what is the freezing point of water?

1. -15° 2. -10° 3. 0° 4. 5°

10-40. In Celsius, what is the boiling point of water?

1. 90° 2. 95° 3. 100° 4. 110°

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

65 UNCLASSIFIED 10-41. What instrument is used to determine relative humidity and dewpoint?

1. Psychrometer 2. Anemometer 3. Aneroid barometer 4. Synchro repeater

10-42. The difference between the wet-bulb and the dry-bulb thermometer readings is used to determine which of the following data?

1. Relative humidity 2. Maximum temperature 3. Diurnal variation 4. Minimum temperature

10-43. When you are using a sling psychrometer, in which of the following positions should you be standing?

1. In direct sunlight facing the wind 2. In a shaded area facing the wind 3. In direct sunlight away from the wind 4. In a shaded area away from the wind

10-44. The difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb readings is called "the wet-bulb depression."

1. True 2. False

10-45. When CNOC 3140/8 is used, what part is used for Synoptic Code Message Format?

1. I 2. II 3. III 4. IV

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

66 UNCLASSIFIED 10-46. The duplicate copy of the weather observation form must be retained on board for what length of time?

1. 1 yr 2. 2 yr 3. 3 yr 4. 6 mo

10-47. Which of the following times will be the first entry of a new day on the weather observation form?

1. 0000 GMT 2. 0000 LMT 3. 2356 GMT 4. 2359 ZT

10-48. How often and by what precedence must ships transmit weather observations when the surface winds are greater than 34 knots?

1. Every 6 hours, priority 2. Every 6 hours, immediate 3. Every 3 hours, priority 4. Every 3 hours, immediate

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

67 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 11

Textbook assignment: Chapter 11, “Bridge Watches and Equipment” pages 11-1 through 11-117.

11-1. Which of the following equipment measures wind speed?

1. Psychrometer only 2. Synchronometer 3. Anemometer only 4. Psychrometer or anemometer

11-2. Which of the following is NOT a method for gathering wind data?

1. Visual estimation 2. Wave timing 3. Installed anemometer 4. Hand-held anemometer

11-3. Where is the anemometer usually located?

1. On the masthead 2. On the yardarm 3. Above the bridge 4. Above the pilot house

11-4. What type of wind is measured by the anemometer?

1. Relative 2. True 3. Apparent 4. Actual

11-5. How often are steering pumps switched?

1. Every watch 2. Every 12 hr 3. Every 24 hr 4. Every other day

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

68 UNCLASSIFIED 11-6. When is a master helmsman used?

1. In restricted waters 2. During replenishment 3. When entering DR leaving port 4. All of the above

11-7. What is a ship's pivot point?

1. A point on the center line 2. A point on which the ship turns when rudder is applied 3. Located about one-third the ship's length from the bow 4. All of the above

11-8. Which of the following diameter maneuvers is the distance 90° to the original course measured from 180° to 360°?

1. Final Diameter 2. Turning Diameter 3. Standard Tactical Diameter 4. Angle of Turn

11-9. Standard rudder is the amount of rudder angle used to make the ship turn in the standard tactical diameter.

1. True 2. False

11-10. Which fact best describes kick?

1. Side force 2. Swirl of water inside of the turn when the rudder is applied 3. Swirl of water outside of the turn when the rudder is applied 4. Making a wide turn so the stern is kicked out

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

69 UNCLASSIFIED 11-11. Which of the following facts best describes the action of ships turning in a column?

1. A vessel gains rapidly on the ship ahead while in the turn, but loses distance when the ship completes her turn and steadies on the new course 2. A vessel gains rapidly on the ship ahead while in the turn, but then steadies in distance as the ship steadies on the new course 3. A vessel lose distance on the ship ahead while in the turn, but gains rapidly after the ship steadies 4. A vessels distance remains constant both during the turn and after steadying on the new course

11-12. Which folder contains the ship's turning characteristics?

