Chapter 2 Marlinespike Seamanship
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-1 UNCLASSIFIED 2 MARLINESPIKE SEAMANS HIP
Learning Objectives After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following: 1. Identify the components and describe the characteristics of fiber and synthetic line. 2. Describe the different types of line that the Navy uses. Describe how line is constructed and formed to make different types of line. 3. Identify the difference between regular line and small stuff. 4. Describe the care and handling of natural and synthetic lines. Identify how to work out kinks and twists in line. 5. Describe all the areas involved in snap back on synthetic line. 6. Explain the difference between double-braided, three-strand, plaited, and aramid lines. 7. Explain the different ways to splice line. 8. Describe the difference between a long splice and a short splice. 9. Explain how to make a double-braided eye splice and how to put a tattletale in all the mooring lines. 10. Describe the procedures and precautions used in working lines and line-handling details. 11. Identify personnel hazards including snap-back. 12. Describe the use of heaving lines, bolos, and line throwing guns in a mooring evolution. 13. Explain all the safety precautions involving all the line handling situations. 14. Identify the practical knots, bends, and hitches that are used in typical Seaman’s work: reeving line bend, double Matthew Walker, fisherman’s bend, single bowline on a bight, Spanish bowline, masthead knot, rolling hitch, timber hitch, marline hitch, Blackwall hitch, round turn with two half hitches, barrel hitch, and bale sling. 15. Explain procedures for constructing ornamental or fancy work from line and fabric. 16. Describe the following types of knots and sennits: Turk’s head and coverings, such as cox-combing, cross pointing, fox and geese, and sennits, such as common sennit, flat sennit, or English sennit, square sennit, and Russian sennit. 17. Identify procedures for making MacNamara lace and state its purpose. 18. Describe four different types of seizing and explain their uses. 19. Describe the purpose of a small boat fender. 20. Explain how to make a small boat fender out of line. 21. Describe the purpose of a rattail stopper and state procedures for making one. 22. Explain how wire rope is constructed and used.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-2 UNCLASSIFIED 2.0.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with the art of knotting and splicing. This is an age-old craft that all mariners, especially the Boatswain’s Mate, must be proficient at. Rope is manufactured from wire, fiber, and combinations of the two. After completion of this chapter, you should be able to explain the construction of line and wire rope and understand their use and care. You will gain knowledge in supervising line-handling details along with the terminology and safety factors to be observed. You will also learn how to tie many useful and ornamental knots and how to splice line.
2.1.0 FIBER ROPE Fiber rope - or line, as it is commonly called - is fashioned from natural or synthetic (man-made) fibers. Lines made from a variety of natural fibers (cotton, agave, jute, hemp, and abaca) have seen service in the Navy in the past, and some still are used. For example, tarred hemp is known as marline and ratline. Manila (made from the fibers of the abaca plant) formerly was authorized for use only where great strength was required. Now, manila is authorized for general purposes and serves as lashings, frapping lines, steadying lines, and riding lines on fueling rigs. Synthetic lines made of nylon, aramid (kevlar), polyester (Dacron), and polypropylene have been substituted for manila in most applications.
2.2.0 CONSTRUCTION OF LINE Line currently used in the Navy may be three-strand, four-strand, braided, or plaited. In three-strand line, the fibers are first twisted to the right to form yarns.
Next, the yarns are twisted to the left to form strands. Then, the strands are twisted to the right to form line.
The procedure just described is standard and used in making right-laid line. Figure 2-1 shows how three-strand right-laid line is made. The system is reversed when left-laid line is made. In either instance, the principle of opposite twists must be observed. The reason for this is to keep the line tight or stable and to prevent the parts from inlaying when a load is suspended on it. All the Navy line 1 3/4 inches in circumference or larger is required to be right laid. This requirement is important because if a left-laid line and a right-laid line were bent together, they would unlay each other under strain.
Figure 2-1 Fiber groupings in a three-strand line
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-3 UNCLASSIFIED Braided lines have certain advantages over twisted lines. They will not kink or cockle (explained later), nor will they flex open to admit dirt or abrasives. The construction of some braids, however, makes it impossible to inspect the inner yarns for damage. The more common braided lines are hollow-braided, stuffer-braided, solid-braided, and double-braided.
Hollow-braided lines usually consist of an even number of parallel, tape-like groups of small yarns braided into a hollow, tube-like cord. This type of construction formerly in cotton was used for signal halyards - a purpose now served largely by plaited polyester. Other uses are parachute shroud lines and shot lines for line-throwing guns.
Stuffer-braided lines are manufactured in a similar manner except the braid is formed around a highly twisted yarn core, which rounds out and hardens the line. This type of construction in cotton is used for sash cord (heaving lines).
Solid-braided lines are fashioned in various ways. One familiar construction is that used for lead lines, taffrail log lines, and the like. This braid is of large yarns, either single or plied, tightly braided to form a hard, relatively stiff line that will not kink, snag, or swell in water.
Double-braided line is, essentially, two hollow- braided ropes, one inside the other. The core is made of large single yarns in a slack, limp braid. The cover also is made of large single yarns but in a tight braid that compresses and holds the core. This line is manufactured only from synthetics, and 50 percent of the strength is in the core. Double- braided line is used for mooring lines, towlines, and many other purposes.
Plaited line is made of eight strands - four right- twisted and four left-twisted. These strands are paired and worked like a four-strand braid (fig. 2-2). Thus there are two pairs of right-laid strands and two pairs of left-laid strands formed into a line, which is more or less square. Plaited line is used for towlines, ship mooring lines, messengers, dressing lines, and many other applications. Plaited line is available in nylon, polyester, and polypropylene.
Figure 2-2 Plaited line
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-4 UNCLASSIFIED 2.3.0 SIZE DESIGNATION Line 1 3/4 inches or less in circumference is called small stuff and is designated as to size by the number of threads (or yarns) that make up each strand. You may find anywhere from 6 to 24 thread, but the most commonly used sizes are from 9 to 21 thread. See figure 2-3. Some small stuff is designated by name. One type is marline - a left-laid, two- strand, tarred hemp. Marline is mainly used for seizings. When you need something stronger than marline, you will use houseline, which is a left-laid, three-strand, tarred hemp. Rope yarns can be used for temporary whippings, seizings, and lashings. The yarns are pulled from strands of old line that has outlived its usefulness. Pull the yarn from the middle, away from the ends, or it will get fouled.
Line larger than 1 3/4 inches is designated by its circumference, in inches. A 5-inch line, for instance, would be constructed of natural or synthetic fibers and measure 5 inches in circumference. Line is available in sizes up to 21 inches.
2.4.0 CARE AND HANDLING OF LINE It is not news to experienced Seamen that misuse and abuse of their gear shortens its life. Yet, because of carelessness and lack of knowledge, line is the one item that receives more abuse than any other equipment the Seaman uses. Also, line in a doubtful condition puts more lives in jeopardy than any other gear. Therefore, as a Boatswain’s Mate, you should learn and exercise the proper care and methods of handling line. Teach these procedures to your personnel, and demand that they be constantly used.
2.4.1 Natural -Fiber Lines Small coils of line may be loaded into a cargo net and hoisted aboard. Large hawser coils may be hoisted in a sling placed around the ends of a piece of pipe or a crowbar shoved through the center tunnel of the coil. They may be rolled forward along the deck, hoop fashion, and jiggered into place by the same rig. Figure 2-3 Small stuff
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-5 UNCLASSIFIED Coils of line should always be stowed on shelves or platforms clear of the deck. They should never be allowed to become covered with an accumulation of junk that may prevent the evaporation of moisture. Remember that line composed of vegetable (natural) fiber is susceptible to mildew and rotting.
Coils of small stuff should be arranged along a shelf in order of size, and each coil should be set up in the way in which it opens properly; that is, with the inside end at the bottom of the center tunnel. The burlap wrapper should be left on each coil. The stops, which secure the coil, are inside the wrapper. These should be cut and drawn up the inside end so that the line is started properly. It is a common custom, and a good idea, to set up a narrow, flat strip of wood horizontally over the shelf containing the small stuff with a hole bored in the strip over each coil. The starting end of the line is drawn up through the hole and is prevented from dropping back by an overhand knot. This ensures that anyone coming down for a piece of small stuff need not grope around inside the tunnel for the end, with the resulting possibility of getting hold of the wrong one when the coil is almost depleted.
A lot of trouble can be avoided if the first lieutenant has several reels mounted in the boatswain’s locker. The most commonly used sizes of small stuff can be put on these reels to eliminate the possibility of somebody fouling up a partially used coil.
Bights of tightly wound coils of marline have a tendency to work off the ends of a coil and become hopelessly snarled once the stoppers of the coil have been cut. To prevent this, transfer the marline to a reel. Take a short length of pipe and shove it through the center of the coil. Block it up so that the coil is free to turn. In this case, take the outside end of the marline, secure it to the reel, and start laying it up. You will need help on this job because the coil must be tended carefully to prevent bights from slipping off the ends of the coil.
You should make up several skeins of marline for general use on deck. This is done in the same way you made up kite string as a small child. A stick 14 or 16 inches long, or even a rolled piece of cardboard, makes an acceptable core.
Coils of large line should be stowed with their proper side up for opening. Line from 2 to 4 inches, which will be needed in various lengths on deck, should be opened, and a few feet of the end led out. Mooring lines should not be opened until needed.
When a new coil of line is to be opened, give it your personal attention. Five minutes of your time here may save hours later trying to work kinks out of an improperly opened coil.
See to it yourself that every coil to be opened is set up with the inside end at the bottom of the center tunnel and that the coil is started by drawing that end up through.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-6 UNCLASSIFIED Whenever possible, line that has become wet in use should be dried thoroughly before stowing. Sometimes this is impossible, as with mooring lines, which must be stowed before clearing port. If line must be stowed wet, it should be laid up on grating in long fakes or suspended in some other way so that it can dry as quickly as possible. It should never be covered until it is dry.
2.4.1.1 Distortions, Kinks, and Twists If a line does not lead fairly to a winch drum (gypsy head), it will be badly distorted when it is heaved in.
Frequently, it is necessary to put on inside turns (fig. 2-4) to obtain a fairlead. Because the outside end is attached to the load and unavailable, enough slack must be hauled up in the hauling part to make the necessary number of turns. The turns should be started inboard, as shown in the illustration.
Whenever possible, a right-laid line should be put on a winch drum or capstan right- handed or in clockwise turns. Heaving on a right-laid line with left-handed turns will eventually kink the line. About the only time left-handed turns cannot be avoided is when a winch is heaving on two lines at once, one on each drum. Figure 2-4 Putting on inside turns to get a fairlead
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-7 UNCLASSIFIED A line with a kink in it or a tackle that is twisted from having a dip in it should never be heaved hard while that condition exists. A strong strain on a kinked or twisted line will put a permanent distortion in the line. Figure 2-5 shows what frequently happens when a line with a kink in it is heaved on. The kink, which could have been worked out, is now permanent, and the line is ruined.
A condition similar to a kink is the cockle (or hockle), which actually is a kink in an inner yarn that forces the yarn to the surface. When a strain is applied to a twisted rope with the bitter end (load) free to rotate, the lay of the rope lengthens as the “turn runs out of the rope.” Actually, what happens is that the turn is transferred to the strands. When the twist in the strand builds up to a point where it can take no more, the inside yarns pop through the outer ones. Cockles also can be formed in a line wound on a capstan or gypsy head in the direction that tends to unlay the line. Cockles can be corrected by stretching the line and twisting the free end to restore the original lay.
Securing lines improperly can cause drastic reduction in strength. The strength of a line can be reduced by as much as 50 percent for knots and bends and 40 percent for hitches. Figure-eight bends on cleats and “H” bitts have the same effect. See figure 2-6 for the correct way to secure a line on “H” bitts. When lines are properly secured with round turns on “H” bitts, the line will retain 90 percent of its strength. When lines are used on double bitts, figure eights reduce the rope strength by only 25 percent.
Figure 2-5 Result of a strong strain on a line with a kink in it Figure 2-6 Securing lines to “H” bitts
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-8 UNCLASSIFIED Another type of distortion is stretch. Synthetic fiber rope that has not exceeded its safe working load can withstand repeated stretching with no serious effect. When your rope is under a load, it decreases in diameter (elastic elongation) but recovers to its normal size when unloaded. To insure against overloading, attach a tattletale to each mooring line.
Stretch and, usually, elongation occur when natural-fiber line under tension is wet down. The line shrinks, adding more strain; and when dry, the line does not recover. Thus length is increased and diameter and strength decreased. New line, which still contains a large amount of its original waterproofing oil, does not shrink as much as old line, from which much of the oil has dissipated through exposure. Nevertheless, whatever the condition, taut lines, such as boat falls, must be slacked when it begins to rain or spray begins to wet the line.
2.4.1.2 Deterioration Over and above the mechanical damaging factors that occur in service is the effect of aging under storage conditions. The natural-fiber lines basically consist of cellulose and have the same aging properties as paper. That is, they turn yellow or brown and become brittle with time, even under the best storage conditions. The color change indicates that the line has lost breaking strength (BS). The loss usually amounts to 1 to 2 percent per year of storage.
However, BS is not a true index of the utility of the line. More important is the loss of bending strength, indicated by the fibers’ becoming brittle and stiff. Bending strength decreases five times as rapidly as BS.
Deterioration of bending strength causes the fibers to rupture easily when bent over sheaves or other holding devices, and the line breaks down with each successive bend, even under light loading conditions. Because of this, it is important that the age of unused lines be determined from the manufacturer’s identification marker tape within the line strand. The marker tape will tell you who made the line, the date the line was made, and the fiber type.
WARNING If natural-fiber line exceeds 5 years or more, do not use the rope for critical operations or those involving the lives of personnel. Natural-fiber ropes more than 5 years old (even though unused) shall only be used for lashing, fenders, or matting.
It is a good idea to maintain a rigging log to aid in identifying when natural-fiber lines should be removed from service and replaced. Unless a log is maintained, you may have to cut a line open to determine its age.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-9 UNCLASSIFIED The following are some pointers on the use and care of natural-fiber and synthetic line. Remember them.
• Coil right-laid line right-handed or clockwise. • Keep line from touching stays, guys, or other standing rigging. • When surging line around bitts or capstans, take off enough turns so that the line will not jerk, but will surge smoothly. • If line becomes chafed or damaged, cut and splice. A good splice is safer than a damaged section. • Do not lubricate line. • Whip all line ends. • Inspect line frequently for deterioration. Open the lay and inspect the fibers. White powdery residue indicates internal wear. • Do not drag a line over sharp or rough objects; doing so can cut or break the outer fibers. When line is dragged on the ground, dirt and other particles are picked up and eventually work into the line, cutting the inner strands. • The strength of line exposed to the atmosphere deteriorates about 30 percent in 2 years from weathering alone. • Line loaded in excess of 75 percent of its breaking strength will be damaged permanently. Inspect the inside threads to see if all or a portion of the fibers in the threads are broken. • Keep bitts, chocks, and cleats in smooth condition to minimize abrasion. • Use chafing gear on rough, hard surfaces and sharp metal edges. • Apply loads slowly and carefully.
2.4.2 Synthetic -Fiber Lines The synthetic fibers currently in use for making line are nylon, aramid, polyester (Dacron), polypropylene, and polyethylene, in descending order of strength.
The characteristics of synthetic line differ from those of manila line. When using synthetic-fiber line, you must observe safety precautions more exacting than those for manila line. A complete list of precautions is located in chapter 613 of the Naval Ships’ Technical Manual (NSTM), but the more important precautions to be observed are as follows:
• Because of the lower coefficient of friction of synthetic-fiber line, exercise extreme care when a line is being payed out or eased from securing devices (bitts, capstans, cleats, gypsy heads, etc.). For control in easing out, take no more than two round turns on cleats or bitts. For checking a line under strain, take two round turns followed by no more than two figure-eight bends. Any more than this will present a danger to personnel and cause difficulty in handling the line.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-10 UNCLASSIFIED • To minimize the hazard of pulling a line handler into a securing device when a line suddenly surges, have safety observers ensure that all the line handlers stand as far as possible with a minimum distance of at least 6 feet from the securing device being tended or worked. Note that this is particularly critical in mooring operations.
• Since a snap-back action inevitably occurs when a line parts under tension, never allow personnel to stand in the direct-line-of-pull of the line when it is being pulled or when it is under tension. A synthetic line parting under tension will snap back at near the speed of sound, and reaction time to clear the area will not be available. Where possible, position line handlers a minimum of 90° from the direction of the tension force (fig. 2-7).
Figure 2-7 Safe working area
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-11 UNCLASSIFIED Synthetic lines have higher breaking strengths than equal sizes of manila line. Failures of blocks, pad eyes, shackles, and line couplings can be caused by improper substitutions. Many fittings in common use in the fleet are designed for natural-fiber line. For this reason, personnel should determine the identification and capacity of all the gear and fittings used with synthetic fiber line to ensure that their strength exceeds the minimum breaking strength of the rope. Where the substitution of synthetic-fiber line for manila line is authorized, NSTM, chapter 613, provides the appropriate guidance for the substitution.
• Synthetic line has poor knot-holding characteristics. Some knots that offer good characteristics for securing manila line, such as the square knot, are not adequate for belaying or securing synthetic line. The bowline is one knot known to offer reasonable security when you are bending together or securing synthetic line.
The three following safety rules must be heeded in line handling regardless of the line fiber material:
• Never stand in the bight of a line or in the direct-line-of-pull when the line is being pulled or under tension. See figure 2-7 for examples of danger areas.
• Never continue to increase the load on a line after the rigs have been two-blocked or tightened. Many injuries and fatalities have occurred when operators have not observed this rule.
• Remember that a safety observer is imperative in every case where lines are being worked.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-12 UNCLASSIFIED 2.4.3 Line Characte ristics Lines are classified by both their construction and their material. The most common line constructions currently used in the Navy are three-strand, double-braided, aramid, and plaited.
Determination of the appropriate line should be based on both the construction of the line and its material. The most common properties of the three constructions are shown in table 2-1. The most common properties of the three materials are shown in table 2-2.
Table 2-1 Synthetic-fiber-line Constructions and Characteristics Rope Construction Breaking Strength Abrasion Resistance Stretch Cost Rotation Under Load Three Strand Medium Good Highest Low Yes Double Braided High Good Low High No Plaited Medium Good High Medium No
Table 2-2 Synthetic-fiber-line Materials and Characteristics Rope Construction Breaking Strength Abrasion Resistance Stretch Cost Rotation Under Load Nylon High Good High High Good Polyproplene Low Fair Medium Low Medium Polyester (Dacron) Medium Best Least High Good
The information found in these tables can be used to determine the construction and material needed for a particular application.
If, for example, a line must be able to withstand abrasion (abrasion being the condition a line is subjected to in a chock or around a capstan head), tables 2-1 and 2-2 indicate that the best choice should be a three-strand nylon line. One of the characteristics listed in tables 2-1 and 2-2 for the three-strand nylon line is that the stretch is high. Stretch is a misunderstood characteristic in synthetic line. In some applications of line, excessive stretch is a disadvantage. In other applications, stretch is an advantage. When a line is subjected to impact loading, as it is in towing, the more stretch the line has, the better it can absorb impact.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-13 UNCLASSIFIED Normally, synthetic-fiber line is furnished on reels and is unreeled in the same fashion as wire rope. (Wire rope is discussed in detail later in this chapter.) If you receive a synthetic line made up in a coil, however, do not open the coil and pull the end up through the tunnel as with natural-fiber lines. Set the coil on a turntable and pull on the outside end while somebody rotates the turntable. Should a coil collapse and the line kink and tangle, do not try to untangle it by pulling on the line. Secure one end, and drop the remainder of the coil into the sea. In the water, the line will relax and gradually uncoil without forming permanent kinks or cockles. (DO NOT TRY THIS WHILE THE SHIP IS UNDER WAY.) This water treatment also removes bulges in new, soft-laid line and hardens the line structure.
Before new three-strand synthetic-fiber line is used, it should be faked down on deck and allowed to relax for 24 hours. The shorter the line, the less time the relaxing process takes; for example, a length of less than 50 feet will relax in 1 hour.
When wet, synthetic line shrinks slightly and minimal swelling may occur. When the line is tensioned, the water squeezes out; and under working loads, it appears as vapor. Because line under tension develops friction, and thus heat, the water has a beneficial cooling effect. Nylon loses 15 percent of its strength from water being absorbed by nylon molecules.
Nylon, aramid, and polyester lines exhibit almost no decrease in strength due to sunlight, but polypropylene does. Polypropylene line may lose as much as 40 percent of its strength in 3 months when exposed to tropical sunlight if the line is made without ultraviolet inhibitors. Ultraviolet inhibitors can be added to the line at the time of manufacture to reduce the effects of sunlight. White polypropylene line has almost no inhibitors added, while black polypropylene has the most inhibitors added. However, just because a polypropylene is black does not mean that it has had ultraviolet inhibitors added. If a polypropylene line has had ultraviolet inhibitors added, it should meet military specification MIL-R-24049. If the line is obtained through the Naval Supply System (stock system), the proper specification is assured.
Oil and grease do not cause synthetics to deteriorate, but they may make them slippery. When this happens, the line should be scrubbed down. Spots may be removed by cleaning with liquid soap and water or with a light oil, such as diesel oil or kerosene.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-14 UNCLASSIFIED 2.4.4 Four -Strand Aramid Line Four-strand aramid lines are designed to fail sequentially, meaning that one of the four strands will fail before the other strands. This new line that has only been out for a couple of years has been proven to work better than a three-strand mooring line, and less line handlers are required due to the smaller size of line required to moor a ship. Table 2-3 is the proper procurement characteristics of aramid line and the stock numbers for ordering.
Table 2-3 CID-A-A-50435 Aramid Rope Procurement Characteristics Circumference (Inches) Breaking Strength (Pounds) National Stock Number Allowance Equipment List 3 3/8 50,000 4020-01-338-7005 2-260024067 3 1/2 60,000 4020-01-338-7499 2-260024070 3 3/4 70,000 4020-01-338-7006 2-260024069 4 1/8 96,000 4020-01-339-1571 2-260024068 4 3/4 135,000 4020-01-338-7003 2-260024076 5 3/8 180,000 4020-01-338-7007 2-260024071 5 7/8 225,000 4020-01-338-5150 2-260024072 6 1/4 280,000 4020-01-338-7008 2-260024073 7 5/8 350,000 4020-01-338-7009 2-260024074 8 3/16 420,000 4020-01-338-7010 2-260024075
Aramid line is being phased into the Navy for three-strand nylon; table 2-4 shows the different sizes of lines from three-strand nylon to polyester double-braided line.