1. Ship's turning folder 2. Ship's maneuvering folder 3. Ship's tactical data 4. Ship's maneuvering plan

11-13. Which pertinent data determine a ship's tactical characteristics?

1. Speed and rudder angle only 2. Speed, rudder angle, set and drift 3. Speed, rudder angle, and ship's length 4. Speed, set and drift, and angle of turn

11-14. For what speed are most ship's tactical characteristics figured?

1. 5 kn 2. 10 kn 3. 15 kn 4. Standard speed

11-15. What rudder angle should be used to determine tactical characteristics?

1. 5° 2. 10° 3. 15° 4. Standard rudder

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

70 UNCLASSIFIED 11-16. Who normally gives the helmsman steering orders?

1. OOD 2. JOOD 3. Navigator 4. Conning officer

11-17. A master helmsman must have the ship on course prior to surrendering the wheel to his relief.

1. True 2. False

11-18. When should the words "port" and "starboard" be used in helm orders?

1. Only when there can be no doubt of which direction to turn 2. Only when there is a master helmsman on the wheel 3. Always 4. Never

11-19. You are the helmsman, and YOU are steering a course of 320°. If the conning officer orders a change of course to 325°, which of the following orders is usually given?

1. RIGHT STANDARD RUDDER, STEADY ON COURSE 325° 2. STEADY ON COURSE 325° 3. COME RIGHT TO 325° 4. COME STARBOARD TO 325°

11-20. Which of the following is NOT an order to steady the ship on the course at the time the order is given?

1. MEET HER 2. STEADY 3. STEADY AS YOU GO 4. STEADY AS SHE GOES

11-21. The conning officer notes that the helmsman is off course and warns the helmsman of this fact. Which of the following orders should be given?

1. KEEP HER SO 2. MARK YOUR HEAD 3. INCREASE YOUR RUDDER 4. MIND YOUR RUDDER

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

71 UNCLASSIFIED 11-22. The conning officer orders the helmsman to SHIFT YOUR RUDDER AND STEADY ON 000°. Which of the following replies must the helmsman give?

1. AYE SIR! 2. YES SIR! 3. STEADY ON 000°, AYE SIR! 4. SHIFT YOUR RUDDER AND STEADY ON 000° AYE SIR!

11-23. Which of the following is a proper rule for steering a ship?

1. Use the least amount of rudder necessary to maintain course 2. The faster the speed the more rudder is needed to maintain course 3. The slower the speed the less rudder is needed to maintain course 4. Each of the above

11-24. How is the term "weather helm" defined?

1. The amount of helm it takes to steer in calm weather 2. The amount of helm it takes to steer in heavy seas 3. The amount of helm it takes to steer in any weather condition 4. The amount of helm that is equal to the wind and wave action hitting the ship

11-25. During UNREP, what is the maximum deviation allowed from the ordered course?

1. .25° 2. .50° 3. .75° 4. 1.00°

11-26. In which of the following situations should a Master Helmsman be used?

1. During UNREP 2. When in restricted waters 3. During special evolutions 4. Each of the above

11-27. A ship's running lights are the normal underway lights.

1. True 2. False

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

72 UNCLASSIFIED 11-28. A ship has a total of how many different running lights?

1. Five 2. Six 3. Seven 4. Four

11-29. Which of the following is a convoy light?

1. Blue stern 2. Grimes light 3. White stern 4. Task light

11-30. The after-anchor light is a 360° white light mounted at the top of the jackstaff.

1. True 2. False

11-31. A total of how many flags make up the allied flag bag?

1. 57 2. 62 3. 68 4. 72

11-32. A total of how many flags make up the international flag bag?

1. 38 2. 40 3. 53 4. 62

11-33. Which of the following publications enables you to read signal flags and pennants?

1. NWP 10 2. ACP 129 3. NWP 14 4. ACP 132

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

73 UNCLASSIFIED 11-34. Under the commanding officer, who is responsible for the safe operation of the ship?

1. The executive officer 2. The navigator 3. The OOD 4. The JOOD

11-35. No person is allowed to go aloft or to work over the side when a ship is under way.