Table 2-4 Aramid Rope Substitution Aramid 4-Strand CID-A-A-50435 Nylon 3-Strand MIL-R-17343 Nylon Plaited MIL-R-24377 Nylon Double Braided MIL-R- 24050 Polyester Double Braided MIL-R- 24677 3 3/8 4 1/2 4 4 4 3 1/2 5 4 1/2 4 1/2 4 1/2 3 3/4 5 1/2 5 5 5 4 1/8 6 6 5 1/2 6 4 3/4 7 7 1/2 7 7 5 3/8 8 9 8 8 5 7/8 9 10 9 9 6 1/4 10 11 10 10
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-15 UNCLASSIFIED The following table is an inspection guideline. Rope technology has not yet advanced to the point where a rope can be visually inspected to determine exact extent of damage. This is a recommended list for use as appropriate:
Table 2-5 Rope Inspection Guideline Characteristics Replace (if localized) Replace 1. Rope suspected of being shock loaded. X 2. Rope that has exceeded 75 percent of its minimum breaking strength. X 3. Bulk of surface yarns or strands reduces by approximately 50 percent for a linear distance equal to four times the rope circumference. X X 4. Three or more adjacent cut yarns in the strands of ropes 5- inch circumference. X X 5. Four or more adjacent cut yarns in the strands of ropes 5- inch circumference and over. X X 6. Stretch out: Circumference reduced by 5 percent from circumference when new. X 7. Chocking X 8. Oil and Grease Wash in mild detergent 9. Heavy surface fuzz progressive X Remove from source of abrasion X 10. Burns or melting visible for a length of over four times the rope circumference. X X 11. Rust on nylon. X (or clean)
12. More than four adjacent pulled cover strands (which cannot be reincorporated into cover braid) X X
13. Core visible through cover because of cover damage (except single braids)
X
X 14. Core damage – pulled, cut, abraded, or melted strands. X For Three-Strand and Eight-Strand Plaited Ropes 15. Damage in valley between strands. X X 16. Powdering between adjacent strand contact surfaces. X X WHEN IN DOUBT, REMOVE FROM SERVICE!
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-16 UNCLASSIFIED Nylon rope, on parting, is stretched nearly one-half of its original length. This length is recovered instantaneously on parting, causing snap back with hazardous force. In view of this danger, it is imperative that no one stand in direct line of the pull when a heavy load is applied to the line. Polyester rope is stretched nearly one-third of its original length and is equally dangerous as is aramid rope, which stretches six percent. Table 2-6 shows the approximate elongation of nylon, polyester, and aramid ropes at break. These elongation percentages were taken from the mil specs and commercial item descriptions for the ropes.
Table 2-6 Rope Elongation Type Approximate Elongation at Break (Percent) Nylon Polyester Aramid Three-Strand 55 35 - Double-Braided 30 30 - Plaited 65 45 Four-Strand - - 6
2.5.0 SPLICING LINE The ends of line may be joined permanently by a long splice or by a short splice. Whether a long or a short splice is used depends on how the line is to be used. The short splice is described in the NSTM, Chapter 613 and will not be repeated here. In this manual, we discuss the eye splice and the long splice.
2.5.1 Eye Splice The eyes in mooring lines are normally 6 to 10 feet long, depending on the size of fittings (bollards, bitts, or cleats) used. The rule of thumb for the preferred length of the eye is five times the diameter of the fitting; this prevents uneven loading of the eye.
The following is a step-by-step procedure for splicing aramid line:
NOTE The eye requires chafing gear for abrasion protection.
The eye splice of aramid line is a little different from any other line. Three main components are involved: the eye, the individual strands, and the standing part of the line.
1. Measure a distance of eight times the rope circumference from the end of the rope. Mark with a temporary whipping. Determine the eye size and form a loop that places the first whipping on the standing part at the end of the eye. Mark with a second temporary whipping.
2. Unlay the strands of the rope to the first whipping and cut out the center core. Looking in the direction of the standing part, tuck the first strand under the top two strands of the standing part from the left to right with the lay at the base of the second whipping.
3. Tuck the second strand under the next strand of the standing part with the lay.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-17 UNCLASSIFIED 4. Turn the rope over and tuck the three strand under the next strand of the standing part with the lay.
5. Tuck the fourth strand under the next strand of the standing part of the lay. This constitutes one full tuck.
6. Ensure all the working strands are pulled tight and free of twists.
7. Continue tucking all four strands in succession over and under the strands of the standing part for a total of six full tucks.
8. Tapering an additional two tucks by cutting approximately 1/3 of the fibers for each tuck (i.e., 2/3 remaining and 1/3 remaining in the last two tucks) for a total of eight full tucks required.
9. Use a light strain to set the splice.
10. (Optional) Marry the working strands using an inside whipping under the strands of the standing part at the last full tuck.
11. Cut the remaining tail off about 2 inches from where the strand exits the splice. If the strands are cut too close, they can work loose or out, causing the splice to slip.
12. Whip the bottom of the splice with polyester whipping.
2.5.2 Three -Strand Eye Splice To make an eye splice out of manila or synthetic line, you must untwist the strands in the end of the line anywhere from 4 inches to 2 feet, depending on the size of line, and splice them into the standing part of the line by tucking the unlaid strands from the end into the standing part.
Learn to estimate the length of the line you need to unlay for the complete splice so you will not finish short nor waste a lot of line by cutting it off. An original round of tucks, plus three more complete rounds, is enough for an ordinary eye splice. Four tucks are mandatory in nylon because of its low friction and stretch characteristics.
With large lines you must whip the ends of the strands before you start; otherwise, they will unravel and become troublesome. Large lines also must be seized at the point where the unlaying stops, or you will have trouble working them. With any line up to about 2 inches, you can open the strands in the standing part with your fingers. The fid must be used for larger lines.
Figure 2-8 shows the knack of working the fid in making an eye splice. Lay out your line along the deck with the end to the right. Bend the line back until the eye is the desired size, and shove the fid through the standing part at the correct spot to raise the top strand.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-18 UNCLASSIFIED With your right hand, shove the fid through, away from you, holding the line with your left hand. Grab the raised strand with you left finger and thumb, and hold it up while you pull out the fid. Lay the fid down, pick up the proper strand in the end, and tuck it through the raised strand from the outboard toward you.
Figure 2-8 Making an eye splice in a three-strand line
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-19 UNCLASSIFIED Now turn the whole thing over. In view 4, you can see that you now have only one strand from the end left untucked, and only one strand in the standing part that does not already have a strand under it. Do not forget to tuck the last strand from outboard toward you. The first round of tucks is the key to making a perfect eye splice; the rest is easy. Simply tuck each strand from the end over the strand of the standing part that it is now above, and under the next strand below that one until you tuck each strand twice more besides the original tuck. Three tucks is enough for natural-fiber rope. Four or five tucks are needed for synthetic fiber, especially the more slippery nylon.
2.5.3 Long Splice A long splice does not change the diameter of a rope materially; therefore, it is used to join two ropes when it is necessary that the rope runs over sheaves in a block. To make a long splice, observe the following steps:
1. Unlay the end of each rope 15 turns.
2. Place the ends together, as shown in view A of figure 2-9, and seize five of the strands together.
3. Unlay the loose strand ten more times.
4. Lay the opposite strand from the other rope in the groove left by inlaying the first strand (view B).
5. Tie an overhand knot, as shown in view C.
6. Cut out the seizing and unlay a strand in the opposite direction,
7. Repeat steps 4 and 5.
8. Tie an overhand knot in the two remaining strands.
9. Take a tuck with each strand or split each strand and make tucks in opposite directions with the halves.
View D shows the completed long splice. Figure 2-9 Long splice in fiber line
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-20 UNCLASSIFIED 2.5.4 Splicing Double Braided Line When double-braided nylon line is being spliced, the end must be worked into the center, and special tools are needed for the job. For line 3 inches in circumference or smaller, a tubular fid and a pusher are used. For line larger than 3 inches in circumference, only a wire fid is used. Steps 1, 2, and 3 in figure 2-10 show how to secure the fid to the line. Stamped on each fid is a number indicating the size of line for which the fid was made. Table 2-7 gives a line-fid size comparison if you should need to make your own, or measure to ensure you have the correct fid. Fids also serve as “rulers” to measure with while splicing is being done, as will be explained. The wire fid lengths in figure 2-14 are in 1/2 and 1/3 scale. When measuring 13 inches in circumference and smaller with a wire fid, you must double the measurements. For 14 inches and larger, you must triple the measurements. Friction or masking tape and a soft lead pencil, crayon, or preferably, a wax marking pencil are needed. Sharp-pointed shears also are handy.
The splice described here, and the line on which it is used, was developed by the Samson Cordage Works of Boston, Massachusetts.
Figure 2-10 Fids used for splicing double-braided line
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-21 UNCLASSIFIED Table 2-7 Braided Line Fid Specifications
Fid Size and Rope Circumference 2-in-1 Braid Rope Diameter Fid Short Section Length
Total Fid Length 3/4" 1/4" 2 1/16" 5 1/2" 1" 5/16" 2 1/2" 6 3/4" 1 1/8" 3/8" 2 7/8" 7 3/4" 1 1/4" 7/16" 3 9/16" 9 1/2" 1 1/2" 1/2" 4 1/8" 11" 1 3/4" 9/16" 3 5/8" 12 1/4" 2" 5/8" 4 1/8" 14" 2 1/4" 3/4" 4 3/4" 16" 2 3/4" 7/8" 4 3/4" 19" 3" 1" 5 1/4" 21"
Rope Diameter Rope Circumference Wire Diameter Total Width W Fid Length L Short Section C
Fid Scale 1" 3" 3/16" 3/4" 10 1/2" 2 5/8" 1/2 1/8" 3 1/2" 3/16" 3/4" 12 1/4" 3" 1/2 1 1/4" 3 3/4" 3/16" 3/4" 13 1/4" 3 1/4" 1/2 1 5/16" 4" 3/16" 3/4" 14" 3 1/2" 1/2 1 1/2" 4 1/2" 3/16" 3/4" 16" 4" 1/2 1 5/8" 5" 3/16" 3/4" 17 1/2" 4 1/2" 1/2 1 3/4" 5 1/2" 1/4" 3/4" 19" 4 3/4" 1/2 2" 6" 1/4" 1 1/4" 21" 5 1/4" 1/2 2 1/8" 6 1/2" 1/4" 1 1/4" 23" 5 3/4" 1/2 2 1/4" 7" 1/4" 1 1/4" 25" 6" 1/2 2 1/2" 7 1/2" 1/4" 1 1/4" 26" 6 1/2" 1/2 2 5/8" 8" 1/4" 1 1/4" 28" 7" 1/2 2 7/8" 8 1/2" 1/4" 1 1/4" 30" 7 1/2" 1/2 3" 9" 5/16" 1 7/8" 32" 8" 1/2 3 1/4" 10" 5/16" 1 7/8" 35" 8 3/4" 1/2 3 1/2" 11" 5/16" 1 7/8" 39" 9 1/2" 1/2 4" 12" 5/16" 1 7/8" 42" 10 1/2" 1/2 4 1/4" 13" 5/16" 1 7/8" 46" 11 1/2" 1/2 4 5/8" 14" 3/8" 4 1/2" 33" 8 1/4" 1/2 5" 15" 3/8" 4 1/2" 35" 8 3/4" 1/2 5 1/4" 16" 3/8" 4 1/2" 37" 9 1/2" 1/2 5 1/2" 17" 3/8" 4 1/2" 40" 10" 1/2 6" 18" 3/8" 4 1/2" 42" 10 1/2" 1/2 6 1/4" 19" 3/8" 4 1/2" 44" 11" 1/2 6 1/2" 20" 3/8" 4 1/2" 47" 11 1/2" 1/2 7" 21" 3/8" 4 1/2" 49" 12 1/4" 1/2 NOTE: Wire fid sizes 3” circ. to 13” circ. are 1/2 scale - Over 13” circ. are 1/3 scale. This is necessary in order to keep wire fids to a practical length.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-22 UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 2-11 Tubular Fid Figure 2-12 Wire Fid Figure 2-13 Wooden Fid
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-23 UNCLASSIFIED 2.5.5 Standard Eye Splice in New Double Braided Line The standard eye splice can be performed on new line only. It retains up to 90 percent of the average new line strength. Until you have become familiar with splicing this material, each step should be followed in detail. Figure 2-10 shows the fids and pushers used for splicing; steps 1 through 3 explain how to secure the wire fid to the line that is to be spliced. Figure 2-14 shows how to mark the line and extract the core.
1. Tape the end to be spliced with one thin layer of tape. Then measure one tubular fid length (two wire fid lengths, because wire fid is 1/2 size) from the end of the line and mark. (This is point R [reference], step 1 of figure 2-14.) From R, form a loop the size of the eye desired and mark. (This is point X, where you will pull the core out of the cover.)
Figure 2-14 Completing the double-braided eye splice
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-24 UNCLASSIFIED
2. Tie a tight slipknot approximately five fid lengths from X. This must be done to keep the core and cover from becoming uneven. Bend the line sharply at X. With the pusher or any sharp tool, such as an ice pick, awl, or marlinespike, spread the cover strands to expose the core (step 2). Do NOT pull the cover strands away from the line or split the paired strands when you are spreading the cover, as this will distort the line unnecessarily. First pry, then pull the core completely out of the cover from X to the taped end of the line. Put one layer only of tape on the end of the core. To assure correct positioning of mark 1, do the following: Holding the exposed core, slide the cover as far back toward the tightly tied slipknot as you can. Then firmly smooth the cover back from the slipknot toward the taped end. Smooth again until all the cover slack is removed. Then mark the core where it comes out of the cover. (This is mark 1.) Figure 2-14 Completing the double-braided eye splice (Cont’d)
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-25 UNCLASSIFIED 3. Again slide the cover toward the slipknot to expose more core. From mark 1, measure along the core toward X, a distance equal to the short section of tubular fid (two short sections with wire fid) and make two heavy marks. (This is mark 2.) From mark 2, measure in the same direction one fid length plus another short section of the fid (with wire fid, double measurements) and make three heavy marks. (This is mark 3, step 3.)
4. The nature of the cover braid - it is made up of strands, either one or two (pair). Notice that half of the pairs revolve to the right around the rope and half revolve to the left. Beginning at R and working toward the taped end of the cover, count eight consecutive strands (single or pairs) that revolve to the right (or left). Mark the eighth strand. (This is mark T, step 4.) Make mark T go completely around the cover. Starting at T and working around the taped cover end, count and mark every fifth right and left strand (single or paired) until you have progressed down to the end of the taped cover.
NOTE When inserting the fid in at mark 2 and out at mark 3, ensure no strands in the core are split.
5. Insert the fid into the core at mark 2. Slide it through and out at mark 3. See figure 2-14, step 5. Add extra tape to the tapered cover end, then jam it tightly into the hollow end of the fid (see insert). Hold the core lightly at mark 3; place the pusher point into the taped end; push the fid and cover through from mark 2 and out at mark 3. With the wire fid, first press prongs into the cover, then tape over. Then after the fid is on, milk the braid over the fid while pulling the fid through from mark 2 to mark 3. Take the fid off the cover. Continue pulling the cover tail through the core until mark R on the cover emerges from mark 3 (see step 6). Then remove the fid and the tape from the end of the taped cover.
6. Make sure the tape is removed from the cover end. Now taper the cover by starting with the last marked pair of cover strands toward the end; cut and pull them out completely (see step 7). Cut and remove the next marked strands and continue with each right and left marked strand until you reach point T; do NOT cut beyond this point. The result should be a gradual taper ending in a point. Very carefully pull the cover back through the core until point T emerges from mark 2 of the core (see step 8). From point X on the cover, measure approximately one-half of fid length toward the slipknot on the line and mark this point Z (see step 9).
7. You are now ready to put the core back into the cover from T to Z. Insert your fid at T (step 9); jam the taped core end tightly into the end of the fid. With the pusher, push the fid and core through the cover “‘tunnel” past point X, to and through the cover at point Z. When using the wire fid, attach the fid to the taped core. After the fid is on, milk the braid over the fid while pulling it through from T to Z. When pushing the fid past X to Z, make sure the fid does not catch any internal core strands.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-26 UNCLASSIFIED NOTE Depending on eye size, the fid may not be long enough to reach from T to Z in one pass. If not, bring the fid out through the cover, pull the core through, and reinsert the fid into the same hole it came out of. Do this as many times as needed to reach point Z.
8. Alternately pull on the core tail at Z, then pull on the tapered cover at mark 3. The crossover should be tightened until the crossover is equal to the diameter of the line. Remove all the slack from the eye area by smoothing the cover from point T toward X. Mark the core tail through the cover at point X (see step 10). Then pull the core tail out until the mark just made on the core is exposed at Z. The diameter of the core must now be reduced by cutting and removing one strand of each group around the complete circumference. Measure one-third of fid length from the first reduction cut toward the end and make a mark. Cut off the remaining tail at this point. Make the cut on a 45° angle to prevent a blunt end (see the inset of step 10). With one hand, hold the crossover part (mark T). Smooth the cover section of the eye out firmly and completely from the crossover toward mark X. The reduced-volume core tail should disappear into the cover at Z. Smooth out the core section from the crossover toward mark 3, and the cover taper will disappear into the core. Hold the rope at the slipknot and with your other hand, milk the cover toward the splice, gently at first, then more firmly (see step 11). The cover will slide over mark 3, mark 2, the crossover, T, and R. (It may be necessary to occasionally smooth out the eye during milking to prevent the reduced-volume tail from catching in the throat of the splice.)
If bunching occurs at the crossover, preventing full burying, smooth the cover from T to X. Grasp the crossover at T with one hand and then firmly smooth the cover slack (female side of eye) with the other hand towards the throat (X). Repeat as necessary until bunching disappears. Continue milking until all of the cover slack between the knot and the throat of the eye has been removed.
Flex and loosen the line at the crossover point during the final burying process. Hammering the cover at point X with a rubber or rawhide mallet will help loosen the strands.
With larger ropes, it is helpful to anchor the slipknot securely, attach a small line to the braided core at the crossover, use a rolling hitch and mechanically apply tension with either a block and tackle, capstan, come-a-long, or power winch. Tension will reduce the diameter of the core and crossover for easier burying.
Care must be taken to apply more tension than that for small lines safe working load.
NOTE Before burying the cover under the crossover, do the following: Anchor the loop of the slipknot to a stationary object before starting to bury the cover. You can then use both hands and the weight of your body to more easily bury the cover over the core and crossover. Holding the crossover tightly, milk all excess cover from R to X.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-27 UNCLASSIFIED 9. Prior to whipping (fig. 2-15), it is to your advantage to stitch-lock the splice to prevent no- load opening. You will need approximately one fid length of nylon or polyester whipping twine. The twine should be about the same size as the strands of line you are stitching. Strands cut from the line may be used. To begin the lock stitch, pass the twine (A) through the line as shown in step 1, figure 2-15. Reinsert the twine as in step 2. (Ensure that all the stitching is just snug. DO NOT TIGHTEN.) Continue until you have four complete stitches. After you have four stitches, turn the line 90° and pass the remaining end (B) through the line perpendicular to the original stitches to make four more stitches. The line should now look like step 4. Now take ends A and B, tie a square knot, and bury it in between the cover and the core. You may now whip the line or leave it as it is.
You will become more proficient at splicing line each time you do it. Remember to follow each step the manufacturer has laid down in the splicing manuals. This must be done for safety reasons. The splices described and the methods for accomplishing them have been tried and proven. They leave no margin for shortcuts. As you progress in the Boatswain’s Mate rating, you will learn new splices and various methods of applying line in a working environment.
Constantly coiling plain-laid synthetic line in the same direction tends to tighten the twist or unbalance the lay. To alleviate this condition, occasionally coil such line down against the lay. This line may be coiled on a reel in either direction, but each succeeding coil should be laid close to the preceding one to prevent binding in the under coils. Double- braided line and plaited line can be faked down in the usual manner or laid out in figure eights.
When a synthetic line is put under load, it stretches. When the load is removed, the line recovers to its original length. However, complete recovery takes time. If a line has been highly loaded for a long period of time, the total recovery may take as much as a month. Fortunately, most of this recovery does take place in the first several minutes after the line is unloaded. This recovery characteristic of synthetic line is called “memory.” Because of memory there is one situation that should be avoided when synthetic line is being used - SYNTHETIC LINE SHOULD NOT BE STOWED ON A POWERED STOWAGE DRUM/REEL. Figure 2-15 Making the lock stitch
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-28 UNCLASSIFIED If a synthetic line has been under load and then is put on a powered stowage drum/reel, where each wrap and each layer is tightly wound on the drum before the line has recovered its original length, then the line will continue to recover and shrink tighter and tighter on the drum. In several cases, this has caused steel drums to collapse suddenly and at the same time blow the flanges off.
The coefficient of friction of synthetic fibers is lower than that of manila, which means that synthetic lines will slip more easily than manila. Because of this tendency to slip, an extra tuck must be added when synthetic lines are being spliced. For the same reason, greater care must be used when you are springing or heaving on a synthetic line. Figure- eight turns on double bitts tend to lock under heavy strain. When the line thins down, the figure-eight turns slip suddenly, and the line surges so rapidly that it often rides up and over the top of the bitts. Therefore, extreme care should be exercised when synthetic line is being eased out from around bitts, cleats, or other holding devices under heavy load. For control in easing-out, take no more than two round turns on a cleat or bitts. When machinery is being used to heave on a synthetic line under heavy or impact loading, six or more turns should be taken on the capstan or gypsy head plus two riding turns, as shown in figure 2-16.
Because synthetic line, on parting, is stretched by as much as 50 percent (three-strand nylon) of its length, it parts with a decided snapback, traveling at near the speed of sound. Personnel should stay 90 degrees from the direct-line-of-pull when strains are applied. Those handling the line on a capstan, gypsy head, or bitts should stand outside the arc of swing (fig. 2-7), in case the line parts. Figure 2-16 Overriding turns for synthetic line on a capstan
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-29 UNCLASSIFIED Synthetic line that has been under heavy strain may display glazed areas where it has worked against bitt and chock surfaces. This condition may be caused by paint or the fusing of the fibers. After long use, these ropes also become fuzzy on the surface. In either case, the effect on the strength of the rope is negligible. These ropes can hold a load, even though a number of the yarns have been abraded. Where such a condition is excessive but localized, the chafed section may be cut away and the ends spliced together. NSTM, chapter 613, describes the end-to-end splice in synthetic line.