1. True 2. False

11-36. Which of the following is NOT a responsibility of the OOD?

1. To make all required reports to the captain 2. To issue necessary orders to the helm to avoid danger 3. To supervise the use of the general announcing system 4. To supervise the striking of the ship's bell at 0600 – 1200 - 1800 - 2400

11-37. Which watchstander is the direct assistant to the OOD?

1. QMOW 2. BMOW 3. JOOD 4. JOOW

11-38. The JOOD and the conning officer are sometimes the same person.

1. True 2. False

11-39. Which of the following is a function of the JOOD?

1. To encode and decode signals 2. To assist the OOD 3. To watch the radar 4. Each of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

74 UNCLASSIFIED 11-40. Who is in charge of the underway watch section?

1. MOOW 2. JOOW 3. QMOW 4. BMOW

11-41. What watch station is the BMOW NOT responsible for?

1. Lookouts 2. Lee helmsman 3. Boat crew 4. After steering

11-42. Which of the following publications shows the sea watch stations and which divisions man them?

1. Captain's night orders 2. Ship's Organization and Regulations Manual (SORM) 3. Ship's regulations 4. Ship's manning document

11-43. When should watchstanders be relieved?

1. As soon as the relief arrives on the bridge 2. 30 minutes prior to the hour 3. 15 minutes prior to the hour 4. On the hour

11-44. When should you report to the OOD that you have relieved the watch?

1. After you have received any special information from the person you are relieving 2. After you have sighted all navigation aids that are being used 3. After you have reviewed the deck log 4. After completing all of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

75 UNCLASSIFIED 11-45. Which of the following personnel serves as the OOD's assistant?

1. The navigator 2. The leading operations specialist 3. The quartermaster of the watch 4. The executive officer

11-46. Where should the ship's routine be listed?

1. In the Captain's Night Orders 2. In the SORM 3. In the Plan of the Week 4. In the Plan of the Day

11-47. Who is responsible for the preparation of the Captain's Night Orders?

1. Captain 2. Executive officer 3. Navigator 4. Leading QM

11-48. Where should you find the captain's standing orders to the watch?

1. Quartermaster's pass down log 2. Captain's night order book 3. Ship's Deck 4. Navigator's Log folder night order book

11-49. The Night Order Book is divided into a total of how many sections?

1. Five 2. Two 3. Three 4. Four

11-50. How often should night orders be written?

1. Daily 2. Weekly 3. As necessary 4. Only when the navigation plan changes

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

76 UNCLASSIFIED 11-51. Which of the following should NOT be found in the Night Order Book?

1. Navigation aids information 2. Tactical information 3. Guidance for the watch team 4. Ship's daily routine

11-52. The Ship's Deck Log is the most important log the Quartermaster will maintain.

1. True 2. False

11-53. Who is required to keep a deck log?

1. All U.S. Navy Ships only 2. All U.S. Navy ships in commission only 3. All U.S. Navy ships in commission and other small craft 4. Any vessel that is capable of getting under way

11-54. In what order should deck log entries be recorded?

1. Numerically 2. Chronologically 3. In order of importance 4. In a timely manner

11-55. Unless otherwise stated, how is the deck log classified?

1. Unclassified 2. Confidential 3. Secret 4. For official use only

11-56. What information determines the classification of the deck log?

1. The operation involved 2. The location of the operation involved 3. The information to be recorded 4. All of the above

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

77 UNCLASSIFIED 11-57. To what authority should the original copy of the deck log be submitted each month?

1. Naval archives 2. The CNO 3. BUPERS 4. The Secretary of the Navy

11-58. How long should a copy of the deck log be retained aboard ship?

1. 6 mo 2. 12 mo 3. 18 mo 4. 24 mo

11-59. Which of the following instruments should be used to write in the deck log?

1. Fountain pen 2. Felt marker 3. Ball point pen 4. All of the above

11-60. What color ink should be used to write in the deck log?