Do not use manila, wire, or spring-lay rope in conjunction with synthetic line in the same chock or on the same bitts or bollards. Synthetic line will cut manila, and wire and spring-lay rope will cut both manila and synthetic lines. If you must place your mooring lines on bollards on which another ship has dissimilar hawsers, wrap the eyes of your lines with chafing gear before looping them over the bollards. Some ships slide a piece of old fire hose on synthetic lines before splicing the eye, providing a permanent piece of chafing gear in the eye. Do not try this trick on natural-fiber lines, however, because the hose will hold moisture in the line much longer, hastening deterioration.
Every line used in the Navy is manufactured to certain specifications devised to produce the best lines for particular types of jobs. To ensure the longest life, use a line within its safe working load (SWL). The SWL of line ranges from one-sixth to one-tenth of the minimum breaking strength (BS) of the line when new, allowing for the type of application, the weather, and the blocks and other gear being used with the line.
Sailors who work with natural-fiber line soon learn how to judge the tension in such lines by the sounds they produce. Unfortunately, synthetic lines under heavy strain, even though they have thinned down considerably, give no audible or visual indication of stress even when about to part. For this reason, a tattletale cord should be attached to synthetic lines when they are to be subjected to loads that may exceed their SWLs. A tattletale cord is a bight of six-thread manila hanging from two measured points on the working line. The line, when tensioned to its SWL, will stretch to a certain percentage of its elastic length. When this point is reached, the tattletale cord becomes taut, warning that there is danger of exceeding the SWL of the line. Figure 2-17 shows a tattletale cord on a three-strand nylon line. Figure 2-17 Tattletale cord on a twisted nylon line
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-30 UNCLASSIFIED If a line is loaded beyond its SWL, it may reach a critical point, which is near the BS of the line. A line may repeatedly be brought to its SWL without impairing the line or reducing its useful life. From the standpoints of safety and economics, it makes sense to take precautions not to surpass the SWL of a line. Use tattletale cords and every other guide available to ensure that SWLs are not ignored. Lengths of tattletale cords and the distances between suspension points for various lines are shown in table 2-8. SWL is discussed more fully in a later chapter.
Table 2-8 Dimensions for Tattletale Cords Type of Synthetic Rope Length of Tattle Tale (Inches) Distance Between Marks (Inches) Nylon Three-Strand 35 1/2 30 Nylon Plaited 43 1/2 40 Nylon Double-Braid 43 1/2 40 Polyester Three-Strand 63 1/2 60 Polyester Plaited 63 1/2 60 Polyester Double-Braid 62 60
Do not use a single part of plain-laid line for hauling or hoisting any load that is free to rotate. Where one part is essential, use cable-laid hawsers, double-braided line, or plaited line. Use only nylon line stoppers for holding nylon hawsers under load. The two most commonly used stoppers are the crisscross and the rattail. The crisscross stopper is the preferred stopper for stopping off synthetic line. A 3-inch stopper is used for lines up to 6 1/2 inches in circumference, and a 5-inch stopper is used on line from 7 inches through 12 inches in circumference. In the crisscross method, pass the two legs, crisscross fashion, around the line being held at least six times and twist the ends together to hold the stopper. The rattail stopper may be used, with a rolling hitch and two half hitches, but under heavy loads, it will jam.
When you are referring to the BS of line, the current practice in the Navy is to use the minimum BS. “Minimum BS” is defined as the lowest BS encountered in all of the test samples broken. Line manufacturers usually publish average BSs, which may be 10 to 25 percent higher than the minimum BSs. The actual BS of a line can be anywhere from the minimum BS to 35 percent higher.
Chapter 613 of the NSTM covers the minimums BS and SWL of all the lines used in the Navy. Refer to this chapter before loading a line.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-31 UNCLASSIFIED 2.6.0 ALONGSIDE MOORING Mooring alongside a pier and getting under way from a pier are basic yet extremely critical functions performed by the deck department. To accomplish the mooring of a ship safely takes preparation, training, and the teamwork of all the hands. A sound working knowledge of capstans, gypsy heads, deck and pier fittings, and the proper use of mooring lines is a must to the successful mooring evolution.
2.6.1 Moor ing Lines Ships are moored to piers, wharfs, quay walls, and nested with other ships by mooring lines, which vary in size depending on the type of ship. For instance, a destroyer uses a 5- inch synthetic line, and a carrier uses an 8-inch synthetic line. In general, mooring lines must satisfy two requirements. First, they must be as light as possible for ease in handling; and second, they must be strong enough to take the strain of mooring, getting underway, and holding the ship in heavy weather.
Mooring lines are named, according to their use, as bowlines, stern lines, breast lines, or spring lines. The bowline runs through the bullnose or chock nearest the eyes of the ship and holds the bow in. The stern line runs through the stern chock or quarter chock, holding the stem in. A breast line is led nearly straight across to the pier, controlling the distance of the ship from the pier. Breast lines are called bow, waist, or quarter breasts. A spring line leads at an angle of about 45 degrees from the ship to the pier and controls fore-and-aft movement. Spring lines leading forward are the forward bow spring or the forward quarter spring. These lines keep the ship from going aft. Spring lines tending aft are the after bow spring or the after quarter spring. Their purpose is to keep the ship from moving forward.
The standard moor on most ships is six mooring lines. These lines are numbered from forward to aft and are called by number in line-handling evolutions because numbers are shorter and more precise than names. See figure 2-18. A ship may use fewer or more lines as necessary, in which case the numbers are changed accordingly. When the ship is in position and secure, the mooring lines are doubled up, which means that a bight of line is passed to the pier or to another ship, giving three parts of line. The bight is evened up with the single part of line so that each of the three parts is taking an equal strain. See figure 2-19.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-32 UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 2-18 Mooring lines of a destroyer Figure 2-19 Correct method of doubling up
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-33 UNCLASSIFIED 2.6.2 Preparation to Moor Well in advance of mooring, lines are broken out and faked down, each near the chock through which it will pass (fig. 2-20). An eye is passed through the chock and laid back over the lifeline. During this breakout phase, all the lines should be checked for abrasion, wear, breaks, or decomposition. The tattletale cord spliced into the synthetic lines must be checked.
CAUTION No synthetic line used as a mooring line will be used without the tattletale cord. It shows line handlers the line is stretching to its safe working load and to the danger point. Do not use a tattletale with natural- fiber rope. Since four-strand aramid fiber rope stretches only 6 percent at minimum breaking strength, tattletale cords cannot be used to determine the strain on these mooring lines.
Figure 2-20 Preparing to moor
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-34 UNCLASSIFIED 2.6.3 Heaving Lines Heaving lines, bolos, and line-throwing guns play an important role when you are going alongside. The speed with which lines are sent to the pier is often critical, especially in strong winds or currents.
It is important to have more than one heaving line on station. Made up to trough in case the first throw fails, a second heaving line is readily available. Once the heaving line is successfully cast to the pier, it can be bent to the mooring line needed first. All the mooring lines larger than 5 inches must have messengers of 1 1\2 inches in circumference, and 12 to 18 feet long attached to them so that the heaving line does not part during delivery to the pier.
In addition to the heaving lines, it is useful to have bolo lines ready, both fore and aft. A bolo consists of a padded weight attached to the end of a nylon shot line. An experienced, skillful sailor can throw a bolo twice the distance of a heaving line, and because of its size and weight, a bolo is more effective in the wind. The bolo is also very dangerous, especially when large numbers of people are on the pier. With its size and speed of delivery, a bolo could seriously injure someone in the way. For this reason, its use is discouraged and sometimes prohibited by some commanding officers.
A third method of delivery, also posing danger to those on the pier, is the line-throwing gun. In mooring, it is used when the heaving line or bolo will obviously not be effective.
CAUTION The line-throwing gun will not be loaded until it is actually needed; and when loaded, the gun must be pointed outboard, barrel up. Figure 2-21 Heaving Line
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-35 UNCLASSIFIED 2.6.4 Deck Machinery When the sea detail is set and the line-handling stations are manned, it is important to test the capstans and gypsy heads. The anchors will also be made ready to let go. This is done for emergencies on approach, or an anchor can be used as a poor-man’s tug when laid underfoot in a mooring evolution. Anchors and anchoring are covered in chapter 4 of this manual. Once the capstans and gypsy heads are satisfactorily tested, the mooring lines may be fairled to power if desired.
2.6.5 Fenders The main object of fenders is to protect the ship from contact with the pier or another ship.
The most common ship fender is a pneumatic fender made of rubber, about 4 feet long and 3 feet in diameter. It should be positioned amidships at the extreme beam. This fender is normally the only one the ship rides against when it is alongside of another ship. A number of additional fenders, depending on the size and type of ship, are kept ready on the forecastle and on the fantail. These are normally smaller pneumatic fenders or "homemade" manila fenders about 4 feet long and 1 foot in diameter.
2.6.6 Commands to Line Handlers It is of the highest importance that the orders given to line handlers have the same meaning on deck as was intended by the bridge. All the orders from the bridge must be carried out immediately. The following examples and definitions are in common use and form the basis for orders to line handlers:
STAND BY YOUR LINES – Man the lines and stand ready to work.
PASS ONE – Pass the line number one to the pier; place the eye over the appropriate bollard but take no action.
TAKE A STRAIN ON ONE – Put line number one under tension.
SLACK ONE – Take all tension off of line number one and let it hang slack but not in the water.
EASE ONE – Let number one line out until it is under less tension but not slacked.
TAKE NUMBER TWO TO THE CAPSTAN – Lead the end of line number two to the capstan; take the slack out of the line but take no strain.
HEAVE AROUND ON TWO – Apply tension on number two line by hauling on it with the capstan.
AVAST HEAVING – Stop the capstan, or stop heaving around.
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-36 UNCLASSIFIED HOLD FIVE – Do not allow any more line to go out on number five even though the risk of parting the line may exist.
CHECK FIVE – Hold number five line but not to the breaking point; allow only enough line to render around the deck fitting to prevent it from parting.
SURGE FIVE – Hold moderate tension on number five line but allow it to slip enough to permit movement of the ship (used when moving alone the pier to adjust position).
DOUBLE UP – Pass an additional bight on all mooring lines, or line indicated, so that there are three parts of each line to the pier. To ensure that the three parts take an equal strain, pass a stopper on the standing part and take a round turn on the barrel of the bits closest to the chock. Next pass a bight of the line to the pier, then take the standing part to power, remove the stopper and take the slack out of the line (equalizing all three parts). Once this is done, pass the stopper and fairlead the standing part to the second barrel and figure-eight the line over both barrels to secure it.
SINGLE UP – Take in all bights and extra lines so there remains only a single part of each of the normal mooring lines.
TAKE IN ALL LINES – Used when secured with your own lines, it means to have the ends of all lines cast off from the pier and brought aboard.
TAKE IN ONE (OR NUMBER ONE) – When used by the Boatswain’s Mate in charge on the forecastle, it is preceded by the commands “slack one” and “cast off one,” which mean merely to retrieve line number one and bring it back on deck.
CAST OFF ALL LINES – When secured with your own lines, it is a command to those tending the mooring lines on the pier or on another ship to disengage or throw off the lines from the bollards or cleats. When secured with another ship’s lines in a nest, it means to cast off the ends of her lines and allow the other ship to retrieve her lines.
TAKE IN THE SLACK ON THREE (OR NUMBER THREE) – Heave in on number three line but do not take a strain.
Often the ship must move up the pier or wharf in short steps; then the command “Shift lines on the dock forward (or aft)” or “Walk number one forward (or aft)” is given. Supplementary information about the distance of the move is also sent down from the bridge. Caution must be used in this movement, since control of the ship’s position is still being exercised by the use of the mooring lines, and the ship’s propulsion or tugs will be used to affect the move.
If the ship’s auxiliary deck machinery should be used to haul in on a line, the command “Take one (number one) to the capstan” is given. This may be followed by “Heave around on one (number one)” and then, “Avast heaving on one (number one).”
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-37 UNCLASSIFIED 2.6.7 Dipping the Eye If two mooring lines are placed over the same bollard, the second one is led up through the eye of the first, then placed over the bollard. This procedure makes it possible for either line to be cast off without disturbing the other.
2.6.8 Frapping Lines and Rat Guards When pierside or inboard in the nest, the ship will normally frap her lines. This is done by wrapping the mooring line snugly with small stuff, marrying the three parts of the mooring line together.
Figure 2-22 Dipping the Eye Figure 2-23 Frapping Lines and Rat Guards
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-38 UNCLASSIFIED When the frapping is complete, the rat guards are placed on the lines. Canvas chafing gear must first be lashed to the mooring line to protect it from the metal rat guard. Rat guards are circular metal disks, which are lashed together on a mooring line, with the concave side to the pier. Rat guards are not to be used when moored outboard in a nest; however, lines that are run to the pier must have them installed.
2.6.9 Line Handling Safety Precautions A. Tend lines well behind the bitts in case the line surges or parts. B. Do not stand in the direct line of pull of a working line. Under no circumstances stand in the bight of a line. C. Do not even try to check a line that is running out rapidly by stepping on it. D. When handling lines, fake down the standing part to prevent fouling. E. Remember that nylon, polyester, and other synthetic lines are characterized by high elasticity and low friction. The following rules apply:
• An extra turn is required when you are securing the bitts, cleats, capstans, and other holding devices. • When easing-out from holding devices, use extreme caution because of the high elasticity, rapid recovery, and low friction. • Three strand nylon line, on parting, is stretched about 1 1/2 times its original length and snaps back at near the speed of sound. • Know your gear and its capabilities; deck personnel; quiz line handlers on duties and on safety on station. • Make sure all the hands involved are safety briefed before and critiqued after an evolution. • Never use synthetic mooring lines without a tattletale cord. Figure 2-24 Rat Guard
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-39 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.0 KNOTS, BENDS, AND HI TCHES Among Seamen, the landsman’s all-inclusive term knot must give way to knot in its more specific meaning and to the terms bends and hitches. Seamen, in addition, must know which knot, bend, or hitch will serve best in a particular circumstance.
2.7.1 Knots and Bends A knot, according to a Seaman’s use of the term, is usually a line bent to itself. The knot forms an eye or a knob or secures a cord or line around something, such as a package.
A bend ordinarily is used to join two lines together.
2.7.1.1 Reeving Line Bend Frequently it is necessary to bend together two lines that must reeve around a capstan or winch drum. The best knot for this purpose is the reeving line bend, as shown in figure 2-25. As you can see, it consists of taking a half hitch with the end of each line around the standing part of the other and seizing the bitter ends. Make sure the seizings are tight; otherwise, the knot might pull out.
2.7.1.2 Double Matthew Walker The double Matthew Walker has many uses in fancy work, but it also has practical applications, such as keeping the end of a line from coming unlaid. This use should be considered only a temporary measure, because a proper whipping should be put on the line at the earliest opportunity and the knot cut off. Take a look at figure 2-26 before reading further. To tie a double Matthew Walker, unlay 6 or 8 inches of line. Take the right strand, pass it around the other two and up through itself (view 1 of fig. 2-26). Next, pass the center strand around the third, under the first, and up through its own bight, as shown in view 2. Then pass the last strand around and under the other two, and up through its own bight (view 3). Tighten the knot by working out the slack and pulling tight. After tightening the knot, cut the ends off short or re-lay and whip them, as shown in view 4. Figure 2-25 Reeving Line bend Figure 2-26 Tying a double Matthew Walker
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-40 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.1.3 Fisherman’s Bend The fisherman’s bend is a knot used to bend a line to a becket or eye. To tie it, simply take two turns through the eye. Tie a half hitch through the turns and another half hitch around the standing part (fig. 2-27).
2.7.1.4 Single Bowline on a Bight The single bowline on a bight comes in handy whenever you need an eye in the center of a line. It can be tied quickly, does not jam tight, and you do not need an end of the line to tie it. To get your securing lines taut, use a single bowline on a bight for securing equipment or cargo.
Tie the knot well up on the standing part and run the bitter end around a stanchion or through a pad eye and back through the eye of the knot. Heave back on the bitter end in a line between the knot and stanchion or pad eye. This gives the same effect as having a block on the line at the knot and, discounting friction, doubles your pull. Heave it taut and secure the end. To tie this knot, form bights A and B, as shown in view 1 of figure 2-28. Next, lay part C between bights A and B, as shown in the second view. Then reach through bight A, over part C, and pull bight B back through A. Tighten by pulling on part D and bight B. (The completed knot is shown in view 3.) Figure 2-27 Fisherman’s bend Figure 2-28 Single bowline on a bight
p. 93
Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-41 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.1.5 Spanish Bo wline The Spanish bowline can be used whenever it is desirable to have two eyes in the line. Its primary use, however, is as a substitute for the boatswain’s chair. Many prefer it to the French bowline because the bights are set and will not slip back and forth when the weight is shifted.
To tie this knot, take a bight and bend it back away from you, as shown in view 1 of figure 2-29, forming two bights. Then lap one bight over the other, as shown in view 2. Next, grasp the two bights where they cross (point a in view 2), and fold this part down toward you, forming four bights, as shown in view 3. Next, pass bight c through bight e and bight d through bight f (view 4). See the complete knot in view 5.
A word of caution here: ALWAYS use manpower to hoist a person in a boatswain’s chair (or any substitute). Otherwise, if the chair or a part of the knot catches on a projection and the hoisting cannot be stopped in time, injury to the person seated is almost inevitable. Use enough personnel for the job, but no more. Figure 2-29 Spanish bowline
p. 94
Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-42 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.1.6 Masthead Knot The masthead knot is seen usually in fancy work, but it also has a practical purpose. In the days of sailing ships, masthead knots were set at the top of the masts, and the stays and shrouds were secured to the eyes of the knots. It is a good knot to remember if you ever have to rig a jury mast.
In tying the masthead knot, first lay up three underhand bights, the second on the first, and the third on the second, as shown in view A of figure 2-30. Then thread the inboard parts of the outboard bights under and over the parts of the other two bights, working each to the outside. Pull both bights tight. Work the slack into the knot to equalize the size of the three eyes (view B, fig. 2-30). Splice the two ends together and you have four eyes to which to secure stays and shrouds.
Figure 2-30 Masthead knot
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-43 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.1.7 Rolling Hitch The rolling hitch is one of the most useful and most important hitches used on deck. It can be used for passing a stopper on a boat fall or mooring line when you are shifting the fall or line from the winch or capstan to a cleat or bitts. It also may be used to secure a taut line back on itself. If properly tied, it will hold as long as there is a strain on the hitch.
When tying, take a half hitch around the line with the stopper, as shown in view A of figure 2-31. Pull tight and take another turn. This turn must cross over the first (view A) and pass between the first turn and the stopper (view B). This completes the rolling hitch itself, but it must be stopped off in one of several ways.
One method is to take two or more turns with the lay of the line and then marry the stopper to the line by hand or seize the stopper to the line with marline. Another method is to tie a half hitch directly above the rolling hitch. A third method is to tie a half hitch about a foot above the rolling hitch (view C), then take a couple of turns against the lay, and marry or seize the stopper to the line.
2.7.1.8 Timber Hitch The timber hitch is used on logs, spars, planks, or other comparatively rough-surfaced material. It should not be used on pipes or other metal. (Proper methods of hoisting metal shapes are covered in chapter 9 of this manual.)
Look at figure 2-32 to see how to tie a timber hitch. Take one or more half hitches around the timber to cant the timber if it must be hoisted through a small hatch or other small opening.
Figure 2-31 Rolling hitch/passing a stopper Figure 2-32 Timber hitch and a half hitch
p. 96
Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-44 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.1.9 Marline Hitch Another hitch that requires no detailed explanation is the marline hitch. (Just remember that the end of the line goes over the standing part and under the round turn so that it binds itself.) This hitch is used to secure on furled sails and to frap awnings and doubled- up mooring lines (fig. 2-33). When cinched up, it will hold itself tight.
2.7.1.10 Blackwall Hitch The Blackwall hitch, single or double, is used to secure a rope to a hook. It can be made quickly and, when tied properly, is secure. Except when there is insufficient rope end remaining to make a bowline, it seldom is used.
To tie a Blackwall hitch, make an underhand loop, slip it up over the hook, pull it tight around the back of the hook, then slide it down onto the hook. In tying the double Blackwall hitch, pass the strap around the hook and eye in the whip, as shown in figure 2-34. Make sure the standing part binds the bitter end at the back of the hook and in the hook, as shown. Notice that the bight stays around the eye in the whip and is not slid down onto the hook.
Figure 2-33 Difference between a marline hitch and a half Figure 2-34 Blackwall hitch, single and double
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-45 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.1.11 Round Turn with Two Half Hitche s The combination of a round turn with two half hitches may be used in a ring, in a pad eye, or on a spar. It is particularly useful on a spar because it grips tightly and holds its position (fig. 2-35).
2.7.1.12 Barrel Hitch The barrel hitch may be used to hoist almost any bulky object, but it is particularly useful in hoisting barrels, drums, and boxes without tops.
To tie this hitch, pass the line under the bottom and tie an overhand knot, as shown in view A of figure 2-36. Pull enough slack into the knot to enable you to drop the knot down around the side of the object to be hoisted. The part of the hitch encompassing the object always should be located above the center of gravity, as shown in view B. Tie a bowline at the top, making certain that the hoisting part comes out of the eye (views B and C).
A long object of small diameter that must be hoisted from or lowered through a restricted opening can be handled as shown in view C. The first overhand knot should be looped down low to keep the hitch from slipping from under the bottom. The second overhand knot is looped near the top. If the center of gravity is near one end of the object, that end should be at the bottom, if possible.
Figure 2-35 Round turn with two half hitches Figure 2-36 Barrel hitch
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-46 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.1.13 Bale Sling Closed drums and boxes, as well as numerous other items, can be hoisted by means of the bale sling, as shown in figure 2-37. A temporary sling may be fashioned simply by knotting the ends of a line together with a square knot or a becket bend.
Figure 2-37 Bale sling
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-47 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.2 Bends an d Hitches Bends and hitches are “nice to know,” and knowing how to use them is invaluable to a Seaman.
2.7.2.1 The Trucker's Hitch (Lorry Hitch, Haymaker's Hitch, Harvester's Hitch) Has the distinctive feature of providing a three to one purchase when being tightened. The variety of names for this hitch is a tribute to its widespread use. It is a valuable knot - particularly for securing loads or tarpaulins.