1. Blue 2. Black 3. Blue black

11-61. Who supervises the keeping of the deck log?

1. OOD 2. Navigator 3. Leading QM 4. Quartermaster of the watch

11-62. How many times a day is the ship's position recorded in the deck log while under way?

1. Once 2. Twice 3. Three times 4. Once a watch

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

78 UNCLASSIFIED 11-63. The deck log should never be rewritten.

1. True 2. False

11-64. How should corrections be made to the deck log?

1. Erase the error and enter the new information 2. Draw a single straight line through the entry 3. Cross out the error 4. Annotate "error"

11-65. Who is responsible for making changes to the deck log?

1. The Quartermaster of the watch 2. The Leading Quartermaster 3. The OOD 4. The navigator

11-66. Who signs the deck log at the end of each watch?

1. Quartermaster of the watch 2. Officer of the Day 3. Navigator 4. Senior officer on watch

11-67. What is the first page of the deck log?

1. Summary page 2. Cover page 3. Signature page 4. Title page

11-68. When, if ever, is a second copy of the deck log required?

1. ASW 2. Classified missions 3. Secret missions 4. Never

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

79 UNCLASSIFIED 11-69. How often should the navigator examine the deck log?

1. Daily 2. Weekly 3. Monthly 4. As required

11-70. How often should the navigator sign the deck log?

1. Daily 2. Weekly 3. Monthly 4. As required

11-71. How often should the commanding officer sign and approve the deck log?

1. Daily 2. Weekly 3. Monthly only 4. As required or monthly

11-72. Which of the following is a proper deck log entry?

1. Reveille 2. Chow for the crew 3. Any injury 4. Navigator on the bridge

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

80 UNCLASSIFIED ASSIGNMENT 12

Textbook assignment: Chapter 12, “Voyage Planning” pages 12-1 through 12-26.

12-1. Completing your ship's intended track on the proper chart format is determined by the

1. Distance to be traveled 2. Availability of classified charts 3. OPORD requirements 4. Length of cruise

12-2. Which of the following statements concerning the drawing of great circle tracks is incorrect?

1. Great circles drawn on a gnomonic chart are straight lines 2. Great circle charts compared to small scale Mercator charts have minimal distortion 3. Great circle sailing is mandatory in all cases 4. Great circle sailings are initially plotted on gnomonic charts and then transferred to Mercator charts

12-3. Compared to plotting on the great circle chart, plotting around an obstacle on a Mercator chart will impact the most on the

1. Departure 2. Destination position 3. Plotting instruments used 4. Ship's total track distance

12-4. When labeling a PIM, what type of time is used?

1. LMT 2. GMT 3. ZT 4. UCT

12-5. How often are DR positions indicated on a PIM?

1. Every 6 hr 2. Every 2 hr 3. Every 8 hr 4. Every 4 hr

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

81 UNCLASSIFIED 12-6. There is no difference between planning coastal tracks and great circle tracks.

1. True 2. False

12-7. Which of the following distances is the maximum range when planning a coastal navigation track?

1. 20 nmi 2. 25 nmi 3. 50 nmi 4. 60 nmi

12-8 . What is the minimum distance a track may be permitted to pass a shoal?

1. 3 miles 2. 5 miles 3. 10 miles 4. 20 miles

12-9. How is a red sounding defined?

1. 10 feet beneath the keel 2. 15 feet beneath the keel 3. Any shoal water 4. Any depth deemed a danger by the CO

12-10. How is a yellow sounding defined?

1. Any depth deemed a danger by the CO 2. Any depth beneath the keel that indicates danger 3. Any depth beneath the keel that indicates potential danger 4. Any shoal water

12-11. Navigational aids may be marked using any color except red?

1. True 2. False

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

82 UNCLASSIFIED 12-12. On larger vessels, how many knots of wind can equal 1 knot of current?

1. 1.0 2. 1.5 3. 5.0 4. 10.0

12-13. Who is responsible for selecting an anchorage in other than established ports?