1. Form an eye by twisting the rope. Pass a bight of line through the eye.
2. Pass the bitter end around the hook and then back through the loop.
Figure 2-38 The trucker’s hitch (Cont’d) Figure 2-38 The trucker’s hitch
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-48 UNCLASSIFIED 3. Pull the knot tight using the 3 to 1 purchase.
4. Finish off with two half hitches below the loop.
Figure 2-38 The trucker’s hitch (Cont’d) Figure 2-38 The trucker’s hitch (Cont’d)
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-49 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.2.2 Monkey Fist In addition to its familiar place on the end of a heaving line, the monkey fist is sometimes used as fancy work on the top of lifeline stanchions. The monkey fist is composed of four sets of turns taken at right angles to each other. For clarity, figure 2-39 shows only three turns in each set; four turns per set are more commonly seen aboard ship.
To tie a monkey fist, start as in view A in figure 2-39, taking a set of turns around your hand. Then slip this set off your hand. Holding it as shown in view B, run the bitter end over your thumb, and down, under, and around the first set. Complete this set of turns. The last set of turns goes around the second set and through the first set, as shown in view C. Notice that the first turn of the last set serves to lock the first two sets in place. Complete the last set of turns. Lighten up by working the slack back toward the standing part. Keep enough bitter end to secure with a half hitch and a flat seizing (view D). In a properly tied monkey fist, the ends come out at opposite comers on top, as shown in view D. Figure 2-39 Monkey fist
p. 102
Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-50 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.2.3 Sheepshank The sheepshank knot is generally thought of as merely a means to shorten a line, but in an emergency, it can also be used to take the load off a weak spot in the line.
To make a sheepshank, form two bights and then take a half hitch around each bight (fig. 2-40). If you are using the sheepshank to take the load off a weak spot, make sure the spot is in the part of the line indicated by the arrow.
2.7.2.4 Shortening a Sling To shorten a sling, grasp the sling in your left hand, palm up, thumb pointing away from the center of your body. The standing part, or part around the load, leads out of the thumb side of your hand, as shown in view 1 of figure 2-41. Notice how the sling lays across the right wrist. Next, twist your left wrist so that your thumb points toward the center of your body. Reach across with your right hand and grasp the part of the sling coming out at the little-finger side of the left hand (view 2). Twist your left hand back to its original position and flip the part of the sling that was across your right wrist down between your hands, as shown in view 3. Now put the two bights together and slip both over the hook, as shown in view 4.
This also forms a knot, sometimes called a miller’s knot, used to tie the tops of bags. It can also serve as a handcuff knot or be used to lash two spars or poles together. When properly tied and pulled tight, it will not slip.
Figure 2-40 Sheepshank Figure 2-41 Shortening a sling
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-51 UNCLASSIFIED 2.7.2.5 Manrope Knot The double wall and crown (or manrope knot), as the name implies, is fashioned from a wall and crown knot. It is used on the ends of the manropes of accommodation ladders or on other lines where large decorative knots are desired.
To tie a manrope knot, first tie a wall knot (fig. 2-42) and top that with a crown (fig. 2-43). Leave the wall and crown slack.
If, at this point, you were to flatten the wall and crown and look at it from the top, it would appear as shown in view A of figure 2-44. We do not recommend flattening the knot when you are tying it - we do it merely to show the next step. (See the arrow in view A and the cross-hatched strand in view B.) You cannot see this in the illustration, but each strand follows itself counterclockwise, going up under the adjacent strand and down through the knot. The ends come out at the bottom of the knot, alongside the standing part. The following little ditty may help you to remember the procedure: “First a wall, then a crown; now tuck up, then tuck down.”
Tuck the other two strands and tighten the knot. (The completed knot should appear as shown in view C.)
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-52 UNCLASSIFIED
Figure 2-42 Wall knot Figure 2-43 Crown over a wall knot Figure 2-44 Double wall and crown, or manrope knot
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-53 UNCLASSIFIED 2.8.0 ORNAMENTAL WORK Ornamental work or fancy work, as it is sometimes called, is made from various materials and serves mainly as decorative coverings in areas where an enhanced appearance is desired. This manual will cover only a few of the common types of ornamental work. Many books on knot tying are available through your ship or the local libraries. Two of the better known books are The Art of Knotting and Splicing and Ashley's Book of Knots.
2.8.1 Turk’s Head A Turk’s head is usually thought of as strictly ornamental work, but it serves, many useful purposes, such as keeping the leathers on lifelines or as the finishing touch on lanyards.
The three-strand Turk’s head is simple and easy to tie. By adding extra diamonds, as will be explained, you can make one long enough to go around your ship if you want to.
Start with two round turns around your hand, and pass the end over the second turn and under the first turn (step 1 in fig. 2-45). Next, turn your hand so that you can see the back of it, as shown in step 2. Pull a bight of the first turn under the second turn. Pass the end through this bight, over the second turn, and under the first turn (shown by arrows in step 2, fig. 2-45). Now turn your hand back, with the palm toward you, and lead the bitter end up alongside the standing part. This completes the first lay of the three-strand Turk’s head. Follow around for two more lays, then work out the slack.
To make a good tool for tightening a Turk’s head, cut the handle off a toothbrush and sharpen it to a flat, square-pointed end. Spend a few minutes making this pricker, and later you will save hours while tying a Turk’s head, because you can also use it as a needle when passing the second and third lays. Figure 2-45 Three-stand Turk’s head
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-54 UNCLASSIFIED To add extra diamonds to a three-strand Turk’s head, complete the Turk’s head as just described. (It should look like view 1 in fig. 2-46). You will need a little slack so, if necessary, work some into the Turk’s head. Next, pull a bight of part A under part B, as shown in view 2. Then pass the bitter end under, over, and so forth, as shown by the arrow in view 2. If you want still more diamonds, repeat the preceding steps until your Turk’s head is long enough for your purpose.
Make a four-strand Turk’s head, as shown in figure 2-47. Start it, as shown in view 1, with two round turns and tuck the end under the second turn. Now turn your hand and tuck the end under again, leaving a bight, as shown in view 2. Go over the next part, turn your hand, go over again, and then through the bight left on the last turn. Take it over and under again, as shown in view 4. Once more, pass the end over and under, ending up with the bitter end alongside the standing part, as shown in view 5. You can then follow around three or four more times to finish the work.
Figure 2-46 Adding extra diamonds to a three-strand Turk’s head Figure 2-47 Tying a four-strand Turk’s head
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-55 UNCLASSIFIED Make extra diamonds in a four-strand Turk’s head as shown in the three-strand. If you wish to experiment, start with an overhand knot around your hand and go from there in the usual fashion.
Start the five-strand Turk’s head with two round turns, as shown in view 1 of figure 2-48. Place the end over the second turn and under the first (view 2). Lay the working end over the turn nearest your wrist and bring it around to the palm side of your hand. Pass it under the turn under your thumb and over the other turn (view 3). Turn your hand over, as shown in view 4. Cross the turn nearest your fingertips and tuck your line under the next part (view 4). Turn your hand back, as shown in view 5. You are now ready to start your last turn. Do this by going over the line that lies across the standing part. The rest is under and over, all the way around, as shown in views 6, 7, and 8.
Learning to add extra strands to a Turk’s head (that is, to make a six-strand Turk’s head from a four-strand, or a seven-strand from a five-strand) is not too difficult, but it is much easier for you if someone shows you the process. The key to this is quite simple, once you get the hang of it. We will use a four-strand Turk’s head for an example.
Figure 2-48 Tying a five-strand Turk’s head
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-56 UNCLASSIFIED Complete the first lay of a four-strand Turk’s head; then with the bitter end, follow the standing part to the side opposite where the standing part comes out. Leaving a bight at this side, cross under the part you followed across, and follow the same part back across again. This brings you back to the starting point and leaves a succession of alternate parts crossing two parts and under two parts. All you have to do now is pass your working end over and under all the way around, going over those parts that are over two parts and under those that are under two parts.
By repeating these steps again and again, you can make as many even-numbered strand Turk’s heads as you desire. Seven-strand and all other odd-numbered strand Turk’s heads are made in the same fashion from the five strand.
2.8.2 Coverings Ornamental coverings may be used around stanchions, ladder rails, and numerous other items around the ship. Many types of variations are found, from purely ornamental to functional. Only a few of the most common are discussed in this section.
2.8.3 Coxcombing Coxcombing is used to cover boat hooks, bucket bails, handrails for ladders, and so forth. It looks smart and affords a more secure grip. It is worked with three strands by tying consecutive half hitches, as shown in figure 2-49.
Figure 2-49 Starting coxcombing
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-57 UNCLASSIFIED Seize the three strands on top of the rail as in the first sketch. Take one strand and tie a half hitch around the rail. Then half hitch the second strand around the rail in the opposite direction. Half hitch the last strand around the rail in the same direction as the first strand. Remember, the strands must be taken in turn, and the hitches must be taken first one way and then the other.
To find the length of the strands needed for coxcombing, multiply the length (L) of the rail, in inches, times the circumference (C), times the number of turns (T) to the inch. Divide the product by the number of strands (3). Thus you have an easily remembered formula:
3 L x C x T
Add about 10 percent to your answer for each strand to ensure an adequate working length.
2.8.4 Crosspoint ing Crosspointing is generally used on stanchions but can also be used in many other places where a round core is to be covered. Crosspointing looks best on cores of fairly large diameter. Strips of canvas, leather, or small stuff, such as white line, in multiples of four are usually used for crosspointing.
(Length x 3 = ?) + (Cir. x 3 = ?) = Length of each strand
Since this is actually long enough for two strands double over the strands and seize the midpoint to the top of the core to be covered. Use enough strands to cover the circumference of the core, using an even number of strands.
Now place the strands in groups of four and use a simple basket weave over-and-under. Two or more persons are needed for crosspointing work because all the strands must be kept in hand to prevent them from unlaying again. Crosspointing is shown in figure 2-50. A Turk’s head should be used to finish off the top and bottom.
= length of one strand, in inches Figure 2-50 Crosspointing
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-58 UNCLASSIFIED 2.8.5 Fox and Geese Making fox and geese is a simple and fast way of covering a handrail or stanchion. Fox and geese can be used any place coxcombing or crosspointing can be used.
At the top of the core, seize sufficient strands (odd number) of white line side by side to completely encircle the core to be covered (fig. 2-51). Have the length of each strand 1 1/2 times longer than the core. Now seize an extra-long strand to the core at any point at the top. This strand is called the working strand; it goes over and under the other strands, working around and around continuously. To find the length of the working strand, in inches, multiply the length of the core by the circumference, times the number of turns to make an inch of work. To determine how many turns there actually are to the inch, rather than estimate this value, make a dummy run with a short length as the working strand.
2.8.6 Sennits Sennit, or braid, is made of small cord, such as cod line or Belfast cord, and is used to form ornamental lines or lanyards. A well-known book of knots describes and illustrates approximately 400 sennits, so do not be misled into believing that the four described below are the only ones or even all the basic ones. The first three have been chosen because they are basic and, with slight variations, will give you a wide variety to use. The fourth is one of the most attractive, as you will see when you braid a few inches of it.
Figure 2-51 Making fox and geese
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-59 UNCLASSIFIED 2.8.6.1 Common Sennit A common sennit is made from any odd number of strands. Figure 2-52 shows the steps in making this sennit.
Divide the strands so that you have one more in your right hand than in your left. Pass the outboard strand in your right hand over all the others on that side to the inside position in your left. Now, pass the outboard strand in your left hand over to your right in the same way. Continue passing alternate outboard strands until your sennit is as long as you want.