1. The leading QM 2. The navigator 3. The operations officer 4. The commanding officer

12-14. Which of the following sites is NOT considered to be a good choice for an anchorage?

1. Shallow water 2. A mud bottom 3. A sand bottom 4. An area with no current

12-15. What is the major danger when you anchor in water that is too deep?

1. Type of bottom is unknown 2. The anchor may drag 3. Time required to anchor 4. Underwater hazards

12-16. Which of the following circles is centered at the calculated position of the anchor and whose radius equals the ship's length plus the scope of chain?

1. Range circle 2. Letting go circle 3. Drag circle 4. Swing circle

12-17. What are two types of bearings associated with approaching an anchorage?

1. Head and letting go 2. Head and beam 3. Beam and letting go 4. Range and head

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

83 UNCLASSIFIED 12-18. When approaching an anchorage, when should the ship slow to 5 to 7 knots?

1. 1,000 yd 2. 1,250 yd 3. 1,500 yd 4. 1,750 yd

12-19. What affects the range from the letting go circle that engines should be stopped?

1. Wind only 2. Current only 3. Both 1 and 2 above 4. Engines are always stopped 300 yards from the letting go circle

12-20. What is meant by the term "veering the anchor"?

1. Letting out chain 2. Swiveling the anchor 3. Setting the anchor 4. Taking in chain

12-21. What is the normal scope of chain used when anchoring?

1. Two to four times the depth of water 2. Three to five times the depth of water 3. Four to six times the depth of water 4. Five to seven times the depth of water

12-22. How is the term "setting the anchor" defined?

1. Anchor secured on deck 2. Anchor setting on the bottom 3. Anchor fluke dug into the bottom 4. Weight of the anchor chain holding the anchor in place

12-23. When is the second swing circle drawn?

1. At the same time the initial anchor circle is drawn 2. After veering the anchor chain 3. After the anchor chain is set 4. After the final position has been established

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

84 UNCLASSIFIED 12-24. After the drag circle is drawn all fixes should fall within the drag circle.

1. True 2. False

12-25. Why is it desirable to select lighted aids for fixing the ship's position at anchor?

1. Lighted aids are more prominent 2. The majority of aids are lighted 3. Lighted aids will be visible both by day and night 4. Unlighted aids are normally not properly charted

12-26. How often should the anchor bearing watch obtain a fix?

1. Every 15 min 2. Every 30 min 3. Every hour 4. When the ship's heading changes more than 15°

12-27. What should immediately be done if a fix falls outside the drag circle?

1. Take another fix 2. Inform the OOD 3. Inform the CDO 4. Watch the fixes more closely

12-28. What should you assume if a fix plots outside the drag circle?

1. The anchor was improperly plotted 2. The drag circle was improperly plotted 3. The tide has shifted 4. The anchor is dragging

12-29. What may cause a ship to drag anchor without any indication of movement?

1. High winds 2. High swells 3. High sea waves 4. Tidal shift

Quartermaster NAVEDTRA 14338A UNCLASSIFIED

85 UNCLASSIFIED 12-30. What action may be taken to prevent t h e anchor from dragging?

1. Veer the anchor chain 2. Shorten the chain 3. Shorten the chain's catenary 4. Put the main engines on the line

12-31. When anchored in high wind, what official is stationed on the bridge?

1. OOD 2. JOOD 3. Conning officer 4. Leading QM

12-32. Who is responsible for giving the navigation brief?

1. Leading QM 2. Navigator 3. Operations officer 4. Any of the above

12-33. Commander Naval Surface Forces Atlantic and Pacific require navigational briefings to be held prior to getting underway. The format can be found in COMNAVSURFINST 3530.2.

1. True 2. False

12-34. The navigation brief is given how many hours prior to getting under way?

1. 8 hr 2. 12 hr 3. 24 hr 4. 48 hr

12-35. Which of the following evolutions should be accomplished 8 hours prior to getting under way?

1. Verify tugs/pilot 2. Energize radar repeaters 3. Determine gyro error 4. Check navigation lights