Figure 2-52 Starting a common sennit
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-60 UNCLASSIFIED 2.8.6.2 Flat, or English, Sennit The flat, or English, sennit is also made from any odd number of strands. The only difference between it and the common sennit is that each outboard strand is woven over and under the strands on its own side before being brought to the inboard position in the other hand. Figure 2-53 shows how to start the flat (or English) sennit.
A variation of the flat, or English, sennit is to use any even number of strands. When starting to plait, take the outboard strand on one hand over the strand next to it and the outboard strand of the other hand under the next strand. When these two strands reach the center, pass one over the other before taking them in hand on the other side. Figure 2-53 Flat, or English, sennit
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-61 UNCLASSIFIED 2.8.6.3 Square Sennit A square sennit must be made with eight strands or it will not come out square. Each outboard strand is passed around (behind) all but two of the other strands and brought back in front (to the side from which started). See figure 2-54. When enough strands are passed, the sennit begins to assume a perfectly square shape. Smart “dress” bow painters and stem fasts for gigs and barges can be made of white line in this sennit.
Figure 2-54 Starting a square sennit
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-62 UNCLASSIFIED 2.8.6.4 Russian Sennit A Russian sennit is made from any number of strands divisible by 4, but does not use fewer than 16 or it will not show to the best advantage. When you are making this sennit, it is a good idea to work where there is some object on your right hand that will serve as a cleat. Around this object you can take turns on a half hitch with the working strand to hold it taut while you work the next strand.
To start the Russian sennit, pass the first strand on your left over two strands and under two strands, all the way across to the right. Place the lone strand on the right over the working strand. Now secure the working strand on the cleat and use the second strand on the left for your next working strand. Always go over two and under two, but make sure that the strands are taken in their proper sequence. When you have worked the second strand to the right side, take strand one from the cleat and drop it over strand two. Secure strand two to the cleat and work strand three across, and so on. A Russian sennit is shown in figure 2-55.
2.8.7 MacNamara Lace Fancy curtains and trimmings for quarterdecks, admiral’s barges, and captain’s gigs are made by stripping the cross strands from light canvas and then weaving them into intricate patterns. Any number of designs can be made by dropping or skipping strands. Figure 2-56 shows some sample work. Start by inlaying the cross threads in a piece of canvas that is secured to a jackstay. Comb out the threads that are hanging down. Once this is done, start with the left and pair the strands in the desired size; square knot the pairs together, forming a diamond shape. Go back to the left, skip the first strand (this will begin your taper), and square knot the right-hand pair to the left-hand pair, all the way across. ‘Then go back to the left and square knot the first strand to the second, and so on, to the end. Continue working the diamond-shape pattern, developing the pattern you want. Finish the work with a tassel made by knotting the strands together. MacNamara lace is a beautiful piece of work but is time-consuming. One thing to remember is to keep your square knotting straight. The best way to make the lace is with the help of an experienced Boatswain’s Mate. Figure 2-55 Russian sennit
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-63 UNCLASSIFIED
2.9.0 SEIZINGS Seizings are used when two lines or two parts of a single line are to be married permanently. This should be done with “seizing stuff,” which is generally rope-laid, tarred American hemp of 6, 9, or 12 threads. For seizing small stuff, however, sail twine is adequate.
Many types of seizings were used for special purposes in old sailing ships, but the four described here should suffice for Seamen in modem ships.
2.9.1 Flat Seizing Flat seizing is light and is used where strain is not too great. First, as in all seizings, splice an eye in the end of the seizing stuff. Take a turn around the line, and pass the end of the stuff through the eye. Pull it taut and double the stuff back, taking several turns around the line. Then pass the end under the turns and again through the eye. Last, tie a clove hitch over the turns and between, the two parts of the line. See views A and B of figure 2-57 for the steps in making a flat seizing. Figure 2-56 Strands of unlaid canvas being square knotted into MacNamara lace Figure 2-57 Seizings
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-64 UNCLASSIFIED 2.9.2 Round Seizing View C of figure 2-57 shows the completed round seizing. Stronger than the flat seizing, it is used where strain is greater.
Start it as you did the flat seizing, taking your turns and leading the end under them and back through the eye. Then take another row of turns over the top of the first row. Finish by tucking the end under the last turn and heaving taut or with a crossed clove hitch as in the flat seizing.
2.9.3 Racking Seizing Use racking seizing where there is an unequal strain on the two parts of the line. Lay turns around the line in figure-eight fashion for about ten turns. Then pass the seizing stuff back in the opposite direction, and take a row of turns over the top of the racking as is done in a round seizing (fig. 2-57, view D). Finish off by passing the end through the eye again, and tie an overhand knot.
2.9.4 Throat Seizing Throat seizing is actually a round seizing and is used wherever a temporary eye is needed in the middle of a line. View E of figure 2-57 shows a completed throat seizing.
2.10.0 MOUSING HOOKS AND SH ACKLES A hook is moused to keep slings, straps, and so forth, from slipping out of the hook and to strengthen the hook if there is the danger that the load will bend it. If the purpose of the mousing is to keep a strap or sling from escaping, marline or rope yarn may be used. If the purpose is to strengthen the hook, seizing wire or a shackle may be used. The proper method for each purpose is shown in figure 2-58.
Shackles are moused whenever there is the danger that the shackle pin will work loose and come out because of vibration. Several turns are taken through the eye of the shackle pin and around the shackle itself with seizing wire in such a manner that the pin cannot turn. Figure 2-58 Methods of mousing
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-65 UNCLASSIFIED 2.11.0 MAKING A SMALL BOAT FENDER The first step in making a boat fender is to lay a core, as shown in view A, figure 2-59, with or without two eyes, as desired. Manila around 2 1/2 inches in circumference is about right for the core of a medium-size fender.
Lay the line in bights and seize together (view A). Next, unlay an old piece of 6- or 8- inch mooring line and cut off three or four lengths of the strands ten times as long as your fender is to be. If you do not have any old mooring line that you can unlay, use some old 21-thread, or house line, round line, or ratline. (The size of the core determines the number of strands necessary; three strands are used in figure 2-59.) Pull the strands through the eye and even up the ends, as shown in view B. Put a temporary whipping on both ends to keep them from coming unraveled while working. Next, start tying wall knots, as shown in view C. View D shows the first row of knots completed and drawn tight. Figure 2-59 Starting a boat fender
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-66 UNCLASSIFIED
After completing the last row of wall knots, divide your strands into pairs and tie a crown knot (fig. 2-60). Complete the fender by working the ends of the strands back up under the wall knots and cutting them off flush.
2.12.0 RATTAIL STOPPER Rattail stoppers are made in various sizes and lengths, depending on the jobs for which they are intended. A rattail stopper to be used on 6- or 8-inch mooring lines, for example, should be made from line at least 5 inches in circumference and should be about 10 feet long.
Cut a piece of line about 12 to 14 feet long and splice a 6- to 8-inch eve in one end. About 3 or 4 feet from the eye (distance around bitt plus a foot or so), place a whipping. Unlay and comb out the sections of line from the whipping to the loose end. Separate the yarns into three equal parts, and gradually taper these parts by cutting out increasing amounts of fiber as you work toward the ends. Braid the parts into a flat-tapering strap. Place a whipping at the end to make the stopper ready for use.
2.13.0 WIRE ROPE Although wire rope may only have a few applications in some Navy ships, in others, wire rope is extremely important. Naturally, a BM can be transferred to one of these ships at any time; therefore, it is important that every Seaman studying for BM learn all that can be learned about wire rope.
2.13.1 Construction of Wire Rope The basic unit of wire rope construction is the individual wire made of steel or other metal in various sizes. These wires are laid together to form strands. The number of wires in a strand varies according to the purpose for which the rope is intended. A number of strands are laid together to form the wire rope itself. Wire rope is designated by the number of strands per rope and the numbers of wires per strand. Figure 2-60 Tying a crown with the pairs of ends
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-67 UNCLASSIFIED Thus a 6 x 19 rope has 6 strands with 19 wires per strand but can have the same outside diameter as a 6 x 37 wire rope, which has 6 strands with 37 wires of much smaller size per strand. Wire rope made up of a large number of small wires is flexible, but the small wires break so easily that the wire rope is not resistant to external abrasion. Wire rope made up of a smaller number of larger wires is more resistant to external abrasion but is less flexible.
Figure 2-61 Construction of wire rope Figure 2-62 Core construction
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-68 UNCLASSIFIED The strands of the wire rope are laid up around a central core, which may be fiber, a single strand of wire, or an independent wire rope. A fiber core contributes flexibility, cushions the strands as the wire rope contracts under strain, and holds a portion of lubricant for continuous lubrication. A wire core is stronger than fiber and can be used where conditions such as high temperatures would damage fiber. Some end views of the arrangements of strands in wire ropes are shown in figure 2-63.
Wire rope may be fabricated by either of two methods. If the strands of wires are shaped to conform to the curvature of the finished rope before their laying up, the wire rope is termed “preformed.” If the strands are not shaped before fabrication, the wire rope is termed “non-preformed.” When cut, preformed wire rope tends not to untwist and is more flexible than the other. Figure 2-63 Arrangement of strands in wire rope
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-69 UNCLASSIFIED 2.13.2 Wire Rope Clips A temporary eye splice may be put in wire by using wire rope clips. The correct and incorrect ways of using these clips are shown in figure 2-64.
Always place the U-bolt over the bitter end and the roddle (saddle) on the standing part. Never saddle a dead horse. Space the clips a distance apart equal to six times the diameter of the wire. After a rope is under strain, tighten the clips again. On operating ropes, tighten the clips every few hours and inspect the rope carefully at points where there are clips. Pay particular attention to the wire at the clip farthest from the eye, because vibration and whipping are damaging here, and fatigue breaks are likely to occur.
To obtain maximum strength in a temporary eye splice, use the correct size and number of wire clips. The size is stamped on the roddle between the two holes. The correct number of clips to use for various sizes of wire ropes is shown in table 2-9.
Table 2-9 Minimum Number of Clips Required Rope Diameter (inches) All 6x7 Ropes; All Ropes with Independent Wire Rope Centers All 6x19 and 6x37 Ropes Proper Torque to be Applied to nuts of Clips [ft/lb (Dry)] 3/8 4 3 45 1/2 4 3 65 5/8 4 3 95 3/4 5 4 130 7/8 5 4 225 1 6 5 225 1 1/8 6 5 225 1 1/4 7 6 360 1 3/8 7 6 360 1 1/2 8 7 360 1 3/4 8 7 590
For more information on wire rope, you will need to go to NSTM, Chapter 613, “Wire and Fiber Rope”. This tech manual describes the areas in more detail than we could possibly cover. Figure 2-64 The correct use and incorrect uses of wire rope
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Boatswain ’s Mate, NAVEDTRA 1 4343A UNCLASSIFIED
2-70 UNCLASSIFIED 2.14.0 SUMMARY In this chapter you studied about the differences in the construction and use of fiber lines and synthetic lines. You learned about fancy work and ornamental work and how each is used. You studied about safety precautions that you must observe when you are working with many types of lines.
Remember, when you need additional information about knots, line, or wire rope you should consult the Naval Ship’s Technical Manual that pertains to those subjects. Learn your knots as soon as possible so you will be able to do a better job for the Navy!